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Plant oils
Olive oil
Types
Uses
Components

Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in food preparation and flavouring that doesn't involve heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips, and in this sense might be more accurately termed edible oil.

Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil are solid.[1]

Types of cooking oil include: olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil (rapeseed oil), pumpkin seed oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, peanut oil, grape seed oil, sesame oil, argan oil, rice bran oil and other vegetable oils, as well as animal-based oils like butter and lard.

Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic.

Health and nutrition

Olive oil
Italian olive oil
Sunflowerseed oil

The appropriate amount of fat as a component of daily food consumption is a topic of some controversy. Some fat is required in the diet, and fat (in the form of oil) is also essential in many types of cooking. The FDA recommends that 30% or fewer of calories consumed daily should be from fat.[2] Other nutritionists recommend that no more than 10% of a person's daily calories come from fat.[3] In extremely cold environments, a diet that is up to two-thirds fat is acceptable and can, in fact, be critical to survival.[citation needed]

While consumption of small amounts of saturated fats is essential, initial meta-analyses (1997, 2003) found a high correlation between high consumption of such fats and LDL concentration[4] and other risk markers of coronary heart disease.[5] More recent meta-analyses (2009, 2010), based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials, find a positive[6] or neutral[7] effect from shifting consumption from carbohydrate to saturated fats as a source of calories, and only a modest advantage for shifting from saturated to polyunsaturated fats (10% lower risk for 5% replacement).[7]

Mayo Clinic has highlighted oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and palm kernel oil. Those of lower amounts of saturated fats, and higher levels of unsaturated (preferably monounsaturated) fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocado, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, mustard and cottonseed oils are generally healthier.[8] The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute[9] and World Heart Federation[dead link][10] have urged saturated fats be replaced with polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats. The health body lists olive and canola oils as sources of monounsaturated oils while soybean and sunflower oils are rich with polyunsaturated fat. Results of research carried out in Costa Rica in 2005 suggest that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean and sunflower are preferable to the consumption of palm oil.[11]

Not all saturated fats have negative effects on cholesterol.[12] Some studies indicate that Palmitic acid in palm oil does not behave like other saturated fats, and is neutral on cholesterol levels because it is equally distributed among the three "arms" of the triglyceride molecule.[13] Further, it has been reported that palm oil consumption reduces blood cholesterol in comparison with other traditional sources of saturated fats such as coconut oil, dairy and animal fats.[14]

Saturated fat is required by the body and brain to function properly. In fact, one study in Brazil compared the effects of soybean oil to coconut oil (a highly saturated fat) and found that while both groups showed a drop in BMI, the soybean oil group showed an increase in overall cholesterol (including a drop in HDL, the good cholesterol). The coconut oil group actually showed an increase in the HDL:LDL ratio (meaning there was more of the good cholesterol), as well as smaller waist sizes (something that was not shown in the soybean oil group).[15]

In 2007, scientists Kenneth C. Hayes and Pramod Khosla of Brandeis University and Wayne State University indicated that the focus of current research has shifted from saturated fats to individual fats and percentage of fatty acids (saturates, monounsaturates, polyunsaturates) in the diet. An adequate intake of both polyunsaturated and saturated fats is needed for the ideal LDL/HDL ratio in blood, as both contribute to the regulatory balance in lipoprotein metabolism.[16]

Oils high in unsaturated fats may help to lower "bad" LDL cholesterol and may also raise "good" HDL cholesterol, though these effects are still under study.[citation needed]

Peanut, cashew, and other nut-based oils may also present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy. A severe allergic reaction may cause anaphylactic shock and result in death.

Trans fats

Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, and they do not promote good health.[17] The consumption of trans fats increases one's risk of coronary heart disease[18] by raising levels of "bad" LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of "good" HDL cholesterol.[19] Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils.[20]

Several large studies[21][22][23][24] indicate a link between consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute and the American Heart Association (AHA) all have recommended limiting the intake of trans fats.

