Medical cannabis: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Tnxman307 (talk | contribs)
64,361 edits
m Reverted 1 edit by Budtrader; Removing advert. Using Twinkle
No edit summary
Tag: possible conflict of interest
Line 425: Line 425:
==Availability in United States==
==Availability in United States==
{{main|Cannabis in the United States}}
{{main|Cannabis in the United States}}
In the [[United States]], it is important to differentiate between medical cannabis at the federal and at the state level. At the federal level, cannabis ''[[per se]]'' has been made criminal by implementation of the [[Controlled Substances Act]] which classifies marijuana is a [[Schedule I drug]], the strictest classification on par with [[heroin]], [[LSD]] and [[Ecstasy]]. The United States [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|Food and Drug Administration]] states "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/marijuana_position.html#smoked |title=The DEA Position On Marijuana |publisher=Usdoj.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2006/new01362.html |title=Inter-Agency Advisory Regarding Claims That Smoked Marijuana Is a Medicine |publisher=Fda.gov |date=2006-04-20 |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref>
In the [[United States]], it is important to differentiate between medical cannabis at the federal and at the state level. [http://budtrader.com Budtrader]a place for medical marijuana dispensaries, collective, and patients has been operating since March 2009. This site offers a place for collectives to list what medications are available at any given time, making it easier for patients in need to obtain their medication. in California At the federal level, cannabis ''[[per se]]'' has been made criminal by implementation of the [[Controlled Substances Act]] which classifies marijuana is a [[Schedule I drug]], the strictest classification on par with [[heroin]], [[LSD]] and [[Ecstasy]]. The United States [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|Food and Drug Administration]] states "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/marijuana_position.html#smoked |title=The DEA Position On Marijuana |publisher=Usdoj.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2006/new01362.html |title=Inter-Agency Advisory Regarding Claims That Smoked Marijuana Is a Medicine |publisher=Fda.gov |date=2006-04-20 |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref>


At the same time, the [[Health and Human Services]] Division of the US Government holds a [[patent]] for medical marijuana. The patent, "Cannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants", issued October 2003<ref name="patentstorm1"/> reads: "[[Cannabinoids]] have been found to have [[antioxidant]] properties, unrelated to [[NMDA]] receptor antagonism. This new found property makes cannabinoids useful in the treatment and [[prophylaxis]] of wide variety of [[oxidation]] associated diseases, such as [[ischemic]], age-related, [[inflammatory]] and [[autoimmune]] diseases. The cannabinoids are found to have particular application as neuroprotectants, for example in limiting neurological damage following ischemic insults, such as [[stroke]] and [[trauma]], or in the treatment of [[neurodegenerative diseases]], such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and HIV dementia...."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/257008 |title=Opinion: US Government Holds Patent For Medical Marijuana, Shows Hipocrisy - Digital Journal: Your News Network |publisher=Digital Journal |date=2008-07-07 |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref>
At the same time, the [[Health and Human Services]] Division of the US Government holds a [[patent]] for medical marijuana. The patent, "Cannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants", issued October 2003<ref name="patentstorm1"/> reads: "[[Cannabinoids]] have been found to have [[antioxidant]] properties, unrelated to [[NMDA]] receptor antagonism. This new found property makes cannabinoids useful in the treatment and [[prophylaxis]] of wide variety of [[oxidation]] associated diseases, such as [[ischemic]], age-related, [[inflammatory]] and [[autoimmune]] diseases. The cannabinoids are found to have particular application as neuroprotectants, for example in limiting neurological damage following ischemic insults, such as [[stroke]] and [[trauma]], or in the treatment of [[neurodegenerative diseases]], such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and HIV dementia...."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/257008 |title=Opinion: US Government Holds Patent For Medical Marijuana, Shows Hipocrisy - Digital Journal: Your News Network |publisher=Digital Journal |date=2008-07-07 |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref>

Revision as of 19:28, 15 May 2009

Cannabis Indica (now referred to as Cannabis sativa subsp. indica),[1] Fluid Extract, American Druggists Syndicate, pre-1937.

Medical cannabis, (commonly referred to as "Medical marijuana"), refers to the use of the cannabis plant as a physician-recommended drug or herbal therapy, as well as synthetic THC and other cannabinoids. There are many studies regarding the use of cannabis in a medicinal context.[2][3] Drug usage generally requires a prescription, and distribution is usually done within a framework defined by local laws. There are several methods for administration of dosage including smoking the dried cannabis buds, vaporizing them, and drinking, eating, or taking synthetic THC pills.[4][5] The comparible efficacy of these methods was the subject of an investigative study by the National Institutes of Health[3]

Medicinal use of cannabis is legal in a limited number of territories worldwide, including Canada, Austria, the Netherlands, Spain, Israel, Finland and Portugal. In the US, fourteen states have recognized medical marijuana: Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and Washington.[6][7]

Cannabis has a long history of medicinal use in many cultures. The US Government as represented by the Health and Human Services Division, holds a patent for medical marijuana.[8] Yet, medical cannabis remains a controversial issue worldwide.

Indications

Partial list of clinical applications

"Victoria", the United States' first legal medical marijuana plant grown by The Wo/Men's Alliance for Medical Marijuana [9].

Medical cannabis specialist Dr. Tod Mikuriya recorded over 250 indications for medical cannabis,[10] as classified by the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9).[11]

In a 2002 review of medical literature, medical cannabis was shown to have established effects in the treatment of nausea, vomiting, PMS, unintentional weight loss, and lack of appetite. Other "relatively well-confirmed" effects were in the treatment of "spasticity, painful conditions, especially neurogenic pain, movement disorders, asthma, [and] Glaucoma".[12]

Preliminary findings indicate that cannabis-based drugs could prove useful in treating Inflammatory Bowel Disease (consisting of Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis),[13] Migraines, Fibromyalgia and related conditions.[14]

Medical cannabis has also been found to relieve certain symptoms of multiple sclerosis[15] and spinal cord injuries by exhibiting antispasmodic and muscle relaxant properties as well as stimulating appetite. Clinical trials provide evidence that THC reduces motor and vocal tics of Tourette’s syndrome and related behavioral problems such as obsessive-compulsive disorders.[16][17]


