Plug-in electric vehicle

For the more general category of electric drive for all type of vehicles, see electric vehicle. For the specific electric drive cars and SUVs, see electric car and plug-in hybrid.

As of December 2015, the world's all-time top selling highway legal all-electric car is the Nissan Leaf (over 200,000) and the Chevrolet Volt is the world's best-selling plug-in hybrid (over 106,000).

A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from an external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subset of electric vehicles that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.

Plug-in cars have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. They have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce little or no local air pollution. They reduce dependence on petroleum and may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power, depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation to charge the batteries. Plug-in hybrids capture most of these benefits when they are operating in all-electric mode. Despite their potential benefits, market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles has been slower than expected as adoption faces several hurdles and limitations. As of 2016, plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive than conventional vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery packs. Other factors discouraging the adoption of electric cars are the lack of public and private recharging infrastructure and, in the case of all-electric vehicles, drivers' fear of the batteries running out of energy before reaching their destination due to the limited range of existing electric cars. Plug-in hybrids eliminate the problem of range anxiety associated to all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted, giving PHEVs driving range comparable to other vehicles with gasoline tanks.

Several national and local governments have established tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug-in electric vehicles depending on their battery size and all-electric range. The term "plug-in electric drive vehicle" is formally used in U.S. federal legislation to grant this type of consumer incentive. In China, plug-in electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles (NEVs), and only pure electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are subject to purchase incentives.

As of September 2015, there were almost 70 models of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty utility vans available for retail sales in the world. As of December 2015, the Nissan Leaf is the world's all-time top selling highway-capable all-electric car, with global sales of more than 200,000 units, followed by the Tesla Model S with over 107,000 units sold worldwide, and the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, which together with its sibling the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera has combined global sales of over 106,000 units. Ranking next are the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with over 90,000 units sold through December 2015, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid with about 75,000 delivered worldwide through November 2015. Combined sales of the top five plug-in models represented almost half of the plug-in segment cumulative global sales through November 2015.

As of December 2015, over 1.2 million highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles have been sold worldwide, with the United States as the leading country market with a stock of about 410,000 plug-in electric cars delivered since 2008, representing 33% of the global stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, followed by China with over 258,000 light-duty units sold since 2011 (21%). Japan ranks third with about 130,000 plug-in units sold since 2009 (10%). As of December 2015, over 419,000 plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe. European sales in the light-duty plug-in electric segment, which includes utility vans, are led by the Netherlands with almost 90,000 units registered, followed by Norway with almost 75,000 new units registered, and France with over 74,000. Almost 25% of the European stock is on the roads in the Nordic countries, with over 100,000 registered plug-in electric cars as of December 2015. Despite their rapid growth, by the end of 2015 plug-in electric cars represented just 0.1% of the one billion cars on the world's roads. As of December 2015, China is the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric buses, plug-in trucks, and sanitation/garbage trucks. Over 160,000 commercial new energy vehicles have been sold between 2011 and 2015. China is also the world's largest electric bus market.

Terminology

Brammo Empulse electric motorcycle at a charging station.

Plug-in electric vehicle

A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle with rechargeable battery packs that can be charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion. Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles (GEV) and also as electrically chargeable vehicles.

PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine and regenerative braking, they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.

"Plug-in electric drive vehicle" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all-electric range. In some European countries, particularly in France, "electrically chargeable vehicle" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives. While the term "plug-in electric vehicle" most often refers to automobiles or "plug-in cars", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including scooters, motorcycles, neighborhood electric vehicles or microcars, city cars, vans, light trucks or light commercial vehicles, buses, trucks or lorries, and military vehicles.

Battery electric vehicles

Main article: Battery electric vehicle

U.S. Army GEM e2 neighborhood electric vehicle.

A battery electric vehicle (BEV) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion.

A plug-in hybrid operates as an all electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge (SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's all-electric range (AER).

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles

Main article: Plug-in hybrid

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source. A plug-in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all-electric vehicle: it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion, but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged, allowing operation in all-electric mode until the battery is depleted.

Several Prius+ converted plug-in hybrids.

Aftermarket conversions

See also: Plug-in hybrid conversions and electric vehicle conversion

An aftermarket electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.

There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 Toyota Prius and for the Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid.

New energy vehicles

In China the term new energy vehicles (NEVs) refers to vehicles that are partially or fully powered by electricity, such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs). The Chinese government began implementation of its NEV program in 2009 to foster the development and introduction of new energy vehicles.

Advantages

Lower operating and maintenance costs

Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking. Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.

The operating cost of the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid in the U.S. is estimated at US$0.03 per mile while operating in all-electric mode.

In the United States, as of early 2010 with a national average electricity rate of US$0.10 per kWh, the cost per mile for a plug-in electric vehicle operating in all-electric mode is estimated between $0.02 to $0.04, while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $0.08 to $0.20, considering a gasoline price of $3.00 per gallon. As petroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline and increases in global demand, the cost difference in favor of PEVs is expected to become even more advantageous.

According to Consumer Reports, as of December 2011 the Nissan Leaf has a cost of 3.5 cents per mile and the Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3.8 cents per mile. The Volt cost per mile is higher because it is heavier than the Leaf. These estimates are based on the fuel economy and energy consumption measured on their tests and using a U.S. national average rate of 11 cents per kWh of electricity. When the Volt runs in range-extended mode using its premium gasoline-powered engine, the plug-in hybrid has a cost of 12.5 cents per mile. The out-of-pocket cost per mile of the three most fuel efficient gasoline-powered cars as tested by the magazine are the Toyota Prius, with a cost of 8.6 cents per miles, the Honda Civic Hybrid with 9.5 cents per mile, the Toyota Corolla with 11.9 cents per mile, and the Hyundai Elantra 13.1 cents per mile. The analysis also found that on trips up to 100 mi (160 km), the Volt is cheaper to drive than the Prius and the other three cars due to the Volt's 35 mi (56 km) driving range on electricity. The previous operating costs do not include maintenance, depreciation or other costs.

All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.

Template:Comparison electric car efficiency The following table compares EPA's estimated out-of-pocket fuel costs and fuel economy ratings of serial production plug-in hybrid electric vehicles rated by EPA as of January 2017 expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e), versus the most fuel efficient gasoline-electric hybrid car, the 2016 Toyota Prius Eco (fourth generation), rated 56 mpg_‑US (4.2 L/100 km; 67 mpg_‑imp), and EPA's average new 2016 vehicle, which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg_‑US (9.4 L/100 km; 30 mpg_‑imp). The table also shows the fuel efficiency for plug-in hybrids in all-electric mode expressed as KWh/100 mile, the metric used by EPA to rate electric cars before November 2010.

Comparison of out-of-pocket fuel costs and fuel economy for plug-in hybrid electric cars rated by EPA as of January 2017 with MPGe and conventional MPG(1) (as displayed in the Monroney label and the US DoE fueleconomy.gov website)
Vehicle	Year model	Operating mode (EV range)	EPA rated Combined fuel economy	EPA rated city/highway fuel economy	Fuel cost to drive 25 miles	Annual fuel cost(1) (15,000 mi)	Notes
Toyota Prius Prime	2017	Electricity (25 mi)	133 mpg-e (25 kWh/100 mi)	-	$0.82	$550	The Prius Prime is the most energy-efficient vehicle with a gasoline engine in EV mode. During the first 25 mi might use some gasoline. The 2017 Prime has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 78 mpg-e (city 83 mpg-e/hwy 73 mpg-e).
		Gasoline only	54 mpg	55 mpg/ 53 mpg	$1.08
BMW i3 REx (60 A·h)	2014 2015 2016	Electricity only (72 mi)	117 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi)	97 mpg‑e (35 kW⋅h/100 mi)/ 79 mpg‑e (43 kW⋅h/100 mi)	$0.94	$650	The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid while CARB as a range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx). The 2014/16 i3 REx is the most fuel efficient EPA-certified current year vehicle with a gasoline engine with a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 88 mpg-e (city 97 mpg-e/hwy 79 mpg-e).
		Gasoline only (78 mi)	39 mpg	41 mpg/ 37 mpg	$1.79
Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid	2014	Electricity and gasoline (13 mi)	115 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.03	$650	The 2014 Accord is the most fuel efficient plug-in hybrid in blended EV mode with a rating of 115 mpg-e. The Accord has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 57 mpg-e.
		Gasoline only	46 mpg	47 mpg/ 46 mpg	$1.11
BMW i3 REx (94 A·h)	2017	Electricity only (97 mi)	111 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi)	-	$0.98	$650	The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid while CARB as a range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx). The 2017 i3 REx (94 A·h) has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 88 mpg-e (city 95 mpg-e/hwy 81 mpg-e), the highest rating among 2017 MY plug-in hybrids.
		Gasoline only (83 mi)	35 mpg	36 mpg/ 33 mpg	$1.99
Chevrolet Volt (2nd gen)	2016 2017	Electricity only (53 mi)	106 mpg-e (31 kWh/100 mi)	113 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi)/ 99 mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi)	$1.01	$650	The 2016/17 Volt has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 77 mpg-e (city 82 mpg-e/hwy 72 mpg-e). Regular gasoline.
		Gasoline only	42 mpg	43 mpg/ 42 mpg	$1.39
Hyundai Sonata PHEV	2016	Electricity and gasoline (27 mi)	99mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.19	$700	During the first 27 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 27 mi.
		Gasoline only	40 mpg	-	$1.28
Chevrolet Volt (1st gen)	2013 2014 2015	Electricity only (38 mi)	98 mpg-e (35 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.01	$650	The 2013/15 Volt has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 62 mpg-e (city 63 mpg-e/hwy 61 mpg-e). Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	37 mpg	35 mpg/ 40 mpg	$1.21
Ford Fusion Energi	2017	Electricity and gasoline (22 mi)	97 mpg-e (35 kW-h/100 mi)	-	$1.14	$700	The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 21 mi.
		Gasoline only	42 mpg	-	$1.21
Toyota Prius PHV	2012 2013 2014 2015	Electricity and gasoline (11 mi)	95 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi plus 0.2 gallons/100 mi)	-	$1.03	$600	After the first 11 miles the car functions like a regular Prius hybrid The 2012/15 Prius has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 58 mpg-e (city 59 mpg-e/hwy 56 mpg-e).
		Gasoline only	50 mpg	51 mpg/ 49 mpg	$1.02
Chevrolet Volt	2011 2012	Electricity only	94 mpg-e (36 kWh/100 mi)	95 mpg-e (36 kWh/100 mi)/ 93 mpg-e (37 kWh/100 mi)	$1.17	$800	Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	37 mpg	35 mpg/ 40 mpg	$1.70
Ford C-Max Energi Ford Fusion Energi	2013 2014 2015 2016	Electricity and gasoline (20 mi)	88 mpg-e (37 kWh/100 mi)	95 mpg‑e (35 kW⋅h/100 mi)/ 81 mpg‑e (42 kW⋅h/100 mi)	$1.25	$750	The Energi did not use any gasoline for the first 20 miles in EPA tests, but depending on the driving style, the car may use both gasoline and electricity during EV mode. The Energi models have a combined EV/hybrid operation rating of 51 mpg-e (city 55 mpg-e/hwy 46 mpg-e).
		Gasoline only	38 mpg	40 mpg/ 36 mpg	$1.34
Audi A3 e-tron ultra	2016	Electricity only (17 mi)	86 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.37	$900	During the first 17 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 17 mi.
		Gasoline only	39 mpg	-	$1.61
Cadillac ELR	2014 2015	Electricity only (37 mi)	82 mpg-e (41 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.33	$900	The 2014/15 ELR has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 54 mpg-e (city 54 mpg-e/hwy 55 mpg-e).
		Gasoline only	33 mpg	31 mpg/ 35 mpg	$1.90
Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid	2017	Electricity only (33 mi)	84 mpg-e (40 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.73	$900	During the first 33 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 33 mi.
		Gasoline only	32 mpg	-	$1.83
Audi A3 e-tron	2016	Electricity only (16 mi)	83 mpg-e (40 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.49	$950	During the first 16 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 16 mi.
		Gasoline only	35 mpg	-	$1.79
BMW i8	2014 2015 2016	Electricity and gasoline (15 mi)	76 mpg-e (43 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.77	$1,150	The i8 does not run on 100% electricity as it consumes 0.1 gallons per 100 mi in EV mode (all-electric range = 0 mi) The i8 has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 37 mpg-e.
		Gasoline only	28 mpg	28 mpg/ 29 mpg	$2.24
BMW 330e	2016	Electricity and gasoline (14 mi)	72 mpg-e (47 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.74	$1,050	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 14 mi. Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	31 mpg	-	$2.02
Porsche 918 Spyder	2015	Electricity only (12 mi)	67 mpg-e (50 kWh/100 mi)	-	$1.62	$1,500	Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	22 mpg	20 mpg/ 24 mpg	$2.85
BMW 740e iPerformance	2017	Electricity only (14 mi)	64 mpg-e (52 kWh/100 mi)	-	$2.03	$1,350	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 14 mi.
		Gasoline only	27 mpg	-	$2.48
BMW X5 xDrive40e	2016	Electricity only (14 mi)	56 mpg-e (59 kWh/100 mi)	-	$2.23	$1,450	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 14 mi.
		Gasoline only	24 mpg	-	$2.61
Mercedes-Benz S 500 e	2015	Electricity and gasoline (14 mi)	58 mpg-e (59 kWh/100 mi)	-	$2.13	$1,350	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 12 mi. Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	26 mpg	-	$2.41
Fisker Karma	2012	Electricity only (33 mi)	54 mpg-e (62 kWh/100 mi)	-	$2.02	$1,450	Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	20 mpg	20 mpg/ 21 mpg	$3.14
Volvo XC90 T8	2016	Electricity and gasoline (14 mi)	53 mpg-e (58 kWh/100 mi)	-	$2.19	$1,400	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 13 mi. Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	25 mpg	-	$2.51
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid	2016	Electricity and gasoline (16 mi)	51 mpg-e (51 kWh/100 mi)	-	$2.15	$1,350	The all-electric range is between 0 to 15 mi Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	25 mpg	23 mpg/ 29 mpg	$2.51
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid	2014 2015	Electricity and gasoline (16 mi)	50 mpg-e (52 kWh/100 mi)	-	$2.18	$1,400	The all-electric range is between 0 to 15 mi The S E-Hybrid has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 31 mpg-e.
		Gasoline only	25 mpg	23 mpg/ 29 mpg	$2.51
Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid	2015 2016	Electricity and gasoline (14 mi)	47 mpg-e (69 kWh/100 mi)	-	$2.24	$1,550	Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	22 mpg	21 mpg/ 24 mpg	$2.85
McLaren P1	2014 2015	Electricity and gasoline (19 mi)	18 mpg-e (25 kWh/100 mi)	-	$3.79	$2,200	The P1 does not run on 100% electricity as it consumes 4.8 gallons per 100 mi in EV mode (all-electric range = 0 mi) The P1 has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 17 mpg-e.
		Gasoline only	17 mpg	16 mpg/ 20 mpg	$3.69
2016 Toyota Prius Eco (4th gen)	2016	Gasoline-electric hybrid	56 mpg	58 mpg/ 53 mpg	$0.91	$550	Most fuel efficient hybrid electric car.
Ford Fusion AWD 2.0L (Average new vehicle)	2016	Gasoline only	25 mpg	22 mpg/ 31 mpg	$2.04	$1,200	Other 2016 MY cars achieving 25 mpg combined city/hwy include the Honda Accord 3.5L, Toyota Camry 3.5L and Toyota RAV4 2.5L.
Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. Electricity cost of US$0.13/kWh, premium gasoline price of US$2.51 per gallon (used by the 2015 Volt, i3 REx, ELR, i8, Mercedes S500e, Karma and all Porsche models), and regular gasoline price of US$2.04 per gallon (as of 18 December 2015). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kWh.

