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{{Other uses}}

{{Infobox Space station
{{redirect|ESA}}
| station = ''Skylab''
{{Infobox Space agency
| station_image = Skylab (SL-4).jpg
|width = 263px
| station_image_size =
|name = <div style="width:263px; float:right;">{{Collapsible list|titlestyle=font-size:116%;background:white;|title=<center>European Space Agency</center>|<center>{{lang|fr|'''''Agence spatiale européenne'''''}} {{fr icon}}<br />{{lang|nl|'''''Europese Ruimtevaartorganisatie'''''}} {{nl icon}}<br />{{lang|de|'''''Europäische Weltraumorganisation'''''}} {{de icon}}<br />{{lang|es|'''''Agencia Espacial Europea'''''}} {{es icon}}<br />{{lang|it|'''''Agenzia Spaziale Europea'''''}} {{it icon}}<br />{{lang|pt|'''''Agência Espacial Europeia'''''}} {{pt icon}}<br />{{lang|el|'''''Ευρωπαϊκή Διαστημική Υπηρεσία'''''}} {{el icon}}<br />{{lang|cs|'''''Evropská Kosmická Agentura'''''}} {{cs icon}}<br />{{lang|tr|'''''Avrupa Uzay Ajansı'''''}} {{tr icon}}<br />{{lang|hu|'''''Európai Űrügynökség'''''}} {{hu icon}}<br />{{lang|ga|'''''Gníomhaireacht Spáis na hEorpa'''''}} {{ga icon}}<br/>{{lang|sv|'''''Europeiska Rymdorganisationen'''''}} {{sv icon}}<br />{{lang|no|'''''Den europeiske romfartsorganisasjonen'''''}} {{no icon}}<br />{{lang|ro|'''''Agenţia Spaţială Europeană'''''}} {{ro icon}}<br />{{lang|fi|'''''Euroopan avaruusjärjestö'''''}} {{fi icon}}<br />{{lang|da|'''''Europæiske rumfartsorganisation'''''}}{{da icon}}</center>}}</div>
| station_image_caption = A view of Skylab from the departing [[Skylab 4]] mission
|owner = {{Collapsible list|title=18 European states|[[Austria]]|[[Belgium]]|[[Czech Republic]]|[[Denmark]]|[[Finland]]|[[France]]|[[Germany]]|[[Greece]]|[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]|[[Italy]]|[[Luxembourg]]|[[Netherlands]]|[[Norway]]|[[Portugal]]|[[Spain]]|[[Sweden]]|[[Switzerland]]|[[United Kingdom]]|
| insignia = Skylab Program Patch.png
|title_style = background:none; text-align:left
| insignia_size =
|list_style = line-height: 1.1em; background:none; text-align:left }}
| insignia_caption =
|headquarters = [[Paris]]
| sign = Skylab
|spaceport = [[Guiana Space Centre]]
| crew = 3
|image = ESA LOGO.svg
| launch = 1973-05-14<br>17:30:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]
|size = 240px
| launch_pad = [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|LC-39A]], [[Kennedy Space Center]]
|acronym = ESA
| reentry = 1979-07-11<br>16:37:00 UTC<br>near [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth, Australia]]
|established = 1975
| mass = {{convert|77088|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=skylaborbitalmass>{{cite web|title=Skylab Space Station|url=http://www.aerospaceguide.net/spacestation/skylab.html|publisher=AeroSpaceGuide.net|accessdate=20 February 2011}}</ref>
|administrator = [[Jean-Jacques Dordain]]
| length =
|budget = {{profit}} €3.99 billion / £3.51 billion / $5.65 billion US dollars (2011)<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web | url =http://www.spacenews.com/civil/110121-esa-budget-rises.html | title = ESA Budget Rises to $4B as 14 Nations Boost Contributions | work = Spaceflight Now | first = Peter | last = de Selding| date = 21 January 2011}}</ref>
| width =
|language = [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/SP1271En_final.pdf|title=Convention for the establishment of a European Space Agency |publisher=ESA |format=PDF|year=2003 |accessdate=2008-12-29}}</ref>
| height =
| diameter =
|URL = [http://www.esa.int/ www.esa.int]
| volume = {{convert|10000|cuft|m3|2|abbr=on}}
| pressure =
| perigee = {{convert|269.7|mi|km|1|abbr=on}}
| apogee = {{convert|274.6|mi|km|1|abbr=on}}
| inclination = 50°
| altitude =
| speed =
| period = 93.4 min
| orbits_day = 15.4
| in_orbit = 2,249 days
| occupied = 171 days
| orbits = 34,981
| distance = ~{{convert|890000000|mi|km|abbr=on}}
| NSSDC_ID = 1973-027A
| as_of = deorbit on 1979-07-11
| stats_ref =
| configuration_image = Skylab labeled.jpg
| configuration_size =
| configuration_caption = Skylab configuration with docked [[Command/Service Module]]
}}
}}
'''Skylab''' was the United States' first [[space station]], and the second visited by a human crew after the Soviet [[Salyut 1]]. The only station [[NASA]] has launched independently, the 77-ton<ref name=skylaborbitalmass/> outpost was in Earth orbit from 1973 to 1979 and was visited by crews three times between 1973 and 1974. It was launched unmanned by a modified [[Saturn V]] rocket, and manned missions to the station were made by a [[Command/Service Module]] (CSM) atop the smaller [[Saturn IB]]. During its operational life, numerous scientific experiments were conducted, and crews were able to confirm the existence of [[coronal hole]]s in the [[Sun]]. Before plans to refurbish and reuse Skylab with the [[Space Shuttle]] could begin, the station reentered Earth's atmosphere and disintegrated in 1979, with debris striking portions of [[Western Australia]].