Other studies have shown cannabis to be useful in treating: Alcoholism,[18] ADD[19] ALS (Lou Gehrig's disease),[20][21] Collagen-Induced Arthritis (CIA),[22] Rheumatoid Arthritis,[23] Asthma,[24] Atherosclerosis[25] Autism,[26] Bipolar Disorder,[27][28][29] Childhood Mental Disorders,[30] Colorectal Cancer,[31] Depression,[32][33][34][35] Diabetic Retinopathy,[36][37][38] Dystonia,[39][40] Epilepsy,[41] Gastrointestinal Disorders,[42][43] Gliomas,[44][45] Hepatitis C,[46][47] Huntington's Disease,[48] Hypertension,[49][50] Incontinence,[51] Leukemia,[52] Skin Tumors,[53][54] Morning Sickness,[55][56] MRSA (Drug-Resistant Staph Infections),[57][58][59] Parkinson's,[60] Pruritus,[61][62] PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder),[63][64][65] Sickle Cell Disease,[66] and Sleep Apnea.[67][68]

Recent studies

Alzheimer's Disease

Research done by the Scripps Research Institute in California shows that the active ingredient in marijuana, THC, may prevent the formation of deposits in the brain associated with Alzheimer's disease. THC was found to prevent an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase from accelerating the formation of "Alzheimer plaques" in the brain more effectively than commercially marketed drugs. THC is also more effective at blocking clumps of protein that can inhibit memory and cognition in Alzheimer’s patients, as reported in Molecular Pharmaceutics.[69][70]

Neuron growth

A Canadian study shows Marijuana promotes neuron growth. The Neuropsychiatry Research Unit at the University of Saskatchewan suggests the drug could have some benefits when administered regularly in a highly potent form. Whereas most "social drugs" such as alcohol, heroin, cocaine and nicotine suppress growth of new brain cells, the researchers found that cannabinoids promoted generation of new neurons in rats' hippocampuses (the part of the brain responsible for learning and memory). The study held true for either plant-derived or synthetic versions of cannabinoids. The findings were published in the 2005 November issue of the Journal of Clinical Investigation.[71]

Lung cancer and COPD

THC has been found to reduce tumor growth in common lung cancer by 50 percent and to significantly reduce the ability of the cancer to spread, say researchers at Harvard University, who tested the chemical in both lab and mouse studies. The researchers suggest that THC might be used in a targeted fashion to treat lung cancer. [72]

In 2006, Donald Tashkin, M.D., of the University of California in Los Angeles, presented the results of his study, Marijuana Use and Lung Cancer: Results of a Case-Control Study. Tashkin found that smoking marijuana does not appear to increase the risk of lung cancer or head-and-neck malignancies, even among heavy users. The more tobacco a person smoked, the greater their risk of developing lung cancer and other cancers of the head and neck. But people who smoked more marijuana were not at increased risk compared with people who smoked less and people who didn’t smoke at all.[73] Marijuana use was associated with cancer risk ratios below 1.0, indicating that a history of pot smoking had no effect on the risk for respiratory cancers. In contrast, tobacco smoking had a 21-fold risk for cancer. Tashkin concluded, "It's possible that tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in marijuana smoke may encourage apoptosis, or programmed cell death, causing cells to die off before they have a chance to undergo malignant transformation".[74][75]

Similar findings were released in April 2009 by the Vancouver Burden of Obstructive Lung Disease Research Group. The study presents that smoking both tobacco and marijuana synergistically increased the risk of respiratory symptoms and COPD. Smoking only marijuana, however, was not associated with an increased risk of respiratory symptoms of COPD.[76][77] In a related commentary, Dr. Donald Tashkin writes that "we can be close to concluding that marijuana smoking by itself does not lead to COPD".[78]

Breast cancer

According to a 2007 study by scientists at the California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute, a compound found in cannabis may stop breast cancer from spreading throughout the body.[79][80] The scientists believe their discovery may provide a non-toxic alternative to chemotherapy while achieving the same results minus the painful and unpleasant side effects. The research team say that cannabidiol or CBD works by blocking the activity of a gene called Id-1, which is believed to be responsible for a process called metastasis, which is the aggressive spread of cancer cells away from the original tumor site.[81]

HIV/AIDS

Investigators at Columbia University published clinical trial data in 2007 showing that HIV/AIDS patients who inhaled cannabis four times daily experienced substantial increases in food intake with little evidence of discomfort and no impairment of cognitive performance. They concluded that smoked marijuana has a clear medical benefit in HIV-positive patients.[82][83] In another study in 2008, researchers at the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine found that marijuana significantly reduces HIV-related neuropathic pain when added to a patient's already-prescribed pain management regimen and may be an "effective option for pain relief" in those whose pain is not controlled with current medications. Mood disturbance, physical disability, and quality of life all improved significantly during study treatment.[84][85] No serious adverse effects were reported, according to the study published by the American Academy of Neurology.[86]

Brain cancer

A study by Complutense University of Madrid found the active chemical in marijuana promotes the death of brain cancer cells by essentially helping them feed upon themselves in a process called autophagy. The research team discovered that cannabinoids such as THC had anticancer effects in mice with human brain cancer cells and in people with brain tumors. When mice with the human brain cancer cells received the THC, the tumor shrank. Using electron microscopes to analyze brain tissue taken both before and after a 26- to 30-day THC treatment regimen, the researchers found that THC eliminated cancer cells while leaving healthy cells intact.[87] The patients did not have any toxic effects from the treatment; previous studies of THC for the treatment of cancer have also found the therapy to be well tolerated. However, the mechanisms which promote THC's tumor cell–killing action are unknown.[88]

The researchers believe their findings may have therapeutic implications in the treatment of cancer, as detailed in their study, Cannabinoid action induces autophagy-mediated cell death through stimulation of ER stress in human glioma cells,[89] which appeared in the April 2009 issue of the Journal of Clinical Investigation.

Head Injuries

Medical Marijuana has been shown to display neuroprotective properties with the 2-Arachidonoyl glycerol compound. This compound has been shown in lab experiments with mice to lower the amount of secondary damages from head injuries and speed up recovery time and effectiveness.[90]

Indication Benefit
Alzheimer's
Prevents formation of "Alzheimer plaques"
Arthritis
Analgesic, antiinflammatory
Asthma
Opens up airways in lungs
Brain Cancer
Reduces tumors, kills cancer cells
Breast Cancer
Stops cancer from spreading
Depression
Brightens mood
Glaucoma
Reduces eye pressure
Head Injuries
Neuroprotective properties, speeds recovery time
HIV
Reduces neuropathic pain, improves appetite and sleep
Hypertension
Lowers blood pressure
Lung Cancer
Reduces tumors, slows cancer growth
Pain
Non-opiate, non-addictive pain killer

Medicinal compounds

Cannabidiol has many positive effects.
β-Caryophyllene has important anti-inflammatory properties.