Cooking with oil

Heating an oil changes its characteristics. Oils that are healthy at room temperature can become unhealthy when heated above certain temperatures. When choosing a cooking oil, it is important to match the oil's heat tolerance with the cooking method.[25]

Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, and sunflower oil. Therefore, palm oil can withstand the high heat of deep frying and is resistant to oxidation compared to highly unsaturated vegetable oils.[26] Since about 1900, palm oil has been increasingly incorporated into food by the global commercial food industry because it remains stable in deep frying or in baking at very high temperatures[27][28] and for its high levels of natural antioxidants.[29]

Oils that are suitable for high-temperature frying (above 230 °C or 446 °F) because of their high smoke point

Storing and keeping oil

Whether refined or not, all oils are sensitive to heat, light, and exposure to oxygen. Rancid oil has an unpleasant aroma and acrid taste, and its nutrient value is greatly diminished.[citation needed] To delay the development of rancid oil, a blanket of an inert gas, usually nitrogen, is applied to the vapor space in the storage container immediately after production. This is referred to as tank blanketing. Vitamin E oil is a natural antioxidant that can also be added to cooking oils to prevent rancidification.

All oils should be kept in a cool, dry place. Oils may thicken, but they will soon return to liquid if they stand at room temperature. To prevent negative effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use. Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats keep up to a year (olive oil will keep up to a few years), while those high in polyunsaturated fats keep about six months. Extra-virgin and virgin olive oils keep at least 9 months after opening. Other monounsaturated oils keep well up to eight months, while unrefined polyunsaturated oils will keep only about half as long.[citation needed]

In contrast, saturated oils, such as coconut oil and palm oil, have much longer shelf lives and can be safely stored at room temperature.[31] Their lack of polyunsaturated content causes them to be more stable.[32]

Types of oils and their characteristics

Lighter, more refined oils tend to have a higher smoke point. Experience using an oil is generally a sufficiently reliable guide. Although outcomes of empirical tests are sensitive to the qualities of particular samples (brand, composition, refinement, process), the data below should be helpful in comparing the properties of different oils.[citation needed]

Smoking oil indicates a risk of combustion, and left unchecked can also set off a fire alarm. When using any cooking oil, should it begin to smoke, reduce the heat immediately. The cook should be fully prepared to extinguish a burning oil fire before beginning to heat the oil, by having on hand the lid to place on the pan, or (for the worst case) having on hand the proper fire extinguisher.

Type of oil or fat Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated Smoke point
[note 1] 		Uses
Almond 8% 66% 26% 221 °C (430 °F) Baking, sauces, flavoring
Avocado oil 12% 74% 14% 271 °C (520 °F) Frying, sautéing, dipping oil, salad oil
Butter 66% 30% 4% 150 °C (302 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment, sauces, flavoring
Ghee, clarified butter 65% 32% 3% 190–250 °C (374–482 °F) Deep frying, cooking, sautéing, condiment, flavoring
Canola oil 6% 62% 32% 204 °C (399 °F) Frying, baking, salad dressings
Coconut oil, (virgin) 92% 6% 2% 177 °C (351 °F) Commercial baked goods, candy and sweets, whipped toppings, nondairy coffee creamers, shortening
Rice bran oil 20% 47% 33% 254 °C (489 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. Very clean flavoured & palatable.
Corn oil 13% 25% 62% 236 °C (457 °F) Frying, baking, salad dressings, margarine, shortening
Cottonseed oil 24% 26% 50% 216 °C (421 °F) Margarine, shortening, salad dressings, commercially fried products
Flaxseed oil (Linseed oil)[35] 11% 21% 68% 107 °C (225 °F)[36] Salad dressings, nutritional supplement
Grape seed oil 12% 17% 71% 204 °C (399 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, margarine
Hemp oil 9% 12% 79% 165 °C (329 °F) Cooking, salad dressings
Lard 41% 47% 2% 138–201 °C (280–394 °F) Baking, frying
Margarine, hard 80% 14% 6% 150 °C (302 °F)[note 2] Cooking, baking, condiment
Mustard oil 13% 60% 21% 254 °C (489 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. Very clean flavoured & palatable.
Margarine, soft 20% 47% 33% 150–160 °C (302–320 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment
Macadamia oil 12.5% 84% 3.5% 210 °C (410 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. A slightly nutty odour.
Diacylglycerol (DAG) oil 3.05% 37.95% 59% 215 °C (419 °F) Frying, baking, salad oil
Olive oil (extra virgin) 14% 73% 11% 190 °C (374 °F) Cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (virgin) 14% 73% 11% 215 °C (419 °F) Cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (refined) 14% 73% 11% 225 °C (437 °F) Sautee, stir frying, deep frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (extra light) 14% 73% 11% 242 °C (468 °F) Sautee, stir frying, frying, deep frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine
Palm oil 52% 38% 10% 230 °C (446 °F) Cooking, flavoring, vegetable oil, shortening
Peanut oil / groundnut oil 18% 49% 33% 231 °C (448 °F) Frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine
Pumpkin seed oil 8% 36% 57% 121 °C (250 °F) salad oils
Safflower oil 10% 13% 77% 265 °C (509 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, margarine
Sesame oil (Unrefined) 14% 43% 43% 177 °C (351 °F) Cooking
Sesame oil (semi-refined) 14% 43% 43% 232 °C (450 °F) Cooking, deep frying
Soybean oil 15% 24% 61% 241 °C (466 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, vegetable oil, margarine, shortening
Sunflower oil (linoleic) 11% 20% 69% 246 °C (475 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, margarine, shortening
Sunflower oil (high oleic)[37] 9% 82% 9% 160 °C (320 °F) Cooking
Tea seed oil[38] 22% 60% 18% 252 °C (486 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, stir frying, frying, margarine
Walnut oil (Semi-refined) 9% 23% 63% 204 °C (399 °F)[39] Salad dressings, added to cold dishes to enhance flavor