The '''European Space Agency''' ('''ESA'''), established in 1975, is an[[intergovernmentalism|intergovernmental]] organisation dedicated to the [[Space exploration|exploration of space]], currently with 18 member states. Headquartered in[[Paris]], ESA has a staff of more than 2,000 with an annual budget of about €3.99 billion / $5.65 billion US dollars (2011).<ref name=autogenerated2 />
==Origins==
The exact origin of the project is difficult to pinpoint because a number of different but related proposals were developed by various government agencies before Skylab itself was launched.


ESA's space flight program includes human spaceflight, mainly through the participation in the[[International Space Station program]], the launch and operations of unmanned exploration missions to other planets and the Moon, Earth observation, science, telecommunication as well as maintaining a major [[spaceport]], the [[Guiana Space Centre]] at [[Kourou]], [[French Guiana]], and designing launch vehicles. The main European launch vehicle [[Ariane 5]] is operated through [[Arianespace]] with ESA sharing in the costs of launching and further developing this launch vehicle.
===Early studies===
A key event took place in 1959 when rocket-scientist and space architect [[Wernher von Braun]], then head of the Development Operations Division at the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]], submitted his final [[Project Horizon]] plans to the [[U.S. Army]]. The overall goal of Horizon was to place a human on the [[Moon]], a mission that would soon be taken over by the rapidly-forming NASA. Although concentrating on the Moon missions, von Braun also detailed an orbiting laboratory built out of an Horizon upper stage,<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|23}} an idea used for Skylab.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|9}}


ESA science missions are based at [[European Space Research and Technology Centre|ESTEC]] in[[Noordwijk]], [[Netherlands]], Earth Observation missions at [[ESRIN]] in [[Frascati]],[[Italy]], ESA Mission Control ([[European Space Operations Centre|ESOC]]) is in [[Darmstadt]],[[Germany]], the [[European Astronaut Centre]] (EAC) that trains astronauts for future missions is situated in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]], and the [[European Space Astronomy Centre]] is located in [[Villanueva de la Cañada]], [[Spain]].
===NASA studies===
A number of NASA centers studied various space station designs in the early 1960s. Studies generally looked at platforms launched by the Saturn V, followed up by crews launched on Saturn IB using an Apollo Command/Service Module,<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|10}} or a [[Project Gemini|Gemini capsule]]<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|14}} on a [[Titan II GLV|Titan II-C]], the latter being much less expensive in the case where cargo was not needed. Proposals ranged from an [[Apollo program|Apollo]]-based station with two to three men, or a small "canister" for four men with Gemini capsules resupplying it, to a large, rotating station with 24 men and an operating lifetime of about five years.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|13-14}}


==History==
===Air Force competition===
===Foundation===
In September 1963, NASA and the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] (DoD) agreed to cooperate in building a space station.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|17}} In December, the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] nonetheless announced [[Manned Orbital Laboratory]] (MOL), a small space station primarily intended for photo reconnaissance using large telescopes directed by a two-man crew. The station was the same diameter as a [[Titan II GLV|Titan II]] upper stage, and would be launched with the crew riding atop in a modified Gemini capsule with a hatch cut into the [[heat shield]] on the bottom of the capsule.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|17-19}}<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/mol.htm MOL (Manned Orbiting Laboratory)]</ref><ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/kh-10.htm KH-10, Dorian]</ref> MOL competed for funding with a NASA station for the next five years,<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|15}} and caused changes to the NASA plans so they would resemble MOL less.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|17}}
{{main|ESRO}}
[[Image:ESA-ESTEC5.jpg|thumb|right|200px|ESTEC buildings in Noordwijk. ESTEC was the main technical centre of ESRO and remains so for the successor organization, ESA]]