Cannabidiol

Main article: cannabidiol

Cannabidiol, also known as "CBD", is a major constituent of medical cannabis. CBD represents up to 40% of extracts of the medical cannabis plant.[91] Cannabidiol relieves convulsion, inflammation, anxiety, nausea, and inhibits cancer cell growth.[92] Recent studies have shown cannabidiol to be as effective as atypical antipsychotics in treating schizophrenia.[93] In November 2007 it was reported that CBD reduces growth of aggressive human breast cancer cells in vitro and reduces their invasiveness. It thus represents the first non-toxic exogenous agent that can lead to down-regulation of tumor aggressiveness.[94][95] It is also a neuroprotective antioxidant.[96]

β-Caryophyllene

Main article: beta-Caryophyllene

Part of the mechanism by which medical cannabis has been shown to reduce tissue inflammation is via a compound called β-caryophyllene.[97] A cannabinoid receptor called CB2 plays a vital part in reducing inflammation in humans and other animals.[97] β-Caryophyllene has been shown to be a selective activator of the CB2 receptor.[97] β-Caryophyllene is especially concentrated in cannabis essential oil, which contains about 12–35% β-caryophyllene.[97]

Pharmacologic THC and THC derivatives

In the USA, the FDA has approved two cannabinoids for use as medical therapies: dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone. It is important to note that these medicines are not smoked. Dronabinol is a synthetic THC medication,[98] while nabilone is a synthetic cannabinoid marketed under the brand name Cesamet.

These medications are usually used when first line treatments for nausea fail to work. In extremely high doses and in rare cases there is a possibility of "psychotomimetic" side effects. The other commonly-used antiemetic drugs are not associated with these side effects.

The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the adjunctive treatment (use along side other medicines) of both multiple sclerosis[99] and cancer related pain.[100] This medication may now be legally imported into the United Kingdom and Spain on prescription.[101] Dr. William Notcutt is one of the chief researchers that has developed Sativex, and he has been working with GW and founder Geoffrey Guy since the company's inception in 1998. Notcutt states that the use of MS as the disease to study "had everything to do with politics."[102]

Scientists are also working on drugs that prevent naturally occurring enzymes from blocking pain-relieving cannabinoid receptors such as 2-arachidonoylgylcerol (2-AG).[103]

Medication Year approved Licensed indications Cost
Nabilone 1985 Nausea of cancer chemotherapy that has failed to respond adequately to other antiemetics $4000.00 U.S. for a year's supply (in Canada)[104]
Marinol 1992 Nausea of cancer chemotherapy that has failed to respond adequately to other antiemetics, AIDS wasting $723.16 U.S. for 30 doses @ 10 mg online[105]
Sativex 1995, 1997 The product is approved in Canada as adjunctive treatment for the symptomatic relief of neuropathic pain in multiple sclerosis, and more recently for pain due to cancer. Extracted from cannabis plants. $9,351 Canadian per year[106]

History

Ancient China & ancient Taiwan

The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan. "Dà má" (Pinyin pronunciation) is the Chinese expression for cannabis, the first character meaning "big" and the second character meaning "hemp," a pictograph of two cannabis plants inside of a house or sheltered area.
Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 A.D.

Cannabis, called dà má (大麻) in Chinese, is known to have been used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago.[107] Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for approximately 4,000 years.[108] In the early 3rd century AD, Hua Tuo was the first known person in China to use cannabis as an anesthetic. He reduced the plant to powder and mixed it with wine for administration.[109] Cannabis was prescribed to treat vomiting, plus infectious and parasitic hemorrhaging. Cannabis is one of the 50 "fundamental" herbs in traditional Chinese medicine.[110]

Ancient Egypt

The Ebers Papyrus (ca. 1,550 B.C.) from Ancient Egypt describes medical marijuana.[111] Other ancient Egyptian papyri that mention medical marijuana are the Ramesseum III Papyrus (1700 BC), the Berlin Papyrus (1300 BC) and the Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus VI (1300 BC).[112] The ancient Egyptians even used hemp (cannabis) in suppositories for relieving the pain of hemorrhoids.[113] The egyptologist Lise Manniche notes the reference to "plant medical marijuana" in several Egyptian texts, one of which dates back to the eighteenth century B.C.[114]

Ancient India

Surviving texts from ancient India confirm that cannabis' psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included insomnia, headaches, a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, and pain: cannabis was frequently used to relieve the pain of childbirth.[115]

Ancient Greece

The Ancient Greeks used cannabis not only for human medicine, but also for veterinary medicine.[116] The Greeks used cannabis to dress wounds and sores on their horses.[116]

In humans, dried leaves of cannabis were used to treat nose bleeds, and cannabis seeds were used to expel tapeworms.[116] The most frequently described use of cannabis in humans was to steep green seeds of cannabis in either water or wine, later taking the seeds out and using the warm extract to treat inflammation and pain resulting from obstruction of the ear.[116]

In the 5th century BCE Herodotus, a Greek historian, described how the Scythians of the Middle East used cannabis in steam baths.[116]

Medieval Islamic world

In the medieval Islamic world, Arabic physicians made use of the diuretic, antiemetic, antiepileptic, anti-inflammatory, pain killing and antipyretic properties of Cannabis sativa, and used it extensively as medication from the 8th to 18th centuries.[117]

Modern science

An Irish doctor, William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, was held mainly responsible for showing his Western colleagues about the healing properties of marijuana. He was an herb professor at the Medical College of Calcutta, and conducted a marijuana experiment in the 1830s. O'Shaughnessy created preparations and tested animal effects. He continued on to administer this marijuana to patients in order to help treat muscle spasms/stomach cramps or general pain.[118]

An advertisement for cannabis americana distributed by a pharmacist in New York in 1917.

Cannabis as a medicine became common throughout much of the world by the 19th century. It was used as the primary pain reliever until the invention of aspirin.[108] Modern medical and scientific inquiry began with doctors like O'Shaughnessy and Moreau de Tours, who used it to treat melancholia and migraines, and as a sleeping aid, analgesic and anticonvulsant.