The Edison Electric Institute (EEI) conducted an analysis that demonstrated that between January 1976 and February 2012 the real price for gasoline has been much more volatile than the real price of electricity in the United States. The analysis is based on a plug-in electric vehicle with an efficiency of 3.4 miles per kW-hr (like the Mitsubishi i MiEV) and a gasoline-powered vehicle with a fuel economy rated at 30 mpg_‑US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg_‑imp) (like the 2012 Fiat 500). The EEI estimated that operating a plug-in would have had an equivalent cost of around US$1.50 a gallon in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and around US$1.00 a gallon since the late 1990s. In contrast, the price to operate an internal combustion engine vehicle has had much ample variations, costing more than US$3.50 per gallon during the 1979 energy crisis, then had a couple of lows with prices at less than US$1.50 during 1999 and 2001, only to climb and reach a maximum of more than US$4.00 before the beginning of the 2007–2009 financial crisis, by early 2012 has fluctuated around US$3.50. The analysis found that the cost of an equivalent electric-gallon of gasoline would have been not only cheaper to operate during the entire analysis period but also that equivalent electricity prices are more stable and have been declining in terms of equivalent dollars per gallon.

Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions

See also: Air pollution and carbon emissions in electric cars and Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in hybrids

RechargeIT converted Toyota Prius plug-in hybrids at Google's Mountain View campus. The garage has recharging facilities powered by solar panels.

Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants. In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug-in electric vehicles. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions. On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles. In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.

The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California, where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix. On the other hand, emission benefits in Germany, China, India, and the central regions of the United States are limited or non-existent because most electricity is generated from coal. However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cities with chronic air pollution problems, such as Los Angeles, México City, Santiago, Chile, São Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok and Kathmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.

Carbon footprint during production

Ricardo

A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with experts from the UK's Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle. The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a mid-size electric car are generated from the battery production, while for standard mid-sized gasolineinternal combustion engine vehicle, around 75% of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in the vehicle glider. The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies:

Comparison of full life cycle assessment(well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies
Type of vehicle (powertrain)	Estimated emissions in production (tonnes CO2e)	Estimated lifecycle emissions (tonnes CO2e)	Percentage of emissions during production
Standard gasoline vehicle	5.6	24	23%
Hybrid electric vehicle	6.5	21	31%
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle	6.7	19	35%
Battery electric vehicle	8.8	19	46%
Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming 150,000 km (93,000 mi) full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity.

The Ricardo study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions.

Volkswagen

In 2014 Volkswagen published the results of life-cycle assessment of its electric vehicles certified by TÜV NORD, and independent inspection agency. The study found that CO
₂ emissions during the use phase of its all-electric VW e-Golf are 99% lower than those of the Golf 1.2 TSI when powers comes from exclusively hydroelectricity generated in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Accounting for the full lifecycle, the e-Golf reduces emissions by 61%, offsetting higher production emissions. When the actual EU-27 electricity mix is considered, the e-Golf emissions are still 26% lower than those of the conventional Golf 1.2 TSI. Similar results were found when comparing the e-Golf with the Golf 1.6 TDI. The analysis considered recycling of the three vehicles at the end of their lifetime.

Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency

The following table compares tailpipe and upstream CO₂ emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market. Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle, and for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine. These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2014." All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city and 45% highway driving. For the first time, the 2014 Trends report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles, with emphasis in plug-in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1%, the EPA concluded that PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO₂ emissions.

For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug-in hybrids. Some, like the Chevrolet Volt, can operate in all-electric mode without using gasoline, and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, for both, electric only and blended EV modes. Since all-electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, the utility factor applies only to plug-in hybrids. The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market, and EPA's best estimate of the CO₂ tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs.

In order to account for the upstream CO₂ emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity, and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO₂/kWh in California to 986 g CO₂/kWh in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO₂/kWh.

Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market
Vehicle	Overall fuel economy (mpg-e)	Utility factor(2) (share EV miles)	Tailpipe CO2 (g/mi)	Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2
				Low (g/mi)	Avg (g/mi)	High (g/mi)
BMW i3	124	1	0	93	175	266
Chevrolet Spark EV	119	1	0	97	181	276
Honda Fit EV	118	1	0	99	185	281
Fiat 500e	116	1	0	101	189	288
Nissan Leaf	114	1	0	104	194	296
Mitsubishi i	112	1	0	104	195	296
Smart electric drive	107	1	0	109	204	311
Ford Focus Electric	105	1	0	111	208	316
Tesla Model S (60 kWh)	95	1	0	122	229	348
Tesla Model S (85 kWh)	89	1	0	131	246	374
BMW i3 REx(3)	88	0.83	40	134	207	288
Mercedes-Benz B-Class ED	84	1	0	138	259	394
Toyota RAV4 EV	76	1	0	153	287	436
BYD e6	63	1	0	187	350	532
Chevrolet Volt	62	0.66	81	180	249	326
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid	58	0.29	133	195	221	249
Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid	57	0.33	130	196	225	257
Cadillac ELR	54	0.65	91	206	286	377
Ford C-Max Energi	51	0.45	129	219	269	326
Ford Fusion Energi	51	0.45	129	219	269	326
BMW i8	37	0.37	198	303	351	404
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid	31	0.39	206	328	389	457
McLaren P1	17	0.43	463	617	650	687
Average MY 2014 gasoline car	24.2	0	367	400	400	400
Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid

Union of Concerned Scientists

The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug-in car batteries from the perspective of the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region. The study used the model year 2011 Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis baseline, and electric-utility emissions are based on EPA's 2009 estimates. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, hydroelectric or renewable sources, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less CO₂ equivalent emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway driving fuel economy of 30 mpg_‑US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg_‑imp). In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg_‑imp).

The study concluded that for 45% of the U.S. population, a plug-in electric car will generate lower CO₂ equivalent emissions than a gasoline-powered car capable of combined 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg_‑imp), such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c. The UCS also found that for 37% of the population, the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline-powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of 41 to 50 mpg_‑US (5.7 to 4.7 L/100 km; 49 to 60 mpg_‑imp), such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h. Only 18% of the population lives in areas where the power-supply is more dependent on burning carbon, and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of 31 to 40 mpg_‑US (7.6 to 5.9 L/100 km; 37 to 48 mpg_‑imp), such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus. The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug-in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile, and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces CO₂ emissions equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 33 mpg_‑US (7.1 L/100 km).

In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report. The 2014 analysis found that 60% of Americans, up from 45% in 2009, live in regions where an all-electric car produce fewer CO₂ equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid. The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement. First, electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis. The 2014 study used electric-utility emissions based on EPA's 2010 estimates, but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5% from 2010 to 2014, actual efficiency in 2014 is better than estimated in the UCS study. Second, electric vehicles have become more efficient, as the average 2013 all-electric vehicle used 0.33 kWh per mile, representing a 5% improvement over 2011 models. Also, some new models are cleaner than the average, such as the BMW i3, which is rated at 0.27 kWh by the EPA. An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline-powered car with about 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km), up from 39 mpg_‑US (6.0 L/100 km) for the average electric car in the 2012 study. In states with a cleaner mix generation, the gains were larger. The average all-electric car in California went up to 95 mpg_‑US (2.5 L/100 km) equivalent from 78 mpg_‑US (3.0 L/100 km) in the 2012 study. States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag, such as Colorado, where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a 34 mpg_‑US (6.9 L/100 km; 41 mpg_‑imp) gasoline-powered car. The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoptions is concentrated in the states with cleaner power.

Change from 2009 to 2012 of the percentage of Americans that live in regions where powering an electric vehicle on the regional electricity grid produces lower global warming emissions than a gasoline car expressed in terms of combined cith/highway fuel economy rating. Source: Union of Concerned Scientists.

In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life-cycle, cradle-to-grave analysis. The two BEVs modeled, midsize and full-size, are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015, the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all-electric cars representative of those sold today, on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline-powered vehicles, despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing. Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold, excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving. The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km) in regions covering two-thirds of the U.S. population, up from 45% in 2009. Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015, the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg_‑US (3.5 L/100 km) fuel economy rating. The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV-related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012. Electricity generation has been getting cleaner, as coal-fired generation has declined while lower-carbon alternatives have increased. In addition, electric cars are becoming more efficient. For example, the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt, have undergone improvements to increase their efficiencies compared to the original models launched in 2010, and other even more efficient BEV models, such as the most lightweight and efficient BMW i3, have entered the market.

National Bureau of Economic Research

One criticism to the UCS study is that the analysis was made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day. An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The marginal analysis, applied to plug-in electric vehicles, found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO₂ emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. However, in other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand.

Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in several countries

A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles in 20 countries. As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO₂/km for an electric car and 40 g CO₂/km for a petrol car. The study found that in countries with coal-intensive generation, PEVs are no different from conventional petrol-powered vehicles. Among these countries are China, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa and India. A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a 20 mpg_‑US (12 L/100 km; 24 mpg_‑imp) petrol car.

The country ranking was led by Paraguay, where all electricity is produced from hydropower, and Iceland, where electricity production relies on renewable power, mainly hydro and geothermal power. Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO₂/km, which is equivalent to a 220 mpg_‑US (1.1 L/100 km; 260 mpg_‑imp) petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly nuclear power). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.

The following table shows the emissions intensity estimated in the study for those countries where electric vehicle are available, and the corresponding emissions equivalent in miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car:

Country comparison of full life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars and emissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car
Country	PEV well-to-wheels carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per electric car expressed in (CO2e/km)	Power source	PEV well-to-wheels emissions equivalent in terms of mpg US of petrol-powered car	Equivalent petrol car
Sweden	81	Low carbon	159 mpg‑US (1.48 L/100 km)	Hybrid multiples
France	93		123 mpg‑US (1.91 L/100 km)
Canada	115	Fossil light	87 mpg‑US (2.7 L/100 km)	Beyond hybrid
Spain	146		61 mpg‑US (3.9 L/100 km)
Japan	175	Broad mix	48 mpg‑US (4.9 L/100 km)	New hybrid
Germany	179		47 mpg‑US (5.0 L/100 km)
United Kingdom	189		44 mpg‑US (5.3 L/100 km)
United States	202	Fossil heavy	40 mpg‑US (5.9 L/100 km)	Efficient petrol
Mexico	203		40 mpg‑US (5.9 L/100 km)
China	258	Coal-based	30 mpg‑US (7.8 L/100 km)	Average petrol
Australia	292		26 mpg‑US (9.0 L/100 km)
India	370		20 mpg‑US (12 L/100 km)
Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km Source: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013.