After [[World War II]], many European scientists left [[Western Europe]] in order to work either in the [[United States]] or the [[Soviet Union]]. Although the 1950s boom made it possible for Western European countries to invest in research and specifically in space related activities, Western European scientists realised solely national projects would not be able to compete with the two main superpowers. In 1958, only months after the [[Sputnik crisis|Sputnik shock]], [[Edoardo Amaldi]] and [[Pierre Auger]], two prominent members of the western European scientific community at that time, met to discuss the foundation of a common western European space agency. The meeting was attended by scientific representatives from eight countries, including [[Harrie Massey]] (UK).
==Development==
=== Apollo Applications Program ===
{{Main|Apollo Applications Program}}
NASA management was concerned about, after landing on the moon, losing the 400,000 workers involved in Apollo.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|20,22}} It set up the ''Apollo Logistic Support System Office'', originally intended to study various ways to modify the Apollo hardware for scientific missions. The office initially proposed a number of projects for direct scientific study, including an extended-stay lunar mission which required two Saturn V launchers, a "lunar truck" based on the [[Lunar Module]] (LEM), a large manned solar telescope using an LEM as its crew quarters and small space stations using a variety of LEM or CSM-based hardware. Although it did not look at the space station specifically, over the next two years the office would become increasingly dedicated to this role. In August 1965 the office was renamed, becoming the ''Apollo Applications Program'' (AAP).<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|20}}


The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a launch system [[European Launcher Development Organization|ELDO]] (European Launch Development Organization) and the precursor of the European Space Agency, [[ESRO]] (European Space Research Organization). The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962. From 1968 to 1972, ESRO carried out numerous successful projects. Seven research satellites were brought into orbit, all by US launch systems. Ariane did not exist at that time.
As part of their general work, in August 1964 the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Manned Spacecraft Center]] (MSC) presented studies on an expendable lab known as ''Apollo "X"'', short for ''Apollo Extension System''. "Apollo X" would have replaced the LEM carried on the top of the [[S-IVB]] stage with a small space station slightly larger than the CSM's service area, containing supplies and experiments for missions between 15 and 45 days' duration. Using this study as a baseline, a number of different mission profiles were looked at over the next six months.


ESA in its current form was founded in 1975, when ESRO was merged with [[European Launcher Development Organization|ELDO]]. ESA had 10 founding members: [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]],[[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]]and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite press release | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_27_2005_p_EN.html | title = ESA turns 30! A successful track record for Europe in space | publisher = European Space Agency | date = 31 May 2005}}</ref> ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, [[Cos-B]], a space probe monitoring gamma-ray emissions in the universe first worked on by ESRO.
===Wet workshop===
{{Main|Wet workshop}}
Von Braun proposed a more ambitious plan to build a much larger station. His design replaced the S-IVB third stage of a complete Saturn V with an aeroshell, primarily as an adapter for the CSM on top. Inside the shell was a cylindrical equipment section slightly smaller in diameter than the CSM. On reaching orbit, the [[S-II]] second stage would be vented to remove any remaining hydrogen fuel, then the equipment section would be slid into it via a large inspection hatch. The station filled the entire interior of the S-II stage's hydrogen tank, with the equipment section forming a "spine" and living quarters between it and the walls of the booster. This would have resulted in a very large {{convert|33|by|45|ft|m|1|adj=on}} living area. Power was to be provided by [[solar cell]]s lining the outside of the S-II stage.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|22}}


===End of space race===
One problem with this proposal was that it required a dedicated Saturn V launch to fly the station. Engineers could not "piggyback" the station's launch on a lunar mission, which required a working S-IVB stage. At the time the design was being proposed, all of the then-contracted Saturn V's were already earmarked for Moon launches. Further work led to the idea of launching a smaller station based on the S-IVB instead, launching it on a surplus Saturn IB. Several planned Earth orbit test missions for the LEM and CSM had been canceled, leaving a number of Saturn IB's free for use.
[[Image:Ariane 1 Le Bourget FRA 001.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Mock-up of the [[Ariane 1]]]]