By the time the United States banned cannabis in a federal law, the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act, the plant was no longer extremely popular.[119][citation needed] Skepticism about marijuana arose in response to the bill. [citation needed] The situation was exacerbated by the stereotypes promoted by the media, that the drug was used primarily by Mexican and African immigrants.[119]

Later in the century, researchers investigating methods of detecting cannabis intoxication discovered that smoking the drug reduced intraocular pressure.[120]

In 1972 Tod H. Mikuriya, M.D. reignited the debate concerning marijuana as medicine when he published "Marijuana Medical Papers." High intraocular pressure causes blindness in glaucoma patients, so many believed that using the drug could prevent blindness in patients. Many Vietnam War veterans also believed that the drug prevented muscle spasms caused by battle-induced spinal injuries.[121] Later medical use has focused primarily on its role in preventing the wasting syndromes and chronic loss of appetite associated with chemotherapy and AIDS, along with a variety of rare muscular and skeletal disorders. Less commonly, cannabis has been used in the treatment of alcoholism and addiction to other drugs such as heroin and the prevention of migraines. In recent years, studies have shown or researchers have speculated that the main chemical in the drug, THC, might help prevent atherosclerosis.

Medical cannabis card in Marin County, California, U.S.A.

Later, in the 1970s, a synthetic version of THC, the primary active ingredient in cannabis, was synthesized to make the drug Marinol. Users reported several problems with Marinol, however, that led many to abandon the pill and resume smoking the plant. Patients complained that the violent nausea associated with chemotherapy made swallowing pills difficult. The effects of smoked cannabis are felt almost immediately, and is therefore easily dosed.[122] Marinol (Jojel), like ingested cannabis, is very psychoactive, and is harder to titrate than smoked cannabis.[123] Marinol has also consistently been more expensive than herbal cannabis.[124] Some studies have indicated that other chemicals in the plant may have a synergistic effect with THC.[125]

In addition, during the 1970s and 1980s, six U.S. states' health departments performed studies on the use of medical marijuana. These are widely considered some of the most useful and pioneering studies on the subject.[citation needed] Voters in eight states showed their support for marijuana prescriptions or recommendations given by physicians between 1996 and 1999, including Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Maine, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington, going against policies of the federal government.[126]

Cannabis female flowers closeup with trichomes (white). These plant parts contain the highest concentration of medicinal compounds.

In May 2001, "The Chronic Cannabis Use in the Compassionate Investigational New Drug Program: An Examination of Benefits and Adverse Effects of Legal Clinical Cannabis" (Russo, Mathre, Byrne et al.) was completed. This three-day examination of major body functions of four of the five living US federal cannabis patients found "mild pulmonary changes" in two patients.[127]

On October 7, 2003 a patent entitled "Cannabinoids as Antioxidants and Neuroprotectants" (#6,630,507) was awarded to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, based on research done at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). This patent claims that cannabinoids are "useful in the treatment and prophylaxis of wide variety of oxidation associated diseases, such as ischemic, age-related, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The cannabinoids are found to have particular application as neuroprotectants, for example in limiting neurological damage following ischemic insults, such as stroke and trauma, or in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and HIV dementia." [128]

Historian Jacob Appel has argued that the medicinal marijuana movement bears striking similarities to the medicinal beer movement of the 1920s.[129] Both efforts attempted to muster medical expertise in the face of a national Prohibition and both pitted the rights of physicians against the authority of the federal government.

Organizational support

An increasing number of medical organizations have endorsed allowing patients access to medical marijuana with their physicians' approval. These include, but are not limited to, the following:

Criticism regarding medical cannabis

See also: Physiological effects of cannabis

A major criticism of cannabis as medicine is opposition to smoking as a method of consumption.

On 20 April 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an advisory against smoked medical marijuana stating that, "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. Furthermore, there is currently sound evidence that smoked marijuana is harmful."[131] Some prominent American societies have been reluctant to endorse medicinal cannabis. For example:[132] , the National Multiple Sclerosis Society,[133] the American Academy of Ophthalmology[134] and the American Cancer Society.[135] (Federal Register, 1992).

The Institute of Medicine, run by the United States National Academy of Sciences, conducted a comprehensive study in 1999 to assess the potential health benefits of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids. The study concluded that smoking cannabis is not recommended for the treatment of any disease condition, but did conclude that nausea, appetite loss, pain and anxiety can all be mitigated by marijuana. While the study expressed reservations about smoked marijuana due to the health risks associated with smoking, the study team concluded that until another mode of ingestion was perfected that could provide the same relief as smoked marijuana, there was no alternative. Modern vaporizers and the ingestion of cannabis in a decarboxylated state have laid most of these concerns to rest, however. In addition, the study pointed out the inherent difficulty in marketing a non patentable herb. Pharmaceutical companies will not substantially profit unless there is a patent. For those reasons, the Institute of Medicine concluded that there is little future in smoked cannabis as a medically approved medication. The report also concluded for certain patients, such as the terminally ill or those with debilitating symptoms, the long-term risks are not of great concern. Medical Marijuana Passes House Civil Justice Committee Without Dissent by David Guard (MARCH 11, 2009) [136]

In an unpublished 2001 study by the Mayo Clinic, Marinol was shown to be less effective than the steroid megestrol acetate in helping cancer patients regain lost appetites.[137] The mechanism by which megestrol acetate works is unknown and the compound can cause "impotence, gas, rash, high blood pressure, fever, decreased libido, insomnia, upset stomach, and high blood sugar. . .," as well as "breakthrough bleeding" in women.

Harm reduction

Aspergillus fumigatus

Many medical cannabis opponents note that smoking cannabis is harmful to the respiratory system. However, this harm can be minimized or eliminated by the use of a vaporizer or ingesting the drug in an edible form or other non-smoking modes of delivery like tinctures. Vaporizers are devices that vaporize the active constituents (cannabinoids) and the fragrant aromatic substances in the preparation without combusting the plant material and thus preventing the formation of toxic substances. Studies have shown that vaporizers can dramatically reduce[138] or even eliminate[139] the release of irritants and toxic compounds.

In order to kill microorganisms, especially mold, the scientists "Levitz and Diamond (1991) suggested baking marijuana in home ovens at 150 °C [302 °F], for five minutes before smoking. Oven treatment killed conidia of A. fumigatus, A. flavus and A. niger, and did not degrade the active component of marijuana, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)".[140]

Availability in Austria

On July 9, 2008 the Austrian Parliament approved cannabis cultivation for scientific and medical uses.[141]

Availability in Canada

In Canada, the regulation on access to marijuana for medical purposes, established by Health Canada in July 2001, defines two categories of patients eligible for access to medical cannabis. The category 1 list individuals suffering from "acute pain", "violent nausea and/or other serious symptoms caused by the following conditions: multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, disease of the spinal cord, cancer, AIDS/HIV infection, severe forms of arthritis and/or epilepsy. The category 2 "key applicants who have serious pathological symptoms other than those described in category 1."[142] The application of eligible patients must be supported by a doctor.