Comparison to other types of food

Fat composition in different foods
Food Saturated Mono-
unsaturated		 Poly-
unsaturated
As weight percent (%) of total fat
Cooking oils
Algal oil[40] 4 92 4
Canola[41] 8 64 28
Coconut oil 87 13 0
Corn oil 13 24 59
Cottonseed oil[41] 27 19 54
Olive oil[42] 14 73 11
Palm kernel oil[41] 86 12 2
Palm oil[41] 51 39 10
Peanut oil[43] 17 46 32
Rice bran oil 25 38 37
Safflower oil, high oleic[44] 6 75 14
Safflower oil, linoleic[41][45] 6 14 75
Soybean oil 15 24 58
Sunflower oil[46] 11 20 69
Mustard oil 11 59 21
Dairy products
Butterfat[41] 66 30 4
Cheese, regular 64 29 3
Cheese, light 60 30 0
Ice cream, gourmet 62 29 4
Ice cream, light 62 29 4
Milk, whole 62 28 4
Milk, 2% 62 30 0
Whipping cream[47]* 66 26 5
Meats
Beef 33 38 5
Ground sirloin 38 44 4
Pork chop 35 44 8
Ham 35 49 16
Chicken breast 29 34 21
Chicken 34 23 30
Turkey breast 30 20 30
Turkey drumstick 32 22 30
Fish, orange roughy 23 15 46
Salmon 28 33 28
Hot dog, beef 42 48 5
Hot dog, turkey 28 40 22
Burger, fast food 36 44 6
Cheeseburger, fast food 43 40 7
Breaded chicken sandwich 20 39 32
Grilled chicken sandwich 26 42 20
Sausage, Polish 37 46 11
Sausage, turkey 28 40 22
Pizza, sausage 41 32 20
Pizza, cheese 60 28 5
Nuts
Almonds dry roasted 9 65 21
Cashews dry roasted 20 59 17
Macadamia dry roasted 15 79 2
Peanut dry roasted 14 50 31
Pecans dry roasted 8 62 25
Flaxseeds, ground 8 23 65
Sesame seeds 14 38 44
Soybeans 14 22 57
Sunflower seeds 11 19 66
Walnuts dry roasted 9 23 63
Sweets and baked goods
Candy, chocolate bar 59 33 3
Candy, fruit chews 14 44 38
Cookie, oatmeal raisin 22 47 27
Cookie, chocolate chip 35 42 18
Cake, yellow 60 25 10
Pastry, Danish 50 31 14
Fats added during cooking or at the table
Butter, stick 63 29 3
Butter, whipped 62 29 4
Margarine, stick 18 39 39
Margarine, tub 16 33 49
Margarine, light tub 19 46 33
Lard 39 45 11
Shortening 25 45 26
Chicken fat 30 45 21
Beef fat 41 43 3
Goose fat[48] 33 55 11
Dressing, blue cheese 16 54 25
Dressing, light Italian 14 24 58
Other
Egg yolk fat[49] 36 44 16
Avocado[50] 16 71 13
Unless else specified in boxes, then reference is:[citation needed]
* 3% is trans fats

Cooking oil extraction and refinement

Olive oil production in Croatia

Cooking oil extraction and refinement are separate processes. Extraction first removes the oil, typically from a seed, nut or fruit. Refinement then alters the appearance, texture, taste, smell, or stability of the oil to meet buyer expectations.