Beginning in the 1970s, when the [[space race]] between the US and the Soviet Union had cooled down and space budgets were cut dramatically in both countries, ESA established itself as a forerunner in space exploration. ESA joined NASA in the [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]], the world's first high-orbit [[telescope]], which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began [[Giotto mission|Giotto]], its first deep-space mission, to study the Comets [[Comet Halley|Halley]] and [[26P/Grigg-Skjellerup|Grigg-Skjellerup]]. [[Hipparcos]], a star-mapping mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]], [[Ulysses probe|Ulysses]] and the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] were all jointly carried out with [[NASA]]. Recent scientific missions in cooperation with NASA include the [[Cassini–Huygens]] space probe, to which ESA contributed by building the [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] landing module [[Huygens probe|Huygens]].
[[File:Wet Workshop.svg|left|thumb|300px|An early "[[wet workshop]]" version of Skylab.]]


As the successor of [[European Launcher Development Organisation|ELDO]], ESA has also constructed rockets for unmanned scientific and commercial payloads. [[Ariane 1]], launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward. The next two developments of the Ariane rocket were intermediate stages in the development of a more advanced launch system, the [[Ariane 4]], which operated between 1988 and 2003 and established ESA as the world leader in commercial space launches in the 1990s. Although the succeeding [[Ariane 5]]experienced a failure on its first flight, it has since firmly established itself within the heavily competitive commercial space launch market with 40 successful launches as of 2009. The successor launch vehicle of [[Ariane 5]], the [[Ariane 6]] is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s.
Since the Saturn I had a much lower [[throw-weight]] capability, the [[S-IV]] stage could not be left empty; its thrust would be needed for the mission. This limitation led to the development of the wet workshop concept, which led naturally out of von Braun's idea of using an existing stage after its fuel had burned off. However, in this case the station was to be built out of the S-IVB stage itself, as opposed to the S-II below it. A number of S-IVB-based stations were studied at MSC, but even the earliest, from mid-1965, had much in common with the Skylab design that actually flew. An [[airlock]] was placed in the equipment area immediately below where the LEM sat on a Moon mission and a minimum amount of equipment was installed in the tank itself in order to avoid taking up too much fuel volume. After launch, a follow-up mission launched by a Saturn IB would carry up additional equipment in place of its LEM, including solar panels, an equipment section and docking adapter, and various experiments. [[Douglas Aircraft]], builder of the S-IVB stage, was asked to prepare proposals along these lines. The company had for several years been proposing stations based on the S-IV that the S-IVB replaced.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|25}}


The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like [[NASA]],[[JAXA]], [[ISRO]] and [[Roscosmos]], one of the major participants in scientific [[Space science|space research]]. While ESA had relied on cooperation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances (such as tough legal restrictions on information sharing by the [[Military of the United States|United States military]]) led to decisions to rely more on itself and on cooperation with Russia. A recent{{when|date=December 2010}} press issue thus stated:<ref name=international-coop />
On 1 April 1966, MSC sent out contracts to Douglas, Grumman, and McDonnell for conversion of a S-IVB spent stage under the name ''Saturn S-IVB spent-stage experiment support module'' (SSESM).<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|30}} In May astronauts voiced concern over purging the stage's hydrogen tank in space. Nevertheless, in late July it was announced that the Orbital Workshop would be launched as a part of Apollo mission AS-209, originally one of the Earth-orbit CSM test launches, followed by two Saturn I/CSM crew launches, AAP-1 and AAP-2.


{{quote|Russia is ESA's first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. There is a framework agreement between ESA and the government of the Russian Federation on cooperation and partnership in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, and cooperation is already under way in two different areas of launcher activity that will bring benefits to both partners.}}
MOL remained AAP's chief competitor for funds although the two programs cooperated on technology. NASA considered flying experiments on MOL, or using its [[Titan IIIC]] booster instead of the much more-expensive Saturn IB, but decided that the Air Force station was not large enough and converting Apollo hardware for use with Titan would be too slow and too expensive.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|45-48}} DoD canceled MOL in June 1969.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|109}}