The cannabis distributed by Health Canada is provided under the brand CanniMed by the company Prairie Plant Systems Inc. In 2006, 420 kg of CanniMed cannabis was sold, representing an increase of 80% over the previous year.[143] It is also legal for patients approved by Health Canada to grow their own cannabis for personal consumption, and it is possible to obtain a production license as a person designated by a patient. Health Canada noted however that "no notice of compliance has been issued for marijuana for medical purposes."

Availability in Spain

In Spain, since the late 1990s and early 2000s, medical cannabis underwent a process of progressive decriminalization and legalization. The parliament of the region of Catalonia is the first in Spain have voted unanimously in 2001 legalizing medical marijuana, it is quickly followed by parliaments of Aragon and the Balearic Islands. The Spanish Penal Code prohibits the sale of cannabis but it does not prohibit consumption. Until early 2000, the Penal Code did not distinguish between therapeutic use of cannabis and recreational use, however, several court decisions show that this distinction is increasingly taken into account by the judges. From 2006, the sale of seed is legalized, possession or consumption is still forbidden in public places but permitted in private premises. Moreover, the cultivation of cannabis plants is now authorized in a private place.

Several studies have been conducted to study the effects of cannabis on patients suffering from diseases like cancer, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, seizures or asthma. This research was conducted by various Spanish agencies at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid headed by Dr. Manuel Guzman, the hospital of La Laguna in Tenerife led neurosurgeon Luis González Feria or the University of Barcelona.

After legislation, several cannabis clubs have been established including the Basque Country and Catalonia. These clubs, the first of its kind in Europe, are non-profit associations who grow cannabis and sell it at cost to its members. In 2006, members of these clubs were acquitted in trial for possession and sale of cannabis.

Availability in United States

Main article: Cannabis in the United States

In the United States, it is important to differentiate between medical cannabis at the federal and at the state level. Budtradera place for medical marijuana dispensaries, collective, and patients has been operating since March 2009. This site offers a place for collectives to list what medications are available at any given time, making it easier for patients in need to obtain their medication. in California At the federal level, cannabis per se has been made criminal by implementation of the Controlled Substances Act which classifies marijuana is a Schedule I drug, the strictest classification on par with heroin, LSD and Ecstasy. The United States Food and Drug Administration states "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision".[144][145]

At the same time, the Health and Human Services Division of the US Government holds a patent for medical marijuana. The patent, "Cannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants", issued October 2003[8] reads: "Cannabinoids have been found to have antioxidant properties, unrelated to NMDA receptor antagonism. This new found property makes cannabinoids useful in the treatment and prophylaxis of wide variety of oxidation associated diseases, such as ischemic, age-related, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The cannabinoids are found to have particular application as neuroprotectants, for example in limiting neurological damage following ischemic insults, such as stroke and trauma, or in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and HIV dementia...."[146]

Notable pro-medical cannabis individuals

Pro-cannabis demonstrators in Los Angeles (August 2007)

Supporters of legalizing cannabis for medical use range from actors and musicians to politicians, writers, and scientists. Major activists include Steve Kubby, Ethan Nadelmann, Dennis Peron, Angel Raich, Robert Randall,[147] Keith Stroup, and Marc Emery.

Notable celebrities who are pro-medical cannabis include actors Jack Black, Drew Carey, Woody Harrelson, Penn Jillette, Bill Maher, Jeremy Miller, Joe Rogan, and Rob Van Dam, musicians Willie Nelson, Snoop Dogg, and talk show hosts Neal Boortz, Montel Williams,[148] and Bill Handel.

Politicians from multiple parties support medicinal marijuana use, such as President Barack Obama,[149] Democratic members of Congress Barney Frank, Dennis Kucinich, and Sam Farr, Republican Congress members Ron Paul, MD[150] and Dana Rohrabacher, Polish Parliament member Janusz Korwin-Mikke, the late Republican State Senator Bill Mescher, and Libertarian Loretta Nall. Researchers and scientist advocates include Jay Cavanaugh, PhD, Lyle Craker, PhD, Milton Friedman, PhD, Stephen Jay Gould, Lester Grinspoon, MD, and Carl Sagan, PhD.

Writers, such as the late William F. Buckley, Fred Gardner, Christopher Hitchens,[151] Jack Herer, Peter McWilliams, Salman Rushdie, Ann Druyan, Ed Rosenthal, Rick Steves, Samuel Thompson, and Robert Anton Wilson also support the legalization of medical cannabis.

Notable anti-medical cannabis individuals

Politicians that oppose the medicinal use of cannabis include former Drug Czars Andrea Barthwell, William Bennett,[152] Barry McCaffrey,[153] and John P. Walters, former U.S. Presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, congressmen Theodore Sophocleus[154] and Mark Souder, and former governors Mitt Romney[155] and Eliot Spitzer.

Attorney Generals Michael Mukasey, Janet Reno, and Dan Lungren also prefer cannabis to be illegal, as well as former U.S. Prosecutors Bonnie Dumanis,[156] Carol Lam, and Asa Hutchinson,[157] former Surgeon General Richard Carmona,[158] former Solicitor General Paul Clement, International Narcotics Control Board president Hamid Ghodse, Republican Senior Senator John McCain,[159] and former U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala. Conservative talk show hosts, such Rush Limbaugh[160] and Hal Lindsey, also oppose the use of medical cannabis.

Legal and medical status of cannabis

European laws on cannabis possession (small amount). Data are from multiple sources detailed on the full source list
Main article: Legal and medical status of cannabis

Cannabis is in Schedule IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, making it subject to special restrictions. Article 2 provides for the following, in reference to Schedule IV drugs:

A Party shall, if in its opinion the prevailing conditions in its country render it the most appropriate means of protecting the public health and welfare, prohibit the production, manufacture, export and import of, trade in, possession or use of any such drug except for amounts which may be necessary for medical and scientific research only, including clinical trials therewith to be conducted under or subject to the direct supervision and control of the Party.