Less dependence on imported oil

See also: Energy resilience, Energy security, and Mitigation of peak oil

Evolution of oil prices since 1987 (average Brent spot prices - adjusted for U.S. inflation).

For many net oil importing countries the 2000s energy crisis brought back concerns first raised during the 1973 oil crisis. For the United States, the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks and supply disruption. Also, there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil. A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations, including some countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests. In addition, for many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest African countries, high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments, all leading to lower economic growth.

Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles for electric cars and plug-in hybrids, electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply.

Vehicle-to-grid

Main article: Vehicle-to-grid

Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks. A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car. In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.

Disadvantages

Tesla Model S electric car (left) and Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid (right) at the parking spots reserved for green cars at San Francisco International Airport.

Cost of batteries and cost of ownership

Main article: Electric vehicle battery

Cost of batteries

As of 2015, plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack was about US$1,700/kWh of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kWh and a PHEV-40 about 8 kWh, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for a PHEV-40. As of June 2012, and based on the three battery size options offered for the Tesla Model S, the New York Times estimated the cost of automotive battery packs between US$400 to US$500 per kilowatt-hour. A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down from US$1,300 per kWh in 2007 to US$500 per kWh in 2012. The U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US$300 per kWh in 2015 and US$125 per kWh by 2022. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.

According to a study published in February 2016 by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), battery prices fell 65% since 2010, and 35% just in 2015, reaching US$350 per kWh. The study concludes that battery costs are on a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022. BNEF projects that by 2040, long-range electric cars will cost less than US$22,000 expressed in 2016 dollars. BNEF expects electric car battery costs to be well below US$120 per kWh by 2030, and to fall further thereafter as new chemistries become available.

Cost of ownership

A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center, Harvard University, found that the gasoline costs savings of plug-in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices, and assuming no government subidies. According to the study estimates, a PHEV-40 is US$5,377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicles is US$4,819 more expensive. These findings assumed a battery cost of US$600 per kWh, which means that the Chevrolet Volt battery pack cost around US$10,000 and the Nissan Leaf pack costs US$14,400. The study also assumed a gasoline price of US$3.75 per gallon (as of mid June 2011), that vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year, an average price of electricity of US$0.12 per kWh, that the plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time, and that the owner of PEVs pay US$1,500 to install a Level II 220/240 volt charger at home.

The study also include hybrid electric vehicles in the comparison, and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase, and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars, among other scenarios. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars (US$1,155 to US$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines. The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study.

Comparison of net lifetime savings among conventional gasoline-powered cars, hybrids and plug-in electric cars for several scenarios (U.S. market at 2010 prices)
Description	Conventional ICE	Hybrid electric (HEV)	Plug-in hybrid (PHEV)	Battery electric (BEV)
Scenario: 2010 costs (battery US$600 per kWh, gasoline US$3.75 per gallon, and electricity US$0.12 per kWh)
Purchase price	US$21,390	US$22,930	US$30,235	US$33,565
Total net present cost	US$32,861	US$33,059	US$38,239	US$37,680
Cost differential with conventional car	-	US$197	US$5,377	US$4,819
Scenario: Future Costs - Lower battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh)
Total net present cost	US$34,152	US$32,680	US$34,601	US$30,674
Cost differential with conventional car	-	(US$1,472)	US$449	(US$3,478)
Scenario: Future Costs - Low battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery US$150 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh)
Total net present cost	US$34,152	US$32,080	US$32,549	US$26,971
Cost differential with conventional car	-	(US$2,072)	(US$1,603)	(US$7,181)
Scenario: Higher fuel efficiency ICEs:50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp) HEVs and PHEVs: 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg‑imp) (battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh)
Total net present cost	US$32,829	US$31,366	US$34,403	US$30,674
Cost differential with conventional car	-	(US$463)	US$2,574	(US$1,155)
Note: Assumes vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year and plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time. Does not take into account other differences in cost of ownership.

According to a study by the Electric Power Research Institute published in June 2013, the total cost of ownership of the 2013 Nissan Leaf SV is substantially lower than that of comparable conventional and hybrid vehicles. For comparison, the study constructed average hybrid and conventional vehicles and assumed an average US distance per trip distribution. The study took into account the manufacturer's suggested retail price, taxes, credits, destination charge, electric charging station, fuel cost, maintenance cost, and additional cost due to the use of a gasoline vehicle for trips beyond the range of the Leaf.

Electric Power Research Institute comparison of the Leaf versus average conventional and hybrid cars.
Vehicle	Operating mode (powertrain)	Total ownership cost
		US Average	California
Nissan Leaf SV	All-electric	$37,288	$35,596
Chevrolet Volt	Plug-in hybrid	$44,176	$40,800
Average Conventional	Gasoline	$44,949	$46,561
Average Hybrid	Gasoline-electric hybrid	$44,325	$45,416
Notes: Costs are based on a gasoline price of $3.64 per gallon, an electricity rate of $0.12/kWh, and a vehicle lifetime of 150,000 miles. The average conventional car was constructed by averaging of Honda Civic EX, Chevrolet Cruze LTZ, Ford Focus Titanium, and Volkswagen Passat. The average hybrid car was constructed from Ford Fusion Hybrid, Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid XLE, and Toyota Prius trim IV.

Availability of recharging infrastructure

Converted Toyota Prius plug-in hybrids recharging at San Francisco City Hall charging station.

See also: Charging station and Range anxiety

Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed. Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lots, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety. Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers. However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.

Several cities in California and Oregon, and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley, already have deployed public charging stations and have expansion plans to attend both plug-ins and all-electric cars. Some local private firms such as Google and Adobe Systems have also deployed charging infrastructure. In Google's case, its Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use fleet of converted plug-ins available to its employees. Solar panels are used to generate the electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT website. As of December 2013, Estonia is the first and only country that had deployed an EV charging network with nationwide coverage, with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a minimum distance of between 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi), and a higher density in urban areas.

Battery swapping

See also: Battery swapping, Better Place, and Tesla supercharger

Better Place's battery switching station in Israel

A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place. Its business model considers that electric cars are built and sold separately from the battery pack. As customers are not allowed to purchase battery packs, they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips. Subscribed users pay a per-distance fee to cover battery pack leasing, charging and swap infrastructure, the cost of sustainable electricity, and other costs. Better Place signed agreement for deployment in Australia, Denmark, Israel, Canada, California, and Hawaii. The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the electric car built with switchable battery technology sold for the Better Place network. The robotic battery-switching operation was completed in about five minutes.

After implementing the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model in Israel and Denmark, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US$850 million in private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.

Tesla Motors designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping. In June 2013, Tesla announced their goal to deploy a battery swapping station in each of its supercharging stations. At a demonstration event Tesla showed that a battery swap operation with the Model S takes just over 90 seconds, about half the time it takes to refill a gasoline-powered car used for comparison purposes during the event. The first stations are planned to be deployed along Interstate 5 in California where, according to Tesla, a large number of Model S sedans make the San Francisco-Los Angeles trip regularly. These will be followed by the Washington, DC to Boston corridor.

Other charging solutions

Roof-mounted solar panels of the REVA NXR concept car.

Nissan Leaf SV roof-mounted solar panel.

The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan Leaf SV trim both have roof-mounted solar panels. These solar panels are designed to trickle charge the batteries when the car is moving or parked. Another proposed technology is REVive, by REVA. When the REVA NXR's batteries are running low or are fully depleted, the driver is able to send an SMS to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack. REVA has not provided details on how the system will work. The Fisker Karma uses solar panel in the roof to recharge the 12-volt lead-acid accessory battery. The Nissan Leaf SL trim also has a small solar panel at the rear of the roof/spoiler that can trickle charge the auxiliary 12-volt lead-acid battery.

Potential overload of the electrical grid

The existing electrical grid, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight, when rates are lower.

General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project in Austin, Texas. The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug-in electric car owners, and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same, which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug-in cars return home in the evening. The Mueller neighborhood is the test ground, and as of June 2013, the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone. This cluster of Volts was achieved thanks to GM's commitment to match the federal government's $7,500 rebate incentive, which effectively halves the purchase price of the plug-hybrid electric cars.

Risks associated with noise reduction

Main article: Electric vehicle warning sounds

Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds.

The 2011 Nissan Leaf had a switch to manually turn off its electric warning sound system.

Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired. At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise. However, a 2011 study, commissioned by the UK Department for Transport (DfT) and conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory, found little correlation between pedestrian vehicle involvement density and noise level for the majority of vehicles. In addition, the analysis found no evidence of a pattern in pedestrian vehicle involvement densities when only considering those accidents occurring on 30 mph (48 km/h) or slower roads, or where the pedestrian was disabled. A previous study did not found an increased pedestrian vehicle involvement density for electric and hybrid vehicles with respect to their conventional counterparts which raised the question as to whether added sound is necessarily required.

Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue, and as a result, the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, both launched in December 2010, as well as the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid launched in 2011 launched in 2012, include electric warning sounds to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence. As of January 2014, most of the hybrids and plug-in electric and hybrids available in the United States, Japan and Europe make warning noises using a speaker system. The Tesla Model S is one of the few electric cars without warning sounds, because Tesla Motors will await until regulations are enacted. Volkswagen and BMW also decided to add artificial sounds to their electric drive cars only when required by regulation.

The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near-silent vehicles in January 2010. In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010. The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound. A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in January, 2013. It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18.6 miles per hour (30 km/h) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises. According to the NHTSA proposal carmakers would be able to pick the sounds the vehicles make from a range of choices, and similar vehicles would have to make the same sounds. The rules were scheduled to go into effect in September 2014. However, in January 2015 the NHTSA rescheduled the date for a final ruling to the end of 2015. Since the regulation comes into force three years after being rendered as a final rule, compliance was delayed to 2018.

On 6 February 2013, the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten noise limits for cars to protect public health, and also to add alerting sounds to ensure the audibility of hybrid and electric vehicles to improve the safety of vulnerable road users in urban areas, such as blind, visually and auditorily challenged pedestrians, cyclists and children. The draft legislation states a number of tests, standards and measures that must first be developed for an Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS) to be compulsory in the future. The approved amendment establishes that the sound to be generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound and should be easily indicative of vehicle behavior and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine." In April 2014 the European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of the AVAS for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles and car manufacturers have to comply within 5 years.

Risks of battery fire

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents

Frontal crash test of a Volvo C30 DRIVe Electric to assess the safety of the battery pack.

Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion. To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range. When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium-ion batteries. Reports of exploding cellphones have been reported in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions. Also, during the Boeing 787 Dreamliner's first year of service, at least four aircraft suffered from electrical system problems stemming from its lithium-ion batteries, resulting in the whole Dreamliner fleet being voluntarily grounded in January 2013.

Several plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles in 2008. Most of them have been thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium-ion batteries and have involved the Zotye M300 EV, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, BYD e6, Dodge Ram 1500 Plug-in Hybrid, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Outlander P-HEV. As of November 2013, four fires after a crash have been reported associated with the batteries of all-electric cars involving a BYD e6 and three Tesla Model S cars.

The first modern crash-related fire was reported in China in May 2012, after a high-speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen. The second reported incident occurred in the United States in October 1, 2013, when a Tesla Model S caught fire after the electric car hit metal debris on a highway in Kent, Washington state, and the debris punctured one of 16 modules within the battery pack. A second reported fire occurred on October 18, 2013 in Merida, Mexico. In this case the vehicle was being driven at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a tree. On November 6, 2013, a Tesla Model S being driven on Interstate 24 near Murfreesboro, Tennessee caught fire after it struck a tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneath the vehicle.

The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is conducting a study due in 2014 to establish whether lithium-ion batteries in plug-electric vehicles pose a potential fire hazard. The research is looking at whether the high-voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged and when the vehicles are involved in an accident. Both General Motors and Nissan have published a guide for firefighters and first responders to properly handle a crashed plug-in electric-drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems.

Rare earth metals availability and supply security

Common technology for plug-ins and electric cars is based on the lithium-ion battery and an electric motor which uses rare earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals, and other specific elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term. As of 2011, the Toyota Prius battery contains more than 20 lb (9.1 kg) of the rare earth element lanthanum, and its motor magnets use neodymium and dysprosium. While only 0.25 oz (7 g) of lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE) are required in a smartphone and 1.1 oz (30 g) in a tablet computer, electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems for homes, businesses or industry use much more lithium in their batteries. As of 2016 a hybrid electric passenger car might use 11 lb (5 kg) of LCE, while one of Tesla's high performance electric cars could use as much as 180 lb (80 kg).

Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.

Lithium

The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world.

The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina, and Australia. In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.

Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia, and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium. Other important reserves are located in Chile, China, and Brazil. Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves. Already the Japanese and South Korean governments, as well as companies from these two countries and France, have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining and industrialization model suitable to Bolivian interests.

According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries could be built with current reserves, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey. Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread use of hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. The study estimated global lithium reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed at 12-20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.

A 2016 study by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) found that availability of lithium and other finite materials used in the battery packs will not be a limiting factor for the adoption of electric vehicles. BNEF estimated that battery packs will require less than 1% of the known reserves of lithium, nickel, manganese, and copper through 2030, and 4% of the world’s cobalt. After 2030, the study states that new battery chemistries will probably shift to other source materials, making packs lighter, smaller, and cheaper.

Rare earth elements

China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare earth elements, the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare earth production, but since the mid-1990s China has controlled the world market for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou, Inner Mongolia, are currently the largest source of rare earth metals and are 80% of China's production. In 2010 China accounted for 97% of the global production of 17 rare earth elements. Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5% to 10% a year.

Prices of several rare earth elements increased sharply by mid-2010 as China imposed a 40% export reduction, citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions. These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths. However, the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare earth mining projects around the world, including the United States, Australia, Vietnam, and Kazakhstan.

Evolution of global rare earth oxides production by country (1950-2000)

In September 2010, China temporarily blocked all exports of rare earths to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries. These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles, thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply. A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies. China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25%, and also extended taxes to exports of some rare earth alloys that were not taxed before. The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011, which represent a 35% reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010.

On September 29, 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 (H.R.6160). The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare earth elements, and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy (US DoE) to discover and develop rare earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry's near-complete dependence on China for the minerals. A similar bill, the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 (S. 3521), is being discussed in the U.S. Senate.

In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals, Toyota Motor Corporation announced in January 2011 that it is developing an alternative motor for future hybrid and electric cars that does not need rare earth materials. Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet-type motor used in the Prius, which uses two rare earths in its motor magnets. Other popular hybrids and plug-in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf, the Chevrolet Volt and Honda Insight. For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012, Toyota is using an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors that does not require rare earth materials. The Tesla Roadster and the Tesla Model S use a similar motor.

Car dealers reluctance to sell

With the exception of Tesla Motors, almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships, so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase. Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales. As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.

Car dealerships play a crucial role in the sales of plug-in electric vehicles. Shown a dealership exhibiting first generation Chevrolet Volts.

There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline-powered car. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. However, a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance. According to the New York Times, BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic and informed, but only about 10% of dealers are knowledgeable on the new technology.

A study conducted at the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS), at the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) published in 2014 found that many car dealers are less than enthusiastic about plug-in vehicles. ITS conducted 43 interviews with six automakers and 20 new car dealers selling plug-in vehicles in California’s major metro markets. The study also analyzed national and state-level J.D. Power 2013 Sales Satisfaction Index (SSI) study data on customer satisfaction with new car dealerships and Tesla retail stores. The researchers found that buyers of plug-in electric vehicles were significantly less satisfied and rated the dealer purchase experience much lower than buyers of non-premium conventional cars, while Tesla Motors earned industry-high scores. According to the findings, plug-in buyers expect more from dealers than conventional buyers, including product knowledge and support that extends beyond traditional offerings.

In 2014 Consumer Reports published results from a survey conducted with 19 secret shoppers that went to 85 dealerships in four states, making anonymous visits between December 2013 and March 2014. The secret shoppers asked a number of specific questions about cars to test the salespeople’s knowledge about electric cars. The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug-in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline-powered models. The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales; a few outright discouraged it, and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug-in model despite having one in stock. And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric-car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs. Consumer Reports also found that when it came to answering basic questions, sales people at Chevrolet, Ford, and Nissan dealerships tended to be better informed than those at Honda and Toyota. The survey found that most of the Toyota dealerships visited recommended against buying a Prius Plug-in and suggested buying a standard Prius hybrid instead. Overall, the secret shoppers reported that only 13 dealers “discouraged sale of EV,” with seven of them being in New York. However, at 35 of the 85 dealerships visited, the secret shoppers said sales people recommended buying a gasoline-powered car instead.

The ITS-Davis study also found that a small but influential minority of dealers have introduced new approaches to better meet the needs of plug-in customers. Examples include marketing carpool lane stickers, enrolling buyers in charging networks, and preparing incentive paperwork for customers. Some dealers assign seasoned sales people as plug-in experts, many of whom drive plug-ins themselves to learn and be familiar with the technology and relate the car’s benefits to potential buyers. The study concluded also that carmakers could do much more to support dealers selling PEVs.

Government incentives

Main article: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles

Several national and local governments around the world have established tax credits, grants and other financial and non-financial incentives for consumers to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle as a policy to promote the introduction and mass market adoption of this type of vehicles.

Asia

The Nissan Leaf electric car is eligible for government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles in Japan, the United States and several European countries.

Japan

In May 2009 the Japanese Diet passed the "Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure" that went into effect on June 19, 2009, but retroactive to April 10, 2009. The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly and fuel efficient vehicles, according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria, and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles. The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases, consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade-in (non-replacement program), and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier (scrappage program).

China

On June 1, 2010, The Chinese government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60,000 yuan (~US$8,785) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicles and 50,000 yuan (~US$7,320) for plug-in hybrids in five cities.

Europe

As of April 2010, 17 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs and hybrid vehicles. In the UK the Plug-in Car Grant scheme provides a 25% incentive towards the cost of new plug-in electric cars that qualify as ultra-low carbon vehicles, but the benefit is capped at £5,000 (US$7,800). Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for the government grant.

North America

United States

See also: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S.

See also: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles in California

In the United States the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric vehicles. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new PEVs.

The federal tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 5 kWh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $5,000. Therefore, the total amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $7,500. Several states have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEVs and PHEV, and other non-monetary incentives.

Fleet of Chevrolet Volts at a solar-powered charging station in Toronto. The plug-in hybrid is eligible for rebates or tax credits in the United States, the UK, several European countries and several Canadian provinces.

President Barack Obama set the goal of bringing 1 million plug-in electric vehicles on the road by 2015. However, considering the actual slow rate of PEV sales, as of mid-2012 several industry observers have concluded that this goal is unattainable. In September 2014 Governor of California Jerry Brown signed a bill, the Charge Ahead California Initiative, that sets a goal of placing at least 1 million zero-emission vehicles and near-zero-emission vehicles on the road in California by January 1, 2023.

Canada

See also: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles in Canada

Ontario established a rebate between CA$5,000 to CA$8,500 (~US$4,900 to US$8,320), depending on battery size, for purchasing or leasing a new plug-in electric vehicle after July 1, 2010. The rebates are available to the first 10,000 applicants who qualify.

Quebec offers rebates of up to CA$8,500 (US$8,485) from January 1, 2012, for the purchase of new plug-in electric vehicles equipped with a minimum of 4 kWh battery, and new hybrid electric vehicles are eligible for a CA$1,000 rebate. All-electric vehicles with high-capacity battery packs are eligible for the full C$8,000 rebate, and incentives are reduced for low-range electric cars and plug-in hybrids.

Production plug-in electric vehicles available

See also: List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles and electric car use by country

The General Motors EV1 was the first mass-produced and purpose-designed all-electric car of the modern era from a major automaker.

During the 1990s several highway-capable plug-in electric cars were produced in limited quantities, all were battery electric vehicles, and they were available through leasing mainly in California. Popular models included the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV. Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today. In the late 2000s began a new wave of mass production plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks. However, as of 2011, most electric vehicles in the world roads were low-speed, low-range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) or electric quadricycles. Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011. Just in China, a total of 200,000 low-speed small electric cars were sold in 2013, most of which are powered by lead-acid batteries. As of October 2015, the GEM neighborhood electric vehicle is the market leader in North America, with global sales of more than 50,000 units since 1998.

Two plug-in electric cars, a Honda Fit EV all-electric car (left) and a Ford C-Max Energi plug-in hybrid (right), charging from an on-street public charging station in San Francisco.

As of August 2015, there were almost 70 models of highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and light-utility vans available mainly in world, with 45 different plug-in electric passenger car models offered in Europe, 20 available in North America, 19 in China, 14 in Japan, and 7 in Australia. There are also available several commercial models of plug-in motorcycles and all-electric buses and trucks.

As of December 2015, the Renault-Nissan Alliance is the leading electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of 302,000 all-electric vehicles delivered since December 2010, representing about half of the global light-duty all-electric market segment. Mitsubishi Motors ranks second, with global sales of about 135,000 plug-in electric vehicles since 2009 through December 2015, consisting of all-electric cars of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV family, all-electric Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV utility vans and trucks, and the plug-in hybrid Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV. Ranking third is General Motors with combined global sales since December 2010 of almost 113,000 vehicles through December 2015, consisting of over 106,000 plug-in hybrids of the Volt/Ampera family, over 4,300 Chevrolet Spark EVs, and over 2,400 Cadillac ELRs. Next is Tesla Motors with over 109,800 electric cars sold between 2008 and December 2015.

BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with around 60,000 units sold, followed by Tesla Motors, with 50,580 units sold in 2015.

Sales and main markets

Detroit Electric car charging in 1919. During the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at about 30,000 vehicles.

By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales milestone. When global sales are broken down by type of powertrain, all-electric cars have oversold plug-in hybrids, with the pure electrics capturing 62% of global sales as of September 2015. Between 2007 and 2010, only 11,768 plug-in electric vehicles were sold worldwide. By comparison, during the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles.

After the introduction of the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt in December 2010, the first mass-production plug-in cars by major carmakers, PEV sales jumped in 2011 to 45,000 units, increased to 119,300 in 2012, and reached 206,000 plug-in electric cars and utility vans in 2013. Sales rose to over 300,000 units in 2014, up about 50% from 2013. Global sales of highway capable light-duty plug-in electric vehicles reached about 520,000 units in 2015, up about 70% from 2014, and cumulative global sales reached 1,235,000 plug-in cars and utility vans. Despite their rapid growth, by the end of 2015 plug-in electric cars represented just 0.1% of the one billion cars on the world's roads.

In 2015 Europe and China passed the U.S. as the largest plug-in electric car markets in terms of total annual sales, with China ranking as the world's best-selling plug-in electric passenger car country market in 2015. JATO Dynamics, based on LMC Automotive’s forecasts, estimates the global market is expected to reach sales in excess of 700,000 units in 2016 due to strong growth in China, Europe and the United States. Research published by Bloomberg New Energy Finance in February 2016 predicts that as battery prices continue to fall, light-duty electric vehicles without govenrment subsidies will be as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by the mid-2020s. As a result, the study forecasts that annual sales of electric vehicles will hit 41 million by 2040, representing 35% of new light duty vehicle sales. In another scenario the study considers that if new carsharing services are successful, together with the adoption of autonomous cars, they could boost electric-vehicle market share to 50% of new car saless by 2040. On the other hand, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in its 2015 World Oil Outlook projected that the market share of battery electric cars and fuel cell cars will remain below 1% in 2040, while the share of hybrid electric cars is projected to grow from 1% in 2013 to 14% in 2040.

Cumulative sales of new PEVs are doing better than sales of HEVs in the U.S. over their respective 24 month introductory periods.

As of December 2015, cumulative sales by country are led by the United States with about 410,000 highway legal plug-in electric cars delivered since 2008, representing 33% of global sales, followed by China with over 258,000 light-duty units sold since 2011 (21%). Japan ranks third with about 130,000 plug-in units sold since 2009 (10%). As of December 2015, over 419,000 plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe, making the continent the world's largest plug-in segment regional market. As of December 2015, European sales in the light-duty plug-in electric segment, which includes utility vans, are led by the Netherlands with 88,991 units registered, followed by Norway with 77,897, and France with 74,291 registered since 2010. Other top selling countries are the UK with almost 54,000 plug-in cars registered, Germany with about 50,000 cars registered through December 2015. As of August 2015, other top selling countries were Canada with 14,429 plug-in cars sold since 2011 and Sweden with 12,786. In the heavy-duty segment, China is the world's leader, with over 65,000 buses and sanitation trucks sold through August 2015.

Sales of series production PEVs during its first two years in the global market have been lower than initially expected in all countries. However, an analysis by Scientific American found that at the international level and considering the global top selling PEVs over a 36-month introductory period, monthly sales of the Volt, Prius PHV and Leaf are performing better than the conventional Prius during their respective introductory periods, with the exception of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, which has been outsold most of the time by the Prius HEV over their 36-month introductory periods. A similar trend was found by the U.S. Department of Energy for the American market. Combined sales of plug-in hybrids and battery electric cars are climbing more rapidly and outselling by more than double sales of hybrid-electric vehicles over their respective 24 month introductory periods, as shown in the graph at the left.