Most notable for its new self-confidence are ESA's own recent successful missions [[SMART-1]], a probe testing cutting-edge new space propulsion technology, the [[Mars Express]] and [[Venus Express]] missions as well as the development of the [[Ariane 5]] rocket and its role in the[[ISS]] partnership. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as [[Corot (space mission)|Corot]], launched on 27 December 2006, a milestone in the search for [[extrasolar planets]].
===Dry workshop===
Design work continued over the next two years, in an era of shrinking budgets. In August 1967 NASA announced that the lunar mapping and base construction missions examined by the AAP were being canceled. Only the Earth-orbiting missions remained, namely the Orbital Workshop and [[Apollo Telescope Mount]] solar observatory. Later several Moon missions were canceled as well, originally to be [[Canceled Apollo missions|Apollo missions 18 through 20]]. The cancellation of these missions freed up three Saturn V boosters for the AAP program. Although this would have allowed them to develop von Braun's original S-II based mission, by this time so much work had been done on the S-IV based design that work continued on this baseline. With the extra power available, the wet workshop was no longer needed;<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|109-110}} the S-IC and S-II lower stages could launch a "dry workshop", with its interior already prepared, directly into orbit.


==Mission statement==
===Habitability===
Since the [[Cold War]] ended with the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]'s "[[iron curtain]]",[[space agency|space agencies]] around the world had to refocus and revise their visions and goals. In an interview with [[JAXA]], the Japanese national space agency, [[Jean-Jacques Dordain]] ESA's Director General (since 2003) outlined briefly the European Space Agency's mission:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.jaxa.jp/news_topics/interview/vol4/index_e.html |title = Launching a New Era with JAXA: Interview with Jean-Jacques Dordain | publisher =[[JAXA]] | date = 31 October 2003}}</ref>
[[File:Showering on Skylab - GPN-2000-001710.jpg|right|thumb|[[Jack Lousma]] takes a shower during Skylab 3 mission.]]
A dry workshop simplified plans for the interior of the station.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|130}} [[Industrial design]] firm [[Raymond Loewy]]/William Snaith recommended emphasizing [[habitability]] and comfort for the astronauts by, for example, providing a [[wardroom]] for meals and relaxation,<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|133-134}} and a window to view the Earth and space, although astronauts who participated in Skylab planning were dubious about designers' focus on areas such as [[color scheme]]s.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|137}} Habitability had not previously been an area of concern when building spacecraft due to their small volume and brief mission durations, but Skylab missions would last for months.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|133}} NASA sent a scientist on [[Jacques Piccard#Ben Franklin mission|Jacques Piccard's ''Ben Franklin'' submarine]] in the [[Gulf Stream]] in July and August 1969 to learn how six people would live in an enclosed space for four weeks.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|139-140}}


{{quote|Today space activities are pursued for the benefit of citizens, and citizens are asking for a better quality of life on earth. They want greater security and economic wealth, but they also want to pursue their dreams, to increase their knowledge, and they want younger people to be attracted to the pursuit of science and technology.
Astronauts were uninterested in watching movies on a proposed [[entertainment center]] or playing games, but did want books and individual music choices.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|137}} Food was also important; early Apollo crews complained about its quality, and a NASA volunteer found living on the Apollo food for four days on Earth to be intolerable; its taste and composition, in the form of cubes and squeeze tubes, were unpleasant. [[space food#Skylab (1973-1974)|Skylab food]] significantly improved on its predecessors by prioritizing habitability over scientific needs.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|141-142}}


I think that space can do all of this: it can produce a higher quality of life, better security, more economic wealth, and also fulfil our citizens' dreams and thirst for knowledge, and attract the young generation. This is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be even more important in the future.}}
Each astronaut had a private sleeping area the size of a small [[walk-in closet]] with a curtain, [[sleeping bag]], and locker.<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|82}} Designers also added a shower<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|139}}<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|80}} and a [[space toilet|toilet]];<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|152-158}}<ref name="belew1977">Belew, Leland. F. (editor) ''[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-400/contents.htm Skylab, Our First Space Station]'' NASA publication SP-400.</ref>{{rp|30}} the latter was for both comfort and to obtain precise urine and feces samples for examination on Earth.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|165}}


Article II, Purpose, Convention of establishment of a European Space Agency, SP-1271(E) from 2003 also defines ESA's mission statement:<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/About_ESA/SEMSN26LARE_0.html | title = ESA's Purpose | publisher = European Space Agency | date = 14 June 2007}}</ref>
==Station structure==
{{quote|ESA's purpose shall be to provide for, and to promote, for exclusively peaceful purposes, cooperation among European States in space research and technology and their space applications, with a view to their being used for scientific purposes and for operational space applications systems:
Five parts; Orbital Workshop (OWS), Airlock Module (AM), Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA), Instrument Unit (IU), and the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM).
*by elaborating and implementing a long-term European space policy, by recommending space objectives to the Member States, and by concerting the policies of the Member States with respect to other national and international organisations and institutions;
*by elaborating and implementing activities and programmes in the space field;
*by coordinating the European space programme and national programmes, and by integrating the latter progressively and as completely as possible into the European space programme, in particular as regards the development of applications satellites;
*by elaborating and implementing the industrial policy appropriate to its programme and by recommending a coherent industrial policy to the Member States. }}