Extraction

There are three broad types of oil extraction:

  • Chemical solvent extraction, most commonly using hexane.
  • Pressing, using an expeller press or cold press (pressing at low temperatures to prevent oil heating).
  • Decanter centrifuge.

In large-scale industrial oil extraction you will often see some combination of pressing, chemical extraction and/or centrifuging in order to extract the maximum amount of oil possible.[51]

Refinement

Cooking oil can either be unrefined, or refined using one or more of the following refinement processes (in any combination):

  • Distilling, which heats the oil to evaporate off chemical solvents from the extraction process.
  • Degumming, by passing hot water through the oil to precipitate out gums and proteins that are soluble in oil but not in water, then discarding the water along with the impurities.
  • Neutralization, or deacidification, which treats the oil with sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to pull out free fatty acids, phospholipids, pigments, and waxes.
  • Bleaching, which removes "off-colored" components by treatment with fuller's earth, activated carbon, or activated clays, followed by heating, filtering, then drying to recoup the oil.
  • Dewaxing, or winterizing, improves clarity of oils intended for refrigeration by dropping them to low temperatures and removing any solids that form.
  • Deodorizing, by treating with high-heat pressurized steam to evaporate less stable compounds that might cause "unusual" odors or tastes.
  • Preservative addition, such as BHA and BHT to help preserve oils that have been made less stable due to high-temperature processing.

Filtering, a non-chemical process which screens out larger particles, could be considered a step in refinement, although it doesn't alter the state of the oil.

Most large-scale commercial cooking oil refinement will involve all of these steps in order to achieve a product that's uniform in taste, smell and appearance, and has a longer shelf life.[51] Cooking oil intended for the health food market will often be unrefined, which can result in a less stable product but minimizes exposure to high temperatures and chemical processing.

Waste cooking oil

A bin for spent cooking oil in Austin, Texas, USA, managed by a recycling company.

Proper disposal of used cooking oil is an important waste-management concern. Oil is lighter than water and tends to spread into thin and broad membranes which hinder the oxygenation of water. Because of this, a single litre of oil can contaminate as much as 1 million litres of water.[citation needed] Also, oil can congeal on pipes provoking blockages.[52]

Because of this, cooking oil should never be dumped in the kitchen sink or in the toilet bowl. The proper way to dispose of oil is to put it in a sealed non-recyclable container and discard it with regular garbage.[53] Placing the container of oil in the refrigerator to harden also makes disposal easier and less messy.

Recycling

Main article: Vegetable oil recycling

Cooking oil can be recycled. It can be used to produce soap and biodiesel.[54]

Cooking oil recovered from a waste water plumbing component called a grease trap is called brown grease in the industry, for example Gutter oil (oil drainage).[55] Brown grease is contaminated with rotted food solids and considered unsuitable for re-use in most applications. However there are new technologies to handle brown grease.

Yellow grease, also known in industry as recycled vegetable oil (RVO), also termed used vegetable oil (UVO), waste vegetable oil (WVO), used cooking oil, is recovered from businesses and industry that use the cooking oil, typically collected used oil from deep fryers.[55]

Yellow grease is used to feed livestock, and to make soap, make-up, clothes, rubber, detergents, and biodiesel fuel.[56][57]

Notes

  1. ^ The smoke point of an oil depends primarily on its free fatty acid content (FFA) and molecular weight. Through repeated use, as in a deep fryer, the oil accumulates food residues or by-products of the cooking process, that lower its smoke point further. The values shown in the table must therefore be taken as approximate, and are not suitable for accurate or scientific use.[33][34]
  2. ^ The smoke point of margarine varies depending on the types of oils used in its formulation, but can be generally assumed to be similar to that of butter.[citation needed]

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  55. ^ a b Brown Grease Feedstocks for Biodiesel. K. Shaine Tyson, National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Available from Northeast Regional Biomass Program. Retrieved January 31, 2009
  56. ^ Murphy, Denis J. Plant lipids: biology, utilisation, and manipulation. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005, p. 117.
  57. ^ Radich, Anthony Biodiesel Performance, Costs, and Use

Further reading

  • Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 10335369, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=10335369 instead.
  • Fox, R. (2001). Frying oils. In Kaarin Goodburn (Ed.) EU Food Law. Woodhead. pp. 195–224. ISBN 978-1-85573-557-6.
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