During 2014, four of the ten top selling countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1% of new car sales, Norway (13.84%), the Netherlands (3.87%), Sweden (1.53%), and Japan (1.06%). Also two small countries achieved this mark in 2014, Iceland (2.71%) and Estonia (1.57%). In 2015 nine countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share equal or higher than 1% of total new car sales, up from six in 2014. The nine countries are Norway (22.39%), the Netherlands (9.74%), Hong Kong (4.84%), Iceland (2.93%), Sweden (2.62%), Denmark (2.29%), Switzerland (1.98%), France (1.2%), and the UK (1.1%). In 2015 the European plug-in passenger car market share passed the one percent mark (1.41%) for the first time.

The following table presents the top 10 countries according to their PEV market share of total new car sales between 2015 and 2013. The market share for two selected regions, Europe and California, is also shown.

Top 10 countries by plug-in electric passenger car market share of total new car sales between 2015 and 2013
Rank	Country	Market share (%) 2015	Rank	Country	Market share (%) 2014	Rank	Country	Market share (%) 2013
1	Norway	22.39 %	1	Norway	13.84 %	1	Norway	6.10 %
2	Netherlands	9,74 %	2	Netherlands	3.87 %	2	Netherlands	5.55 %
3	Hong Kong	4.84 %	3	Iceland	2.71 %	3	Iceland	0.94 %
4	Iceland	2.93 %	4	Estonia	1.57 %	4	Japan	0.91 %
5	Sweden	2.62 %	5	Sweden	1.53 %	5	France(2)	0.83 %
6	Denmark	2.29 %	6	Japan	1.06 %	6	Estonia	0.73 %
7	Switzerland	1.98 %	7	Denmark	0.88 %	7	Sweden	0.71 %
8	France	1.19 %	8	Switzerland	0.75 %	8	US	0.60 %
9	United Kingdom	1.07 %	9	US	0.72 %	9	Switzerland	0.44 %
10	China	0.84 %	10	France(2)	0.70 %	10	Denmark	0.29 %
Selected regional markets Plug-in electric passenger car market share between 2015 and 2013
	California	3.1 %		California	3.2 %		California	2.5 %
	Europe(1)	1.41 %		Europe(1)	0.66 %		Europe(1)	0.49 %
Notes: (1) European figures correspond to European Union member countries plus EFTA countries (Norway and Switzerland) 2) The French market share corresponds to combined sales all-electric passenger cars and utility vans only (plug-in hybrids not included).

United States

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States

U.S. plug-in electric vehicle cumulative sales by month by type of powertrain from December 2010 up to December 2015.

As of December 2015, the United States has the largest fleet of highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles in the world, with about 410,000 highway legal plug-in electric cars sold since the market launch of the Tesla Roadster in 2008, representing 33% of the global stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles. California is the country's largest regional market with 191,650 plug-in electric vehicles delivered between December 2010 and December 2015, representing 47.3% of all plug-in cars sold in American market since 2010. As of mid 2013, 52% of American plug-in electric car registrations were concentrated in five metropolitan areas: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle, New York, and Atlanta.

Nationwide sales climbed from 17,800 units delivered in 2011 to 53,200 during 2012, and reached 97,100 in 2013, up 83% from the previous year. Cumulative plug-in electric car sales since 2008 reached the 250,000 unit milestone in August 2014. During 2014 plug-in electric car sales totaled 123,208 units, up 27.2% from 2013. About 115,000 plug-in electric cars were sold in 2015, down 6.5% from 2014. December 2015 is the best monthly plug-in sales volume on record ever, with over 13,000 units delivered. The previous record month was May 2014, with over 12,000 units delivered.

The market share of plug-in electric passenger cars increased from 0.14% of new car sales in 2011 to 0.37% in 2012, 0.62% in 2013, and reached 0.75% of new car sales during 2014. As plug-in car sales slowed down during 2015, the segment's market share fell to 0.66% of new car sales, with the all-electric segment up to 0.42% from 0.41% in 2014, while plug-in hybrids declined to 0.25 from 0.34% in 2014. In 2015, California plug-in sales achieved a 3.1% market share, 4.7 times higher than the U.S., and its plug-in market share was surpassed only by two countries, Norway (22.4%) and the Netherlands (9.7%). October 2013 achieved the best-ever market share for plug-in vehicle sales in the U.S. at 0.85% of new car sales.

The Chevrolet Volt is the top selling plug-in hybrid car in the United States, with 88,750 units sold through December 2015.

As of December 2014, cumulative sales of plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S. since December 2010 were led by plug-in hybrids, with 150,946 units sold representing 52.7% of all plug-in car sales, while 135,444 all-electric cars (47.3%) have been delivered to retail customers. This trend was reversed in 2015, as the all-electric segment grew much faster, with a total of 72,303 all-electric cars sold, up 6.6% year-on-year, while plug-in hybrid were down 22.4% year-on-year, with 42,959 units sold. As of December 2015, a total of 206,508 all-electric cars and 193,904 plug-in hybrids have been sold in the U.S. since 2010, with all-electrics representing 51.6% of cumulative sales.

As of December 2015, plug-in electric car sales are led by the Nissan Leaf all-electric car with 89,591 units, followed by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid with 88,750 units. The Leaf passed the Chevrolet Volt as the top selling PEV in March 2015. Both plug-in cars were released in December 2010. Launched in the U.S. market in June 2012, the Tesla Model S ranks as the third top selling plug-in electric car with 63,161 units, followed by the Prius PHV, launched in February 2012, with 42,293 units. Ranking fifth is the Ford Fusion Energi with 27,389 units, followed closely by the Ford C-Max Energi with 25,552 units.

Plug-in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 30,200 units, followed the Volt with 18,805, the Model S with 16,689 units, the Prius PHEV with 13,264 units, and the Fusion Energi with 11,550 units. The Tesla Model S, with 25,202 units delivered, was the top selling plug-in car in the U.S., followed by the Nissan Leaf with 17,269 units, the Volt with 15,393, and the BMW i3 with 11,024.

China

Further information: New energy vehicles in China

Sales of domestically produced new energy vehicles in China by year between 2011 and 2015.

New energy vehicle sales between January 2011 and December 2015 totaled 444,447 units, of which, over 90% were sold during the last two years, with 331,092 units (74.5%) in 2015, and 74,763 (16.8%) in 2014. These figures include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such buses and sanitation trucks. These figures only include vehicles manufactured in the country as imports are not subject to government subsidies. The Chinese stock of plug-in electric vehicles consist of 324,088 all-electric vehicles (72.9%) and 120,359 plug-in hybrids (27.1%).

As of December 2014, a total of 83,198 plug-in electric passenger cars had been registered in the country since 2008. With 176,627 plug-in passenger cars sold in 2015, China passed the U.S., the top selling country in 2014, and became the world's best-selling plug-in electric car country market in 2015. As of December 2015, in terms of light-duty plug-in electric car stock, China ranks second after the United States, with cumulative sales of 258,328 plug-in cars, representing 21% of the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars.

All-electric buses account for a significant share of the Chinese stock of new energy vehicles. Shown a BYD K9 bus in Shenzhen.

As of December 2015, China is the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric buses, plug-in trucks, particularly sanitation/garbage trucks. Over 160,000 heavy-duty new energy vehicles have been sold between 2011 and 2015, of which, 123,710 (77.2%) were sold in 2015. Sales of commercial new energy vehicles in 2015 consisted of 100,763 all-electric vehicles (81.5%)and 22,947 plug-in hybrid vehicles (18.5%). The share of all-electric bus sales in the Chinese bus market climbed from 2% in 2010 to 9.9% in 2012, and was expected to be closed to 20% for 2013. As of December 2014, China had about 36,500 all-electric buses. As of December 2015, China is the world's largest electric bus market, and by 2020, the country is expected to account for more than 50% of the global electric bus market.

A total of 8,159 new energy vehicles were sold in China during 2011, including passenger cars (61%) and buses (28%). Of these, 5,579 units were all-electric vehicles and 2,580 plug-in hybrids. Electric vehicle sales represented 0.04% of total new car sales in 2011. Sales of new energy vehicles in 2012 reached 12,791 units, which includes 11,375 all-electric vehicles and 1,416 plug-in hybrids. New energy vehicle sales in 2012 represented 0.07% of the country's total new car sales. During 2013 new energy vehicle sales totaled 17,642 units, up 37.9% from 2012 and representing 0.08% of the nearly 22 million new car sold in the country in 2013. Deliveries included 14,604 pure electric vehicles and 3,038 plug-in hybrids. The QQ3 EV was the top selling new energy car in China between 2011 and 2013, with 2,167 units sold in 2011, 3,129 in 2012, and 5,727 in 2013. Cumulative sales since January 2011 through March 2014 reached 13,039 units.

Since 2014 the BYD Qin is the all-time top selling new energy passenger vehicle in China, with cumulative sales of 46,787 units through December 2015.

New energy vehicle sales during 2014 reached 74,763 units, up 320% from 2013, and representing a market share of 0.32% of the 23.5 million new car sales sold in the country that year. Of these, 71% were passenger cars, 27% buses, and 1% trucks. A total of 45,048 all-electric vehicles were sold in 2014, up 210% from a year earlier, and 29,715 plug-in hybrids, up 880% from 2013. The BYD Qin plug-in hybrid, introduced in December 2013, ranked as the top selling plug-in electric car in China in 2014 with 14,747 units sold, and became the country's top selling passenger NEV ever. The Qin was followed by the all-electrics Zotye Zhidou E20, with 7,341 units, and BAIC E150 EV, with 5,234.

Domestically produced new energy vehicle sales in 2015 totaled a record 331,092 units, consisting of 247,482 all-electric vehicles and 83,610 plug-in hybrid vehicles, up 449% and 191% from 2014, respectively. Sales of plug-in passenger cars, excluding imports, totaled 176,627 units in 2015, allowing China to rank as the world's best-selling plug-in electric car country market in 2015. The plug-in electric passenger car segment market share rose to 0.84% in 2015, up from 0.25% in 2014. The top selling passenger models in 2015 were the BYD Qin plug-in hybrid with 31,898 units sold, followed by the BYD Tang (18,375), and the all-electrics Kandi EV (16,736), BAIC E150/160/200 EV (16,488), and the Zotye Z100 EV (15,467).

As of December 2015, the BYD Qin continues to rank as the all-time top selling plug-in passenger car in the country, with cumulative sales of 46,787 units since its introduction. The BYD Qin was the world's second best selling plug-in hybrid car in 2015 after the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, and also ranked fifth among the world's top selling plug-in electric cars in 2015. As a reflexion of the explosive growth of the Chinese plug-in electric car market in 2015, BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with around 60,000 units sold, ahead of Tesla Motors (50,580).

Japan

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in Japan

As of June 2015, the Nissan Leaf is the top selling plug-in electric car in Japan, with about 53,500 units sold since December 2010.

As of December 2015, the stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Japan is the third largest in the world after the United States and China, with about 130,000 highway legal plug-in electric vehicles sold in the country since 2009. During 2012, global sales of pure electric cars were led by Japan with a 28% market share of total sales, followed by the United States with a 26% share. Japan ranked second after the U.S. in terms of its share of plug-in hybrid sales in 2012, with a 12% of global sales. A total of 30.587 highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles were sold in Japan in 2013. In 2014 the segment sales remained flat with 30,390 units sold, and a market share of 1.06% of total new car sales in the country (kei cars not included).

As of December 2014, the Nissan Leaf is the market leader with 48,641 units sold since December 2010, followed by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with 19,672 units sold since January 2013. The Prius PHV has sold 19,100 units between January 2012 and September 2014, and the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, launched for fleet customers in Japan in late July 2009, with cumulative sales of 10,423 i-MiEVs through September 2014. Combined sales of the van and truck version of the Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV reached 6,291 units through December 2014. Other models available in Japan are the Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Tesla Model S, BMW i3, BMW i8, and the Nissan e-NV200, but official sales figures are not available.

During 2013 sales were led by the Nissan Leaf with 13,021 units, followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 9,608 units. The Leaf continued as the market leader in 2014 with 14,177 units sold, followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 10,064 units, together representing about 80% of the plug-in segment sales in Japan in 2014 (30,390).

Europe

For more details of European and other countries, see electric car use by country.

Annual sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Europe by type of powertrain (2011-2014)
Year	Total BEV sales(1)	Growth (BEVs)	Total PHEV sales	Growth (PHEVs)	Total PEV sales(2)	Growth (PEVs)	PEV market share(3)
2010	2,919	-	0	-	2,919	-	0.01%
2011	13,779	372.0%	304	-	14,083	382.5%	0.08%
2012	24,713	79.4%	9,620	3,064%	34,333	143.8%	0.23%
2013	40,496	63.9%	31,447	226.9%	71,943	109.5%	0.53%
2014	65,199	61.0%	39,547	25,8%	104,746	45.6%	0.75%
Total	147,106	-	80,918	-	228,024	-	-
Notes: (1) Battery electric vehicles (BEV) includes all-electric passenger cars and utility vans. (2) Includes all-electric passenger cars, all-electric utility vans, and plug-in hybrids. (3) Market share of the plug-in passenger segment of total new car sales (utility vans not included).