==Member countries and budget==
==Launch==
===Membership and contribution to ESA===
[[Image:Location ESA member countries.svg|thumb|300px|{{legend|#5B9ED7|ESA member countries}}{{legend|#5FB4A1|ECS states}}{{legend|#3D9345|signed Cooperation Agreement}}]]
[[Image:European Space Agency tight.png|thumb|300px|{{legend|#5B9ED7|ESA member countries}}{{legend|#0000ff|ESA associate members}}{{legend|#5FB4A1|ECS states}}{{legend|#3D9345|signed Cooperation Agreement}}]]


ESA is an intergovernmental organisation of 18 member states (to become 19 once Romania becomes a member in mid-2011).<ref name=esanewmembers>{{cite web|title=About ESA - New Member States|url=http://www.esa.int/esaMI/About_ESA/SEMP936LARE_0.html|publisher=[[ESA]]|accessdate=31 August 2011}}</ref> Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory (25% of total expenditures in 2008) and optional space programmes (75% of total expenditures in 2008).<ref name="czechspace.cz">{{cite web | url =http://www.czechspace.cz/cs/system/files/AO6052-ws00pe.pdf | title = ESA programmes with Czech participation | publisher = [[Czech Space Office]] | format = PDF | year = 2009}}</ref> The 2008 budget amounted to €3.0 billion the 2009 budget to €3.6 billion.<ref>esa.int –[http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/corporate/ESA_2009_Budgetsweb.pdf ESA budget for 2009]</ref>The total budget in 2010 amounted to about €3.7 billion and in 2011 it is €3,99 billion.
===Damage===


The following table gives an overview of all member states and adjunct members and their contributions to ESA in 2011:<ref name="ESA budget for 2011">esa.int –[http://download.esa.int/docs/DG/ESA_2011_Budget_040111_rev2.ppt ESA budget for 2011]</ref>
==Operational history==
On 8 August 1969, the [[McDonnell Douglas]] Corporation received a contract for the conversion of two existing S-IVB stages to the Orbital Workshop configuration. One of the S-IV test stages was shipped to McDonnell Douglas for the construction of a mock-up in January 1970. The Orbital Workshop was renamed "Skylab" in February 1970 as a result of a NASA contest.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|115}} The actual stage that flew was the upper stage of the AS-212 rocket (the S-IVB stage). The mission computer used aboard Skylab was the [[IBM]] [[System 4 Pi|System/4Pi]] TC-1, a relative of the [[AP-101]] Space Shuttle computers.