This provision, while apparently providing for the limitation of cannabis to research purposes only, also seems to allow some latitude for nations to make their own judgments. The official Commentary on the Single Convention indicates that Parties are expected to make that judgment in good faith.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ "Cannabis sativa information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2008-07-13.
  2. ^ "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base". Nap.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  3. ^ a b "NIH Workshop on the Medical Utility of Marijuana - Part 1". Medmjscience.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  4. ^ "CannabisMD Reports : Marijuana in Capsules". Cannabismd.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  5. ^ "Methods of ingestion | Michigan Medical Marijuana Association | News and Information for Michigan's medical marijuana patients and caregivers". Michiganmedicalmarijuana.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  6. ^ 13 Legal Medical Marijuana States: Laws, Fees, and Possession Limits", ProCon.org. Retrieved April 21, 2009.
  7. ^ "Portugal's drug decriminalization 'bizarrely underappreciated': Greenwald". The Raw Story. 2009-04-06. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  8. ^ a b "Cannabinoids as antioxidants and neuroprotectants - US Patent 6630507 Abstract". Patentstorm.us. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  9. ^ http://www.wamm.org/
  10. ^ http://www.canorml.org/prop/Mikuriya_ICD-9list.pdf
  11. ^ Dale Gieringer, "Medical Use of Cannabis in California," in Franjo Grotenhermen, M.D. & Ethan Russo, M.D., ed., Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Potential, Haworth Press, 2002 [1]
  12. ^ "DrFrankLucido.com - Therapeutic Effects". www.medboardwatch.com. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
  13. ^ Cannabis-based drugs could offer new hope for inflammatory bowel disease patients
  14. ^ http://www.freedomtoexhale.com/clinical.pdf
  15. ^ http://www.cmcr.ucsd.edu/geninfo/CannabinoidsMS_Lancet11-03.pdf
  16. ^ http://www.doctordeluca.com/Library/WOD/WPS3-MedMj/CannabinoidsMedMetaAnalysis06.pdf
  17. ^ "Machinery Of The 'Marijuana Munchies'". Sciencedaily.com. 2005-12-26. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  18. ^ "Role of cannabinoid receptors in alcohol abuse, study". Medicalnewstoday.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  19. ^ Beaucar, Kelley (2004-04-20). "Cannabis 'Scrips to Calm Kids? - Politics | Republican Party | Democratic Party | Political Spectrum". FOXNews.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  20. ^ David Kohn, Baltimore Sun (2004-11-05). "Researchers buzzing about marijuana-derived medicines / Cannabinoids may help against many diseases". Sfgate.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  21. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16183560
  22. ^ "The nonpsychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an oral anti-arthritic therapeutic in murine collagen-induced arthritis — PNAS". Pnas.org. 2000-08-15. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  23. ^ "Pot-Based Drug Promising for Arthritis". Webmd.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  24. ^ "Effects of Smoked Marijuana in Experimentally Induced Asthma". Druglibrary.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  25. ^ "Cannabis may help keep arteries clear - health - 16 April 2005". New Scientist. doi:10.1038/nature03389. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  26. ^ "Prenatal Marijuana Exposure and Neonatal Outcomes in Jamaica: An Ethnographic Study". Druglibrary.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  27. ^ "The Use of Cannabis as a Mood Stabilizer in Bipolar Disorder". Ukcia.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  28. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888515?dopt=Abstract&holding=f1000,f1000m,isrctn
  29. ^ "Recipe For Trouble". CBS News. 2007-01-15. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  30. ^ "Dr. Tod Mikuriya: Cannabis as a Frontline Treatment for Childhood Mental Disorders". Counterpunch.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  31. ^ Home (2005-08-11). "The endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide, induces cell death in colorectal carcinoma cells: a possible role for cyclooxygenase 2 - Patsos et al. 54 (12): 1741 - Gut". Gut.bmj.com. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.073403. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  32. ^ "Marijuana Improves Depression in Low Doses, Worsens It in High Doses, Study Says - Health News | Current Health News | Medical News". FOXNews.com. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  33. ^ http://www.doctordeluca.com/Library/WOD/WPS3-MedMj/DecreasedDepressionInMjUsers05.pdf
  34. ^ "Journal of Clinical Investigation - Cannabinoids promote embryonic and adult hippocampus neurogenesis and produce anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects". Jci.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  35. ^ "AAMC: Cannabis and Depression". Pacifier.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  36. ^ "Marijuana Compound May Help Stop Diabetic Retinopathy". Sciencedaily.com. 2006-02-27. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  37. ^ "Marijuana Compound May Help Stop Diabetic Retinopathy". Defeat Diabetes. 2006-03-17. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  38. ^ "Neuroprotective and Blood-Retinal Barrier-Preserving Effects of Cannabidiol in Experimental Diabetes - El-Remessy et al. 168 (1): 235 - American Journal of Pathology". Ajp.amjpathol.org. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2006.050500. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  39. ^ "Dystonia". NORML. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  40. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11835452?dopt=Abstract
  41. ^ "Marijuana-Like Chemicals in the Brain Calm Neurons - MedPot.net/Forums". Medpot.net. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  42. ^ "Gastrointestinal Disorders". NORML. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  43. ^ "Informa Pharmaceutical Science - Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs - 12(1):39 - Summary". Informapharmascience.com. 2005-03-02. doi:10.1517/13543784.12.1.39. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  44. ^ "Amphiregulin is a factor for resistance of glioma cells to cannabinoid-induced apoptosis". Marijuana.researchtoday.net. 2009-02-20. doi:10.1002/glia.20856. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  45. ^ "Inhibition of Cancer Cell Invasion by Cannabinoids via Increased Expression of Tissue Inhibitor of Matrix Metalloproteinases-1 - Ramer and Hinz 100 (1): 59 - JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute". Jnci.oxfordjournals.org. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm268. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  46. ^ "Hepatitis C". NORML. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  47. ^ "European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology". Journals.lww.com. doi:10.1097/01.meg.0000216934.22114.51. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  48. ^ "Cannabidiol: The Wonder Drug of the 21st Century?". Druglibrary.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  49. ^ "Lowering of Blood Pressure Through Use of Hashish: The Hempire - [cannabis, britain]". The Hempire. 2006-06-20. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  50. ^ "Blood Pressure Lowered With Cannabis Component: The Hempire - [cannabis, uk]". The Hempire. 2006-06-15. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  51. ^ "Incontinence". NORML. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  52. ^ "Blood - Cannabis-induced cytotoxicity in leukemic cell lines: the role of the cannab". Bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org. doi:10.1182/blood-2004-03-1182. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  53. ^ "Peer-Reviewed Studies on Marijuana - Medical Marijuana - ProCon.org". Medicalmarijuana.procon.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  54. ^ "Journal of Clinical Investigation - Inhibition of skin tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo by activation of cannabinoid receptors". Jci.org. 2003-01-01. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1201928. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  55. ^ http://74.6.239.67/search/cache?ei=UTF-8&p=Vancouver+Island+Compassion+Society%2C+morning+sickness%2C+marijuana&fr=slv8-msgr&u=www.mercycenters.org/libry/info_Mothers.doc&w=vancouver+island+compassion+society+societies+morning+sickness+marijuana&d=KJVscZ2uSZD2&icp=1&.intl=us