Over 419,000 highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe through December 2015, of which, 186,170 units (44.4%) were registered in 2015. European sales in the light-duty plug-in electric segment, which includes utility vans, are led by the Netherlands with almost 90,000 units registered at the end of 2015.. Almost 25% of the European stock is on the roads in the Nordic countries, with over 100,000 registered plug-in electric cars as of December 2015. Combined registrations in the four countries in 2015 were up 91% from 2014.

A total of 1,614 all-electric cars and 1,305 light-utility vehicles were sold in 2010. Sales jumped from 2,919 units in 2010 to 13,779 in 2011, consisting of 11,271 pure electric cars and 2,508 commercial vans. In addition, over 300 plug-in hybrids were sold in 2011, mainly Opel Amperas. Light-duty plug-in vehicle sales totaled 34,333 units in 2012, consisting of 24,713 all-electric cars and vans, and 9,620 plug-in hybrids. The plug-in segment sales more than double to 71,943 units in 2013. Pure electric passenger and light commercial vehicles sales increased by 63.9% to 40,496 units. In addition, a total of 31,477 extended-range cars and plug-in hybrids were sold in 2013. Registrations reached 104,746 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in 2014, up 45.6% from 2013. A total of 65,199 pure electric cars and light-utility vehicles were registered in Europe in 2014, up 60.9% from 2013. All-electric passenger cars represented 87% of the European all-electric segment registrations. Extended-range cars and plug-in hybrid registrations totaled 39,547 units in 2014, up 25.8% from 2013.

During 2013 took place a surge in sales of plug-in hybrids in the European market, particularly in the Netherlands, with 20,164 PHEVs registered during the year. Out of the 71,943 highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans sold in the region during 2013, plug-in hybrids totaled 31,447 units, representing 44% of the plug-in electric vehicle segment sales that year. This trend continued in 2014. Plug-in hybrids represented almost 30% of the plug-in electric drive sales during the first six months of 2014, and with the exception of the Nissan Leaf, sales of the previous best selling models fell significantly, while recently introduced models captured a significant share of the segment sales, with the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Tesla Model S, BMW i3, Renault Zoe, Volkswagen e-Up!, and the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid ranking among the top ten best selling models.

In 2014 Norway was the top selling country in the light-duty all-electric market segment, with 18,649 passenger cars and utility vans registered, more than doubling its 2013 sales. France ranked second with 15,046 units registered, followed by Germany with 8,804 units, the UK with 7,730 units, and the Netherlands with 3,585 car and vans registrations. The Netherlands was the top selling country in the plug-in hybrid segment with 12,425 passenger cars registered, followed by the UK with 7,821, Germany with 4,527, and Sweden 3,432 units.

The Opel/Vauxhall Ampera plug-in hybrid was Europe's top selling plug-in electric car in 2012 with 5,268 units, closely followed by the all-electric Nissan Leaf with 5,210 units. In 2013 the top selling plug-in was the Leaf with 11,120 units sold, followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 8,197 units. The Mitsubishi Outlander plug-in hybrid was the top selling plug-in electric vehicle in Europe in 2014 with 19,980 units sold, surpassing of the Nissan Leaf (14,658), which fell to second place. Ranking third was the Renault Zoe with 11,231 units, followed by the Tesla Model S with 9,497 units, and the BMW i3 with 8,290 units registered, including the REx variant.

As of December 2014, and accounting for cumulative sales since 2010, the Leaf is the top selling plug-in electric car in the region with 33,481 new units delivered, followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 28,177 units, Renault Zoe with 20,091 units, Renault Kangoo Z.E. all-electric utility van with 16,688 units, and Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid with 13,597 units, closely followed by the Tesla Model S with about 13,400 units sold.

Top 10 selling plug-in electric car models in Europe (as of December 2014)
Ranking	Model	Total sales	2014	2013	2012	2011	Ranking	Model	Total sales	2014	2013	2012	2011
1	Nissan Leaf	33,481	14,658	11,120	5,210	1,728	6	Tesla Model S	13,397	9,497	~3,900
2	Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV	28,177	19,980	8,197			7	BMW i3	9,767	8,290	1,477
3	Renault Zoe	20,091	11,231	8,792	68		8	Opel Ampera	9,695	939	3,184	5,268	304
4	Renault Kangoo Z.E.	16,688	4,197	5,850	5,260	991	9	Toyota Prius PHV	9,423	1,352	4,591	3,496
5	Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid	13,549	5,441	8,066	42		10	Smart electric drive	7,464	2,726	3,017	1,721(1)
Notes: (1) Total Smart fortwo ED sales from 2010 through October 2012.

As of December 2012, the leading countries in terms of EV penetration of the total auto fleet were Norway with four electric car per 1,000 automobiles registered in the country, Estonia with one electric car for every 1,000 cars, and the Netherlands with 0.6 electric cars per 1,000 registered cars. During 2013 Norway kept the leadership in market penetration with 20,486 plug-in electric vehicles registered out of 2.49 million passenger cars registered in the country through December 2013, representing an EV penetration of 8.2 plug-in electric cars per 1,000 cars registered. In March 2014 Norway became the first country with a market penetration of 10 plug-in electric cars for every 1,000 registered passenger cars (1%).

During 2013 the plug-in electric-drive segment market share of new car sales in the top selling PEV markets increased significantly. Norway reached 5.6% of new car sales, the Netherlands 5.37%, Sweden 0.57% and France 0.49%. When all-electric utility vans are accounted for, the French market EV share climbs to 0.65%. Five European countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1% of new car sales in 2014, Norway (13.84%), the Netherlands (3.87%), Iceland (2.71%), Estonia (1.57%), and Sweden (1.53%). The following table presents the EV market share in 20 selected European countries for the combined registrations during 2011 and 2012:

Plug-in electric car market share in 20 selected European countries (Total registrations during 2011 and 2012)
Ranking	Country	PEV market share(1) (%)	PEVs registered 2011-12(1)	Total vehicle registrations	Ranking	Country	PEV market share(1) (%)	PEVs registered 2011-12(1)	Total vehicle registrations
1	Norway	2.275%	6,287	276,312	11	Czech Republic	0.146%	507	347,291
2	Estonia	1.723%	562	32,617	12	Slovakia	0.110%	156	142,099
3	Portugal	0.905%	2,250	248,713	13	Belgium	0.108%	1,148	1,058,948
4	Austria	0.711%	4,924	692,155	14	Germany	0.105%	6,553	6,256,138
5	Netherlands	0.570%	6,030	1,058,390	15	United Kingdom	0.084%	3,342	3,985,862
6	Poland	0.2980%	1,640	551,016	16	Spain	0.057%	863	1,507,640
7	Denmark	0.290%	987	340,799	17	Latvia	0.051%	13	25,636
8	Switzerland	0.227%	1,472	647,097	18	Bulgaria	0.036%	14	38,541
9	France	0.219%	8,989	4,102,989	19	Hungary	0.035%	34	98,162
10	Sweden	0.193%	1,128	584,883	20	Greece	0.001%	2	156,164
Note (1) Market penetration of highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars, only includes pure electric cars and plug-in hybrids.

Netherlands

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in the Netherlands

Registration of highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles in the Netherlands by year between 2010 and 2015.

As of December 2015, a total of 88,991 highway legal plug-in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands, consisting of 78,163 range-extended and plug-in hybrids, 9,368 pure electric cars, and 1,460 all-electric light utility vans. When buses, trucks, motorcycles, quadricycles and tricycles are accounted for, the Dutch plug-in electric-drive fleet climbs to 90,275 units. The country's electric vehicle stock reaches 122,563 units when mopeds (3,610), electric bicycles (28,459), and microcars (219) are accounted for. As of December 2015, the Netherlands has Europe's largest fleet light-duty plug-in vehicles and has the world's fourth largest stock after the U.S., China and Japan. With 43,971 plug-in passenger cars and utility vans registered in 2015, the Netherlands was the world's third best-selling country market for light-duty plug-in vehicles in 2015.

The Netherlands is also among the country's with the highest EV market penetration in the world. Registrations of plug-in electric car represented a 0.57% share of total new car registrations in the country during 2011 and 2012. During 2013 plug-in electric passenger car registrations totaled 22,415 units, climbing 338% from 2012, the highest rate of growth of any country in the world in 2013. The segment's market share surged almost ten times from 2012 to 5.37% new car sales in the country during that year, the world's second highest in 2013 after Norway (5.6%). The rapid growth of segment during 2013, allowed the Netherlands to reach a market penetration for plug-in vehicles of around 1.71 vehicles per 1,000 people, second only to Norway (4.04). The market share of the plug-in electric passenger car segment in 2014 fell to 3.86% of total new passenger car registrations, after the end of some of the tax incentives. With 43,769 plug-in passenger cars registered in 2015, the segment market share rose to a record 9.7% of new car sales in the Dutch market in 2015, the second highest after Norway (22.4%).

As of December 2015, the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is the top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the Netherlands ever, with 24,506 units registered.

In November 2013, a total of 2,736 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs were sold, making the plug-in hybrid the top selling new car in the country that month, representing a market share of 6.8% of all the new cars sold. Again in December 2013, the Outlander P-HEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4,976 units, representing a 12.6% market share of new car sales, contributing to a world record plug-in vehicle market share of 23.8% of new car sales. The Netherlands is the second country, after Norway, where plug-in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales. The strong increase of plug-in car sles during the last months of 2013 was due to the end of the total exemption of the registration fee for corporate cars, which is valid for 5 years. From January 1, 2014, all-electric vehicles pay a 4% registration fee and plug-in hybrids a 7% fee.

A total of 15,678 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands in 2014, consisting of 12,425 plug-in hybrids, down 38.4% from 2013, 2,664 all-electric cars, up 18.3% from a year earlier, and 589 vans, up 236.6% from 2013. Sales in 2014 were led by the Outlander P-HEV with 7,666 units, followed by Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid with 3,126 units, and Tesla Model S with 1,465 units sold.

The top 5 best-selling plug-in electric cars in 2015 were all plug-in hybrids, led by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (8,757), followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE (8,183), Audi A3 e-tron (4,354), Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid (3,851), and Volkswagen Passat GTE (2,879). The top selling all-electric car was the Tesla Model S (1,842). Plug-in car sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2015, with about 15,900 units sold, and allowing the segment to reached a record market share of about 23%. The surge in plug-in car sales was due to reduction of the registration fees for plug-in hybrids. From January 1, 2016, all-electric vehicles continue to pay a 4% registration fee, but for a plug-in hybrid the fee rises from 7% to 15% if its CO₂ emissions do not exceed 50 g/km. The rate for a conventional internal combustion car is 25% of its book value.

As of December 2015, the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV continues as the all-time top-selling plug-in car in the country with 24,506 registered. Ranking second is the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid (14,470), followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE (8,806), Opel Ampera (4,947 units), Tesla Model S (4,832), and Audi A3 e-tron (4,657). A total of 78,163 plug-in hybrids out of 87,531 passenger plug-in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands as of 31 December 2015, meaning that plug-in hybrids dominate the Dutch market with a share of 89.3% of the country's highway legal plug-in electric car stock.

Norway

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway

Registration of plug-in electric vehicles in Norway by year between 2004 and 2015. Includes plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars and vans. Used imports are included.

As of December 2015, a total of 74,883 new plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in Norway. The goal of 50,000 all-electric cars on Norwegian roads was reached on 20 April 2015, more than two years earlier than expected by the government. Sales of used imports in Norway are significant, and as of December 2015, over 11,500 used plug-in vehicles from neighboring countries had been imported, mainly pure electric cars. Registrations of used all-electric cars totaled 2,086 units in 2013, 3,063 in 2014 and 5,122 in 2015. In addition, about 1,300 used electric cars were imported into Norway before 2013. By September 2014 most imports came from France, particularly the Nissan Leaf model. As a result, when used imports are accounted for, the Norwegian plug-in electric fleet rises to 84,401 registered plug-in electric vehicles as of December 2015, consisting of 74,024 all-electric passenger and light-duty vehicles, and 10,377 plug-in hybrids.

The Norwegian fleet of electric cars is one of the cleanest in the world because almost 100% of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydropower. Norway, with about 5.2 million people, is the country with the largest EV ownweship per capita in the world, reaching 4.0 plug-in electric vehicles per 1,000 people in 2013, a market penetration nine times higher than the U.S., the world's largest plug-in electric car market. In March 2014, Norway became the first country where over one in every 100 registered passenger cars is plug-in electric. The segment's market penetration reached 2% in March 2015, and passed 3% in December 2015.