{| class="wikitable sortable" cellspacing="2"
[[File:Skylab launch on Saturn V.jpg|thumb|left|Launch of the modified [[Saturn V]] rocket carrying the Skylab space station]]
|-
!Member state
!ESA membership
!National Program
!Contr.<br />(mill.&nbsp;€)
!Contr.<br />(%)
|-
| {{FRA}}{{#tag:ref|Founding members drafted the ESA charter which entered into force on 30 October 1980.<ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.esa.int/esapub/sp/sp1300/sp1300EN1.pdf | title = ESA Convention | month = September | year = 2005 | edition = 6th | publisher = European Space Agency | isbn = 92-9092-397-0}}</ref>|name=founding|group=note}} || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[CNES]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|751.4}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|18.8}}%
|-
| {{DEU}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[German Aerospace Center|DLR]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|713.8}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|17.9}}%
|-
| {{ITA}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[Italian Space Agency|ASI]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|380.0}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|9.5}}%
|-
| {{GBR}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[UK Space Agency|UKSA]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|265.3}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|6.6}}%
|-
| {{ESP}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[Centro para el Desarrollo Tecnologico Industrial|CDTI]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|201.9}} ||style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|5.1}}%
|-
| {{BEL}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[Belgian Federal Science Policy Office|BELSPO]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|164.8}} ||style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|4.1}}%
|-
| {{NLD}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[Netherlands Space Office|NSO]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|84.2}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|2.1}}%
|-
| {{CHE}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[Swiss Space Office|SSO]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|96.2}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|2.4}}%
|-
| {{SWE}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[Swedish National Space Board|SNSB]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|59.9}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|1.5}}%
|-
| {{DNK}}<ref group=note name=founding /> || {{dts|30 October 1980}} || [[DTU Space]] ||style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|31.2}} || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0.8}}%
|-
| {{IRL}}<ref group=note name=founding /><ref group=note name=Ireland /> || {{dts|10 December 1980}} || [[Enterprise Ireland|EI]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|15.6}} ||style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0.4}}%
|-
| {{NOR}}{{#tag:ref|Acceded members became ESA member states upon signing an accession agreement.<ref name="enlarging-esa">{{cite journal | url =http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bulletin120/bul120g_poncelet.pdf | title = Enlarging ESA? After the Accession of Luxembourg and Greece | first1 = Jean-Pol | last1 = Poncelet | first2 = Anabela | last2 = Fonseca-Colomb | first3 = Guilio | last3 = Grilli | journal = ESA Bulletin |issue = 120 | month = November | year = 2004 | pages = 48–53 | format = PDF}}</ref>|name=acceded|group=note}} || {{dts|30 December 1986}} || [[Norwegian Space Centre|NSC]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|63.2}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|1.6}}%
|-
| {{AUT}}<ref group=note name=acceded /> || {{dts|30 December 1986}} || [[Austrian Research Promotion Agency|FFG]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|54.0}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|1.3}}%
|-
| {{FIN}}<ref group=note name=acceded /> || {{dts|1 January 1995}} || [[National Technology Agency|TEKES]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|20.1}} || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|0.5}}%
|-
| {{PRT}}<ref group=note name=acceded /> || {{dts|14 November 2000}} || [[Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia|FCT]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|15.8}} ||style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0.4}}%
|-
| {{GRC}}<ref group=note name=acceded /> || {{dts|9 March 2005}} || [[Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing|ISARS]] || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|14.9}} ||style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0.4}}%
|-
| {{LUX}}<ref group=note name=acceded /> || {{dts|30 June 2005}} || [[Luxinnovation]] ||style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|11.5}} || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0.3}}%
|-
| {{CZE}}<ref group=note name=acceded /> || {{dts|8 July 2008}} || [[Czech Space Office|CSO]]|| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|10.4}} || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0.3}}%
|- style="background:#e9e9e9;"
|| '''Associate Members''' || style="background:#e9e9e9;"| || style="background:#e9e9e9;"| ||style="background:#e9e9e9;"| || style="background:#e9e9e9;"|
|-
| {{CAN}}{{#tag:ref|Canada is an associated member of ESA.<ref name="esa.int"/><ref name="assoc">{{cite book | url = http://www.esa.int/esapub/hsr/HSR_25.pdf | title = Canada and The European Space Agency: Three Decades of Cooperation | first = Lydia | last = Dotto | month = May | year = 2002 | publisher = European Space Agency | format = PDF}}</ref>|name=Canada|group=note}} || {{dts|1 January 1979}}<ref name="esa.int">{{cite journal | url = http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet96/LECLERC.pdf | title = Canada and ESA: 20 Years of Cooperation | first1 = G. | last1 = Leclerc | first2 = S. | last2 = Lessard |journal = ESA Bulletin | issue = 96 | month = November | year = 1998 | format = PDF | isbn = 92-9092-533-7}}</ref> || [[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]] || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|20.5}} || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0.5}}%
|-
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"| {{hs|za}}'''Total Members and Associates''' ||style="background:#e9e9e9;"| || style="background:#e9e9e9;"| || style="background:#e9e9e9; text-align:right;"| '''{{nts|2975.0}}''' || style="background:#e9e9e9; text-align:right;"|'''{{nts|74.5}}%'''
|-
| {{hs|zb}}{{EU}}<ref group=note name=union>Framework Agreement establishing the legal basis for cooperation between ESA and the [[European Union]] came into force in May 2004.</ref> ||{{dts|28 May 2004}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/App/accords/Default.aspx?command=details&id=297&lang=EN&aid=2003099&doclang=EN |title=Framework Agreement between the European Community and the European Space Agency |publisher=Consilium.europa.eu |date=|accessdate=2011-08-29}}</ref> || [[European Space Policy|ESP]] || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|777.9}} || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|19.5}}%
|-
| {{hs|zc}}[[#Enlargement|ECS states]] || various || various || style="text-align:right;"|{{nts|7.9}} || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0.2}}%
|-
| {{hs|zd}}Other income || {{dts}}— || {{dts}}— || style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|233.0}} ||style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|5.8}}%
|-
| style="background:#e9e9e9;"| {{hs|ze}}'''Total ESA''' || style="background:#e9e9e9;"| ||style="background:#e9e9e9;"| || style="background:#e9e9e9; text-align:right;"|'''{{nts|3993.8}}''' || style="background:#e9e9e9; text-align:right;"| '''{{nts|100.0}}%'''
|}