  56. ^ "Mothering Magazine Birth Preparation Article: Medical Marijuana for Severe Morning Sickness". Mothering.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  57. ^ "A New MRSA Defense". Technology Review. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  58. ^ "Marijuana Ingredients May Fight MRSA". Webmd.com. 2008-09-04. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  59. ^ "Chemicals in Marijuana May Fight MRSA - Infectious Diseases: Causes, Types, Prevention, Treatment and Facts on". Medicinenet.com. 2008-09-04. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  60. ^ "Enhancing activity of marijuana-like chemicals in brain helps treat Parkinson's symptoms in mice, Stanford study finds - Office of Communications & Public Affairs - Stanford University School of Medicine". Med.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  61. ^ Michael Hess (2005-12-11). "Science: Cream with endocannabinoids effective in the treatment of pruritus due to kidney disease". BBSNews. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  62. ^ "Journal of Hepatology : The pruritus of cholestasis". ScienceDirect. 2005-10-06. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2005.09.004. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  63. ^ "Natural high helps banish bad memories - 31 July 2002". New Scientist. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  64. ^ "Medical Marijuana: PTSD Medical Malpractice". Salem-News.Com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  65. ^ "IACM-Bulletin". Cannabis-med.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  66. ^ "AAMC: Those who suffer from sickle-cell disease experience painful episodes or attacks". Pacifier.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  67. ^ "Pot Constituents Dramatically Reduce Sleep Apnea, Study Says". NORML. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  68. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12071539?dopt=Abstract
  69. ^ "The Scripps Research Institute". Scripps.edu. 2006-08-09. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  70. ^ 7:10 p.m. ET (2006-10-10). "Marijuana may help stave off Alzheimer's - Alzheimer's Disease- msnbc.com". MSNBC. Retrieved 2009-04-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  71. ^ "Study Shows Marijuana Promotes Neuron Growth - OhmyNews International". English.ohmynews.com. 2005-10-17. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  72. ^ "Marijuana Cuts Lung Cancer Tumor Growth In Half, Study Shows". Sciencedaily.com. 2007-04-17. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  73. ^ "Pot Smoking Not Linked to Lung Cancer". Webmd.com. 2006-05-23. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  74. ^ "Study Finds No Cancer-Marijuana Connection". washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  75. ^ "Medical News: ATS: Marijuana Smoking Found Non-Carcinogenic - in Hematology/Oncology, Lung Cancer from". MedPage Today. 2006-05-24. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  76. ^ "Marijuana smoking increases risk of COPD for tobacco smokers". Physorg.com. 2009-04-13. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  77. ^ [2][dead link]
  78. ^ [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/145921.php
  79. ^ "Marijuana Compound May Stop Breast Cancer From Spreading, Study Says - Health News | Current Health News | Medical News". FOXNews.com. 2007-11-19. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  80. ^ cc (2007-11-01). "Sean D. McAllister, PhD-Research in treament of aggressive breast cancers". Cpmc.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  81. ^   (2007-11-20). "Cannabis compound may stop breast cancer spreading". News-medical.net. Retrieved 2009-04-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  82. ^ "Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)". NORML. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  83. ^ "Short-Term Effects of Cannabinoids in Patients with HIV-1 Infection: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial - Abrams et al. 139 (4): 258 - Annals of Internal Medicine". Annals.org. 2003-08-19. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  84. ^ "Marijuana Eases Nerve Pain Due to HIV". Webmd.com. 2008-08-06. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  85. ^ "News Research Updates July-August 2008". Pain-topics.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  86. ^ "Cannabis in painful HIV-associated sensory neuropathy: A randomized placebo-controlled trial - Abrams et al. 68 (7): 515". Neurology. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000253187.66183.9c. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  87. ^ "Active Ingredient in Marijuana Kills Brain Cancer Cells". Forbes.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  88. ^ "Marijuana Chemical May Fight Brain Cancer". CBS News. 2009-04-04. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  89. ^ "Journal of Clinical Investigation - Cannabinoid action induces autophagy-mediated cell death through stimulation of ER stress in human glioma cells". Jci.org. 2009-04-01. doi:10.1172/JCI37948DS1. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  90. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11586361
  91. ^ Grlie, L (1976). "A comparative study on some chemical and biological characteristics of various samples of cannabis resin". Bulletin on Narcotics. 14: 37–46. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  92. ^ Mechoulam R, Peters M, Murillo-Rodriguez E, Hanus LO (2007). "Cannabidiol - recent advances". Chemistry & Biodiversity. 4 (8): 1678–1692. doi:10.1002/cbdv.200790147. PMID 17712814. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  93. ^ Zuardi, A.W (2006). "Cannabidiol as an antipsychotic drug" (PDF). Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 39: 421–429. ISSN 0100-879X ISSN 0100-879X. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  94. ^ McAllister SD, Christian RT, Horowitz MP, Garcia A, Desprez PY (2007). "Cannabidiol as a novel inhibitor of Id-1 gene expression in aggressive breast cancer cells". Mol. Cancer Ther. 6 (11): 2921–7. doi:10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-07-0371. PMID 18025276.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  95. ^ Article on BBC site
  96. ^ Cannabidiol and (−)Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol are neuroprotective antioxidants, A. J. Hampson, M. Grimaldi, J. Axelrod, and D. Wink, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 July 7; 95(14): 8268–8273.
  97. ^ a b c d "Why Cannabis Stems Inflammation". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2008-08-21.
  98. ^ FDA Press Release
  99. ^ Koch, W. 23 Jun 2005. Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada. USA Today (online). Retrieved on 27 February 2007
  100. ^ "Sativex - Investigational Cannabis-Based Treatment for Pain and Multiple Sclerosis Drug Development Technology". www.drugdevelopment-technology.com. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