The Norwegian plug-in electric vehicle market share of new car sales is the highest in the world, the EV segment market share rose from 1.6% in 2011, to 3.1% in 2012, and reached 5.6% of new car sales in 2013. Only the Netherlands, with 5.37% in 2013, has achieved a similar market share for the plug-in electric drive segment. The Norwegian all-electric segment increased its market share of new car sales to 12.5% in 2014. During the first quarter of 2015 the all-electric market share rose to 20.4%, while the plug-in hybrid segment reached 2.5%, for a combined PEV market share of almost 23% of all passenger cars sold during this period.

Electric cars have access to bus lanes in Norway. Shown a Nissan Leaf, the top selling plug-in electric car in the country since 2012.

Also, Norway was the first country in the world to have electric cars topping the new car sales monthly ranking. The Tesla Model S has been the top selling new car three times, twice in 2013, first in September and again in December, and one more time in March 2014. The Nissan Leaf has topped the monthly new car sales ranking twice, first in October 2013 and again in January 2014. Both the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S were listed among the Norwegian top 20 best selling new cars in 2013, with the Leaf ranking third with 4,604 units and a 3.2% market share; and the Model S ranking 20th with a 1.4% market share of new car sales in 2013. In March 2014 the Tesla Model S also broke the 28-year-old record for monthly sales of a single model regardless of its power source, with 1,493 units sold, surpassing the Ford Sierra, which sold 1,454 units in May 1986. Sales of the Model S also contributed to achieve a record market share for the new all-electric car segment of 20.3% of total new car sales that month. A new record market share of the plug-in electric vehicle segment was achieved in January, with 1,895 new all-electric cars registered reaching an 18.0% market share, plus 326 new plug-in hybrids reaching a 3.1% share, for a combined market share of 21.1% of total new car registrations that month.

Registration of new and used imports by type of plug-in electric vehicle between 2013 and 2015.

Plug-in electric vehicle registrations totaled 10,769 units in 2013, of which used imports represented 20%. This total includes 387 plug-in hybrids and 355 all-electric light commercial vans, together representing 6.9% of total 2013 car registrations in the Norwegian market. The plug-in electric drive segment in Norway grew 129% from 2012 to 2013, achieving one of the highest EV rates of growth in the world, second only to the Netherlands (338%). A total of 23,390 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in 2014, consisting of 18,094 new all-electric cars, 3,063 used imported all-electric cars, 1,678 new plug-in hybrid cars and 555 new all-electric vans. Combined sales of new and used plug-in electric vehicles captured a 13.84% market share of total passenger car registrations in 2014. Sales of the new all-electric car segment reached a market share of 12.5%. New all-electric passenger car registrations were up 129.5% from 2013, and the plug-in hybrid segment grew 411.6% from a year earlier. Norway ended 2014 as the top selling European country in the light-duty all-electric market segment, with 18,649 passenger cars and utility vans registered.

The Tesla Model S, with over 6,000 units sold as of December 2014, is Norway's second top selling plug-in electric car.

During 2013, the Leaf continued as the top selling plug-in electric car, with 4,604 new units sold during the year, which represent 58.4% of plug-in electric car sales in 2013. The Tesla Model S ranked second with 1,986 units (25.2% share), followed by the Volkswagen e-Up! with 580 units (7.4% share). In January 2014, the Leaf topped for a second time the ranking of top selling new cars in Norway, with 650 units sold, representing a 5.7% of new car sales that month. The Model S was Norway's best selling new car during the first quarter of 2014, capturing a 5.6% market share of new car sales during this period. During the first half of 2014, the Model S, with 3,136 units sold, ranked as the second best selling new car in Norway with a market share of 4.3% of new car sales. Plug-in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 4,781 new registrations, followed by Tesla Model S with 4,040 units. The Leaf ended 2014 as the third top selling new car in Norway, capturing a 3.3% market share of total new car sales in the country that year.

As of December 2014, a total of 12,056 new Leafs had been sold in the country. In addition, there were 3,626 used imported Leafs registered in the country as of 30 September 2014. With about 16,000 units registered including used imports, the Leaf ranks as the country's all-time top selling electric car, representing 39% of the country's all-electric registered fleet. The Tesla Model S, released in August 2013, ranks second with cumulative sales of 6,023 new units up until December 2014, with about 14% of the total registered plug-in electric vehicle stock.

France

Further information: Electric cars in France

Registration of highway capable plug-in electric vehicles in France by type of vehicle between 2010 and 2015.

Since January 2010, a total of 74,294 highway legal all-electric vehicles have been registered in France through December 2015. As of September 2015, the plug-in stock consisted of 39,595 passenger cars and 18,893 utility vans. Electric car registrations increased from 184 units in 2010 to 2,630 in 2011. Sales in 2012 increased 115% from 2011 to 5,663 cars, allowing France to rank 4th among the top selling EV countries, with an 11% market share of global all-electric car sales in 2012. Registrations reached 8,779 electric cars in 2013, up 55.0% from 2012, and the all-electric market share of total new car sales went up to 0.49% from 0.3% in 2012.

In addition, 5,175 electric utility vans were registered in 2013, up 42% from 2012, and representing a market share of 1.4% of all new light commercial vehicles sold in 2013. Sales of electric passenger cars and utility vans totaled 13,954 units in 2013, capturing a combined market share of 0.65 of these two segments new car sales. When sales of pure electric cars and light utility vehicles are accounted together, France was the leading the European all-electric market in 2012 and 2013.

During 2014 sales of all-electric vehicles in France passed the 10,000 unit milestone for the first time. A total of 15,045 all-electric cars and vans were registered in 2014, up 7.8% from 2013. A total of 10,560 pure electric passenger cars registered in 2014, up 20.3% from the previous year. This figure rises to 10,968 units if the BMW i3 with range extender is accounted for. All-electric utility vans continued to be a significant share of the all-electric segment, with 4,485 units registered in 2014, but down 13.3% from 2013. All-electric cars captured a 0.59% market share of the 1.7 million new car registered in France in 2014, while light-duty electric vehicles reached a 1.22% market share of their segment. Combined both segments represented a market share of 0.70% of new registrations in the country in 2014. Light-duty all-electric vehicle sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2014, with 2,227 units registered, twice the volume registered the same month in 2013. The slow down in sales that took place in the French EV market during the first half of 2014, allowed Norway, with 18,649 new all-electric vehicles registered, to end 2014 as the top selling European market in the light-duty all-electric segment, and France ranked second. A total of 14,833 light-duty all-electric vehicles were sold during the first nine months of 2015, up 48% from 2014 year-on-year.

The Renault Zoe led electric car sales in France in 2013 and 2014, and ranks as the country's best selling all-electric car ever, with over 11,500 units registered as of December 2014.

In the French market plug-in hybrids or rechargeable hybrids are classified and accounted together with conventional hybrid electric vehicles. Almost 1,500 plug-in hybrids were registered during 2012 and 2013, 666 units in 2012, and 808 units in 2013. Plug-in hybrid car registrations totaled 1,519 units in 2014, almost doubling registrations from a year earlier. Plug-in hybrid sales were driven by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, with 820 units registered in 2014, representing 54% of the segment registrations in France that year. Between 2012 and 2014, cumulative plug-in hybrid registrations totaled 2,985 units, rising cumulative French registrations of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles since 2005 to 46,590 units, just ahead of the Netherlands (45,020), and making France the European country where there are more plug-in electric vehicles on the road.

During 2012, all-electric car registrations in France were led by the Bolloré Bluecar with 1,543 units. The Renault Kangoo Z.E. was the top selling utility electric vehicle with 2,869 units registered in 2012, representing a market share of 82% of the segment. The Renault Twizy electric quadricycle, launched in March 2012, sold 2,232 units during 2012, surpassing the Bolloré Bluecar, and ranked as the second best selling plug-in electric vehicle after the Kangoo Z.E. During 2013, registrations of pure electric cars were led by the Renault Zoe with 5,511 units, representing 62.8% of total EV sales. Registrations of all-electric light utility vehicles were led by the Renault Kangoo Z.E. with 4,174 units, representing 80.7% of the segment sales.

The Zoe continued leading all-electric vehicle registration in 2014, with 5,970 units registered, followed by the Kangoo Z.E. van with 2,657 registrations, and the Nissan Leaf ranked next with 1,600 units. As of December 2014, the French leader in the all-electric segment is the Renault Zoe with 11,529 units registered since 2012, followed by the Kangoo Z.E. utility van with 10,483 units registered since 2010, the Bolloré Bluecar with 3,770 units, and the Nissan Leaf with 3,645 units. Most units of the Bluecar are in operation for the Autolib' carsharing service in Paris, and similar carsharing programs in Lyon and Bordeaux.

United Kingdom

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in the United Kingdom

Registration of plug-in electric vehicles in the UK between 2011 and December 2015.

Almost 54,000 plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in the UK up until December 2015, including plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars, and about 2,900 plug-in commercial vans. This figure includes a significant number of registered plug-in electric cars and vans which were not eligible for the grant schemes. In addition, before the introduction of series production plug-in vehicles, a total of 1,096 all-electric vehicles were registered between 2006 and December 2010. Since the launch of the Plug-in Car Grant in January 2011, a total of 49,866 eligible cars have been registered until January 2016.

Electric car sales grew from 138 units in 2010 to 1,082 units during 2011. Before 2011, the G-Wiz, a heavy quadricycle, listed as the top-selling EV for several years. During 2012, a total of 2,254 plug-in electric cars were registered in the UK. Sales in 2012 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 699 units, followed by the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid with 470. Vehicles eligible for the Plug-in Car Grant accounted for 0.1% of total new car sales in 2012. Plug-in electric car registrations totaled 3,584 units in 2013, up 59.0% from 2012. Plug-in car sales represented a 0.16% market share of new cars sold in the UK in 2013. The top selling plug-in electric car in 2013 was the Nissan Leaf, with over 1,650 units sold, and the Prius PHV ended 2013 as the top selling plug-in hybrid with 509 units.

The Nissan Leaf, with 12,433 units sold until 2015, has been the best-selling pure electric car in the UK for fourth year running.

The British market experienced a rapid growth of plug-in car sales during 2014, driven by the introduction of new models such as the BMW i3, Tesla Model S, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Renault Zoe, and Volkswagen e-Up!. Plug-in electric car registrations in the UK quadruple from 3,586 in 2013 to 14,518 units in 2014. Registrations consisted of 6,697 pure electrics and 7,821 plug-in hybrids. Total registrations in 2014 were up 305% from 2013, with all-electric cars growing 167% while plug-in hybrid registrations were up 628% from a year earlier. The plug-in electric car segment captured a 0.59% market share of new car sales in 2014, up from 0.16% in 2013. In November 2014 the passenger plug-in segment's market share passed 1% of monthly new car sales for the first time in the UK.

Since March 2015, the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV is the all-time top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the UK, with 17,045 units registered up until December 2015.

The Mitsubishi plug-in hybrid became the top selling plug-in electric vehicle in July 2014 and captured 43% of all applications to the Plug-in Car Grants scheme that month. The Outlander P-HEV ended 2014 as the top selling plug-in electric car in the UK that year with 5,370 units sold. The Nissan Leaf sales also experienced a significant growth in 2014, with 4,051 units sold, up 124% from the 1,812 units sold in 2013.

The surge in demand for plug-in cars continued during 2015. Plug-in electric car registrations in the UK totaled 28,188 units in 2015, consisting of 9,934 pure electric cars and 18,254 plug-in hybrids. Total registrations in 2015 were up 94.0% from 2014, with all-electric cars growing 48.3% year-on-year, while plug-in hybrid registrations were up 133.0% year-on-year. The plug-in electric car segment raised its market share of new car sales in 2015 to almost 1.1%, up from 0.59% in 2014. The plug-in segment reached a record market share of 1.7% of new car sales in the UK, the highest ever.

Sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV in the British market reached the 10,000 unit milestone in March 2015, allowing the plug-in hybrid to overtake the Leaf as the all-time top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the UK. Sales of the Nissan Leaf sales passed the 10,000 unit milestone in June 2015. The top selling models in 2015 were the Outlander P-HEV with 11,681 units registered, up 118% from 2014, followed by the Leaf with 5,236 units (up 29%), and the BMW i3 with 2,213 units (up 59%). As of December 2015, the Outlander P-HEV continued to rank as the top selling plug-in electric car in the UK ever, with 17,045 units registered, and the Nissan Leaf, the top selling all-electric car ever, totaled 12,433 units registered.

Germany

Further information: Plug-in electric vehicles in Germany

Annual registration of plug-in electric vehicles in Germany by type of vehicle between 2010 and 2015.

As of December 2015, there were around 50,000 plug-in electric cars registered in Germany. About 73% of the segment registrations took place during the last two years, with 13,049 units registered in 2014, and 23,464 registered in 2015. The official German definition of electric vehicles changed at the beginning of 2013, before that, official statistics only registered all-electric vehicles because plug-in hybrids were accounted together with conventional hybrids. As a result, the registrations figures for 2012 and older do not account for total new plug-in electric car registrations. As of November 2014, the country had 4,800 public charging stations.