  101. ^ "Europe: Sativex Coming to England, Spain". Retrieved 2006-03-25.
  102. ^ Greenberg, Gary (2005-11-01). "Respectable Reefer". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
  103. ^ Cosmos Online - Cannabis-like drug dims pain without high <http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/news/2366/cannabis-drug-dims-pain-without-high>
  104. ^ "Nabilone marijuana-based drug reduces fibromyalgia pain". www.news-medical.net. Retrieved 2008-05-31.
  105. ^ "Compare Marinol Prices on PharmacyChecker.com". www.pharmacychecker.com. Retrieved 2008-05-31.
  106. ^ (cadth-acmts.ca)
  107. ^ "Marijuana - The First Twelve Thousand Years - 1. Cannabis in the Ancient World". www.druglibrary.org. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
  108. ^ a b "History of Cannabis". BBC News.
  109. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 9004156054. Page 332.
  110. ^ Wong, Ming (1976). La Médecine chinoise par les plantes. Le Corps a Vivre series. Éditions Tchou.
  111. ^ "The Ebers Papyrus The Oldest (confirmed) Written Prescriptions For Medical Marihuana era 1,550 BC". www.onlinepot.org. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
  112. ^ "History of Cannabis". www.reefermadnessmuseum.org. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
  113. ^ Pain, Stephanie (2007-12-15). "The Pharaoh's pharmacists". New Scientist. Reed Business Information Ltd.
  114. ^ Lise Manniche, An Ancient Egyptian Herbal, University of Texas Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0292704152
  115. ^ Unknown (2003-10-21). "The Religious and Medicinal Uses of Cannabis in China, India and Tibet". 66.102.1.104. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  116. ^ a b c d e "The Haworth Press Online Catalog: Article Abstract". www.haworthpress.com. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
  117. ^ Lozano, Indalecio (2001). "The Therapeutic Use of Cannabis sativa (L.) in Arabic Medicine". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 1 (1): 63–70. doi:10.1300/J175v01n01_05.
  118. ^ Mack, Allyson (2001). Marijuana as Medicine?: The Science Beyond the Controversy. National Academy Press. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  119. ^ a b "Marijuana - The First Twelve Thousand Years - Reefer Racism". Druglibrary.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  120. ^ "Golden Guide". www.zauberpilz.com.
  121. ^ Zimmerman, Bill (1998). Is Marijuana the Right Medicine for You?: A Factual Guide to Medical Uses of Marijuana. Keats Publishing. ISBN 0879839066. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  122. ^ "Cannabis: Effects". Lycos Retriever. Lycos, Inc.
  123. ^ "Synthetic THC / Marinol". The Alliance for Reform of Drug Policy in Arkansas, Inc.
  124. ^ "How does the cost of marijuana compare to the cost of Marinol?". Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. ProCon.org.
  125. ^ McPartland, John M.; Russo, Ethan B. "Cannabis and Cannabis Extracts: Greater Than the Sum of Their Parts?". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. International Association for Cannabis as Medicine.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  126. ^ Mack,Alison ; Joy, Janet (2001). Marijuana As Medicine. National Academy Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  127. ^ Russo, Ethan; Mathre, Mary Lynn; Byrne, Al; Velin, Robert; Bach, Paul J.; Sanchez-Ramos, Juan; Kirlin, Kristin A (2002). "Chronic Cannabis Use in the Compassionate Investigational New Drug Program: An Examination of Benefits and Adverse Effects of Legal Clinical Cannabis" (PDF). Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 2 (1). The Haworth Press, Inc.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  128. ^ US Govt. Patent Office. http://www.uspto.gov/
  129. ^ Physicians Are Not Bootleggers, The Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Summer 2008.
  130. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "The American College of Physicians Position Paper" (PDF). The American College of Physicians. 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-20. Cite error: The named reference "MPP" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  131. ^ "Inter-Agency Advisory Regarding Claims That Smoked Marijuana Is a Medicine". Fda.gov. 2006-04-20. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  132. ^ [3][dead link]
  133. ^ http://www.nationalmssociety.org/Sourcebook-Marijuana.asp
  134. ^ [4][dead link]
  135. ^ "ACS :: Smoking Marijuana May Increase Cancer Risk". Cancer.org. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  136. ^ "Cannabis and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base", Institute of Medicine, 1999.
  137. ^ Cannabis Appetite Boost Lacking in Cancer Study" The New York Times, May 13, 2001.
  138. ^ Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds By D. Gieringer et.al. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, Vol. 4(1) 2004, [5]
  139. ^ Evaluation of a Vaporizing Device (Volcano) for the Pulmonary Administration of Tetrahydrocannabinol. By A. HAZEKAMP, R. RUHAAK, et.al. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 95, NO. 6, JUNE 2006 abstract
  140. ^ "Microbiological contaminants of marijuana". Hempfood.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  141. ^ "AFP: Austria allows cannabis for medical purposes". afp.google.com. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
  142. ^ Template:Fr Foire aux questions au sujet de la marihuana à des fins médicales, sur le site de Santé Canada
  143. ^ Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{lang-en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. « More pot, please: Demand booming for Prairie Plant's marijuana », CBC, 23 octobre 2006.
  144. ^ "The DEA Position On Marijuana". Usdoj.gov. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  145. ^ "Inter-Agency Advisory Regarding Claims That Smoked Marijuana Is a Medicine". Fda.gov. 2006-04-20. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  146. ^ "Opinion: US Government Holds Patent For Medical Marijuana, Shows Hipocrisy - Digital Journal: Your News Network". Digital Journal. 2008-07-07. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  147. ^ "In Memory: Robert Randall, Father of the Medical Marijuana Movement". 2001. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
  148. ^ "Taking Action: Montel Williams on medical marijuana". The Montel Williams MS Foundation. 2006. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
  149. ^ Debra J. Saunders (2009-01-29). "Two things Obama could do on medical marijuana". Sfgate.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  150. ^ "Ron Paul". Medical Marijuana Pro Con. MPP.ORG.
  151. ^ "In Pot We Trust (2007) (TV)". The Internet Movie Database. IMDb.com, Inc.
  152. ^ "William J. Bennett". Biography of William J. Bennett. Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
  153. ^ Medical Marijuana: A Dream Up In Smoke? - Human Rights Magazine Fall 1997
  154. ^ Opposition set to snuff out medical marijuana bill | Daily Record, The (Baltimore) | Find Articles at BNET.com
  155. ^ "Romney Confronted". CNN Video - Breaking News. CNN. 2007-10-08. Retrieved 2007-10-08.
  156. ^ SignOnSanDiego.com > News > Politics - Medical marijuana remains in legal limbo
  157. ^ "Asa Hutchinson". Biography of Asa Hutchinson. Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
  158. ^ "Richard Carmona". Biography of Richard Carmona. Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
  159. ^ "Candidates Positions on Medical Marijuana". Granitestaters.com. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  160. ^ "Rush Limbaugh". Biography of Rush Limbaugh. Medical Marijuana ProCon.org. 2007-10-28. Retrieved 2007-10-28.

Further reading

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medical_cannabis&oldid=290151253"