Total plug-in electric car registrations increased from 1,558 units in 2009 to 2,307 in 2010. The total registered plug-in electric stock in 2011 increased 96.8% from 2010 to 4,541 cars, to 7,114 in 2012, and reached 12,156 registered cars on 1 January 2014. Registrations of plug-in electric drive vehicles represented a 0.028% market share of all passenger vehicles registered in Germany at the beginning of 2014. The plug-in hybrid segment in the German market in 2014 experienced an explosive growth of 226.9% year-over-year, and the overall plug-in segment increased 75.5% from a year earlier. The surge in sales continued in 2015, the plug-in hybrid segment grew 125.1% year-over-year, while the all-electric segment climbed 91.2% from the previous year.

As of December 2013, the Smart electric drive led plug-in electric car registrations in Germany with 2,952 units.

During 2011, a total of 2,154 pure electric cars were registered in the country, up from 541 units in 2010. All-electric car sales for 2011 were led by the Mitsubishi i-MiEV family with 683 i-MiEVs, 208 Peugeot iOns and 200 Citroën C-Zeros, representing 50.6% of all electric car registrations in 2011. Plug-in hybrid registrations totaled 266 units in 2011, 241 Opel Amperas and 25 Chevrolet Volts, for a total of 2,420 plug-in electric vehicles registered in 2011.

The BMW i3 led plug-in car registrations in Germany in 2014.

A total of 2,956 all-electric vehicles were registered in Germany during 2012, a 37.2% increase over 2011. When 901 registered plug-in hybrids are accounted for, 2012 registrations climb to 3,857 units, and sales of plug-in electric car represented a 0.12% market share of new passenger vehicles sold in the country in 2012. Most sales in the country were made by corporate and fleet customers and 1,493 all-electric vehicles were registered by the automobile industry, as demonstration or research vehicles. Registrations of plug-in electric-drive vehicles were led by the Opel Ampera extended-range electric car with 828 units, followed by the Smart electric drive with 734 units. In addition, a total of 2,413 Renault Twizys were sold during 2012, making Germany the top selling European market for the electric quadricycle.

A total of 5,042 plug-in electric cars were registered in Germany in 2013. Registrations were led by the Smart electric drive with 2,146 units, followed by Renault Zoe with 1,019, the Nissan Leaf with 855 units, and the BMW i3 with 559. During the first six months of 2014 the BMW i3 was the leader, with 1,378 units registered, followed by the Volkswagen e-Up! with 884 and the Smart ED with 645. Accounting for registrations of plug-in electric cars between January 2010 and June 2014, the leading model is the Smart electric drive with 3,959 units registered, with a significant number in use by carsharing services, followed by the BMW i3 with 1,937 units, the Renault Zoe with 1,532, and the Opel Ampera with 1,450 units.

Canada

Several electric cars charging in downtown Toronto. From farthest to closest, a Nissan Leaf, a Smart ED, and a Mitsubishi i MiEV.

Further information: Plug-in electric vehicles in Canada

There were 18,451 highway legal plug-in electric cars registered in Canada as of December 2015, of which, 10,034 (54%) are all-electric cars and 8,417 (46%) are plug-in hybrids. Until 2014 Canadian sales were evenly split between all-electric cars (50.8)% and plug-in hybrids (49.2%). The Chevrolet Volt, released in 2011, is the all-time top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the country, with cumulative sales of 5,415 units through December 2015, representing almost a third of all plug-in cars sold in the country. Ranking second is the Tesla Model S with 3,590 units, followed by the Nissan Leaf with 3,198 units delivered as of December 2015. The Model S was the top selling plug-in electric car in the Canadian market in 2015 with 2,010 units sold.

Top selling PEV models

For more details of sales by model, see list of modern production plug-in electric vehicles.

The world's top selling highway-capable all-electric car ever is the Nissan Leaf with global sales of more than 200,000 units through December 2015. As of December 2015, the top markets for Leaf sales are the United States with over 89,000 units, followed by Japan with over 57,000 units, and Europe with over 49,000 Leafs. The European market is led by Norway with over 15,000 new units registered up until December 2015.

The Nissan Leaf is the world's top selling highway legal plug-in electric car in history. Global Leaf sales passed the 200,000 unit milestone in December 2015, five years after its introduction.

Ranking second is the all-electric Tesla Model S, with global deliveries of over 107,000 units through December 2015. The United States is the leading market with about 63,161 units sold. Norway is the Model S largest overseas market, with 10,062 new units registered, followed by China with 5,524 units registered through September 2015. The world's top selling all-electric light utility vehicle is the Renault Kangoo Z.E., with global sales of 21,220 electric vans delivered through December 2015.

The Volt/Ampera family is the world's best selling plug-in hybrid and the third best selling plug-in electric car after the Model S, with combined sales of over 106,000 units worldwide through December 2015, including over 9,900 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe. As of December 2015, sales are led by the United States with 88,750 Volt delivered, followed by Canada with 5,415 units. The Netherlands is the leading Ampera market with 4,947 units registered as of December 2015.

Ranking next is the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with over 90,000 units sold worldwide as of December 2015. Sales are led by the European market with almost 60,000 units delivered, followed by Japan with over 30,500 units sold, both through December 2015. European sales thorugh November 2015 are led by the Netherlands with 20,346 units, followed by the UK with 16,290, and Sweden with 4,433.

The following table presents market launch date, global sales and main country markets of the top selling highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles produced between 2008 and June 2015. The table includes plug-in passenger cars and plug-in utility vans with around or over 25,000 units sold.

Sales by country of the top selling PEVs available for retail sales or leasing (available for retail sales as of June 2015)
Model	Market launch	Global sales	Top selling markets
			Country	Sales	Comment
Nissan Leaf	December 2010	Over 180,000	Global sales by early June 2015.
			US	82,138	Sales through June 2015.
			Japan	~53,500	Sales by early June 2015.
			Norway	13,667(1)	Sales through June 2015.
			UK	10,161	Sales through June 2015.
			France	4,847	Sales through June 2015.
Chevrolet Volt	December 2010	Around 95,000	Combined global sales of Volt and Ampera models through June 2015. Includes over 9,800 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through June 2015.
			US	78,979	Volts sold through June 2015.
			Netherlands	6,041	4,976 Amperas and 1,065 Volts registered on 31 December 2014.
			Canada	4,377	Volts sold through June 2015.
			Germany	1,607	1,534 Amperas and 73 Volts registered through June 2015.
			UK	1,349	1,226 Amperas and 123 Volts registered at the end March 2015.
Tesla Model S	June 2012	78,359	Global sales through June 2015. Includes all battery pack and drive models.
			US	~49,720	Sales through June 2015.
			Norway	8,697	Registered through June 2015.
			China	4,646	Sales through June 2015.
			Netherlands	3,541	Registered through June 2015.
			Canada	2,564	Sales through June 2015.
			Germany	1,702	Registered through June 2015.
Toyota Prius PHV	January 2012	73,590	Global sales through July 2015.
			US	40,992	Sales through June 2015.
			Japan	21,657	Sales through July 2015.
			Netherlands	4,067	Registered on 30 June 2015.
			UK	1,395	Registered at the end of March 2015.
			Sweden	1,183	Registrations through June 2015.
			France	864	Registered through June 2015.
Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV	January 2013	Over 63,000	Sales through May 2015. Europe is the main market with 40,000 units sold through May 2015,
			Japan	22,599	Sales through June 2015.
			Netherlands	18,230	Registered on 30 June 2015.
			UK	11,795	Registered by mid June 2015.
			Sweden	3,488	Registrations through June 2015.
			Norway	2,795	Sales through June 2015.
			Germany	2,230	Registrations through June 2015.
Mitsubishi i MiEV	July 2009	Over 50,000	Global sales of i-MiEV family vehicles, including the rebadged variants Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero sold in Europe; and the Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV all-electric utility vans and trucks sold in Japan.
			Japan	17,455	10,765 i-MiEVs, 5,854 Minicabs, and 836 Minitrucks through June 2015.
			Norway	5,334	2,589 i-MiEVs, 1,393 iOns, and 1,352 C-Zeros through June 2015.
			France	5,022	2,616 iOns, 2,293 C-Zeros, and 113 i-MiEVs through June 2015.
			Germany	2,545	1,027 i-MiEVs, 965 C-Zeros, and 553 iOns through June 2015.
			US	1,965	Sales through June 2015.
			UK	836	376 iOns, 254 i MiEVs, and 206 C-Zeros registered at the end of March 2015.
			Switzerland	757	458 i MiEVs, 173 C-Zeros, and 126 iOns through June 2015.
BYD Qin	November 2013	31,366	Global sales through June 2015, mostly in China.
			China	31,366	Sales through June 2015.
Renault Zoe	December 2012	28,795	Global sales through June 2015, mostly in Europe.
			France	16,469	Registrations through June 2015.
			Germany	4,015	Registrations through June 2015.
			Netherlands	978	Registered on 30 June 2015.
			Switzerland	951	Sales through June 2015.
			Austria	890	Sales through June 2015.
BMW i3	November 2013	27,375	Global sales through June 2015.
			US	10,548	Sales through June 2015.
			Germany	3,781	Registrations through June 2015.
			Norway	2,775	Registrations through June 2015.
			UK	2,186	Registered at the end of March 2015.
			Netherlands	984	Registrations through June 2015.
			Switzerland	947	Registrations through June 2015.
Notes: (1) Norwegian figures correspond to new car registrations. If used imports from neighboring countries are included (3,626 through September 2014), total Nissan Leaf registrations rise to over 17,000 up until June 2015.

See also

• All-electric vehicle (EV) or battery electric vehicle (BEV)
• Electric car
• Electric car use by country
• Electric motorcycle
• Electric vehicle battery
• Electric vehicle warning sounds
• Hybrid tax credit (U.S.)
• List of electric cars currently available
• List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
• Neighborhood electric car
• New energy vehicles in China
• Plug In America
• Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States
• Plug-in hybrid vehicle, (PHEV)
• RechargeIT (Google.org PHEV program)

External links

• Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 2013.
• Clean Vehicle Rebate Project website
• Competitive Electric Town Transport, Institute of Transport Economics (TØI), Oslo, August 2015.
• Driving Electrification - A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles, International Council on Clean Transportation, May 2014.
• Effects of Regional Temperature on Electric Vehicle Efficiency, Range, and Emissions in the United States, Tugce Yuksel and Jeremy Michalek, Carnegie Mellon University. 2015
• eGallon Calculator: Compare the costs of driving with electricity, U.S. Department of Energy
• Electric Vehicle Timeline: Electric Cars, Plug-In Hybrids, and Fuel Cell Vehicles (1900-2014), Union of Concerned Scientists
• EV Everywhere Grand Challenge Blueprint, U.S. Department of Energy, January 2013.
• From Fiction to Reality: The Evolution of Electric Vehicles 2013 - 2015, JATO Dynamics, November 2015.
• Global EV Outlook 2013- Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020, International Energy Agency (IEA), April 2013
• Hybrid and Electric Vehicles - The Electric Drive Gains Traction, IA-HEV, International Energy Agency (IEA), May 2013
• Influence of driving patterns on life cycle cost and emissions of hybrid and plug-in electric vehicle powertrains, Carnegie MellonVehicle Electrification Group
• NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries - Vehicle Owner/General Public
• NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries - Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department
• New Energy Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles purchased in 2009
• Overview of Tax Incentives for Electrically Chargeable Vehicles in the E.U.
• PEVs Frequently Asked Questions
• Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, June 2013
• Powering Ahead - The future of low-carbon cars and fuels, the RAC Foundation and UK Petroleum Industry Association, April 2013.
• Plugging In: A Consumer's Guide to the Electric Vehicle Electric Power Research Institute
• Plug-in America website
• Plug-in Cars website
• Plug-in Electric Vehicle Deployment in the Northeast Georgetown Climate Center
• Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Seven Markets (Norway, Netherlands, California, United States, France, Japan, and Germany), UC Davis, October 2014.
• Plug-in Tracker: A comprehensive list of highway-capable PEVs (cars and trucks, 2- and 3-wheeled and commercial vehicles)
• Plug-in List of Registered Charging Stations in the USA
• RechargeIT plug-in driving experiment (Google.org)
• Shade's of Green - Electric Car's Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink that Footprint, February 2013.
• State of the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market, Electrification Coalition, July 2013.
• The Great Debate -- All-Electric Cars vs. Plug-In Hybrids, April 2014
• UK Plug-in Car Grant website
• Transport Action Plan: Urban Electric Mobility Initiative, United Nations, Climate Summit 2014, September 2014
• U.S. Federal & State Incentives & Laws
• U.S. State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations
• US Tax Incentives for Plug-in Hybrids and Electric Cars
• Will Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market? Belfer Center, Harvard University

Books

• David B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1.
• Mitchell, William J.; Borroni-Bird, Christopher; Burns, Lawrence D. (2010). Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century (1st. ed.). The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01382-6.