{{reflist|group=note|refs=
Skylab was launched 14 May 1973 by a Saturn V with the upper stage removed, but with the avionics remaining in the same position (different from the [[Saturn INT-21]] rocket which could launch payloads not based on the S-IVB) into a 235 nautical mile (435&nbsp;km) orbit. The launch is sometimes referred to as Skylab 1, or SL-1. Severe damage was sustained during launch and deployment, including the loss of the station's [[meteor|micrometeoroid]] shield/sun shade and one of its main [[solar panel]]s. Debris from the lost micrometeoroid shield further complicated matters by pinning the remaining solar panel to the side of the station, preventing its deployment and thus leaving the station with a huge power deficit.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|253-255}} The station underwent extensive repair during a [[spacewalk]] (extra-vehicular activity, or EVA) by the crew of [[Skylab 2|the SL-2 mission]], which launched on 25 May 1973 atop a Saturn IB. If the crew had failed to repair Skylab in time, the plastic insulation inside the station would have melted, releasing poisonous gas and making Skylab completely uninhabitable. They stayed in orbit with Skylab for 28 days. Two additional missions followed with the launch dates of 28 July 1973 ([[Skylab 3|SL-3]]) and 16 November 1973 ([[Skylab 4|SL-4]]) with mission durations of 59 and 84 days, respectively. The last Skylab crew returned to the Earth on 8 February 1974.


<ref name=Ireland>Ireland is considered an initial signatory, but since it was a member of neither [[European Space Research Organisation|ESRO]] nor [[European Launch Development Organisation|ELDO]] (the precursor organizations to ESA) the Convention entered into force when the last of the other 10 founders ratified it.</ref>
===Missions===
[[File:RobbinsMedallionSkylabByPhilKonstantin.jpg|thumb|Robbins Medallions issued for Skylab Missions]]


}}
The numeric identification of the manned Skylab missions is the cause of much confusion. Originally, the unmanned launch of Skylab and three manned missions were numbered ''SL-1'' through ''SL-4''. During the preparations for the manned missions, some documentation was created with a different scheme -- ''SLM-1'' through ''SLM-3'' -- for those missions only. [[William Pogue]] credits [[Pete Conrad]] with asking the Skylab program director which scheme should be used for the mission patches, and the astronauts were told to use 1-2-3, not 2-3-4. By the time NASA administrators tried to reverse this decision, it was too late, as all the in-flight clothing had already been manufactured and shipped with the 1-2-3 mission patches.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://williampogue.com/skylab-numbering-mixup.html | title = Skylab Numbering Fiasco | publisher = williampogue.com}}</ref>


===Associate Members===
{| class="wikitable"
Currently the only associated member of ESA is [[Canada]].<ref name="assoc"/> Previously associated members were [[Austria]], [[Norway]] and [[Finland]], all of which later joined ESA as full members.
|- style="background:#efefef;"

! style="width:100px;"|Mission
====Canada====
! style="text-align:center;"|Emblem
Since 1 January 1979, [[Canada]] has had the special status of a Cooperating State within ESA. By virtue of this accord, the [[Canadian Space Agency]] takes part in ESA's deliberative bodies and decision-making and also in ESA's programmes and activities. Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The accord has a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada.<ref>{{cite press release | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_39_2000_p_EN.html | title = ESA and Canada renew cooperation agreement, building on long-term partnership | date = 21 June 2000 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref>
! style="width:120px;"|Commander

! style="width:120px;"|Pilot
===Budget appropriation and allocation===
! style="width:120px;"|Science Pilot
{{Pie chart
! style="width:175px;"|Launch date
|caption = ESA budget chart by programme for 2011<ref name="ESA budget for 2011"/>
! style="width:175px;"|Landing date
|other = yes
! style="width:50px;"|Duration (days)
|value1 = 21.1
|label1 = Earth Observation: 843.9 M€
|value2 = 16.7
|label2 = Navigation: 665.7 M€
|value3 = 15.3
|label3 = Launchers: 612.5 M€
|value4 = 11.6
|label4 = Science: 464.8 M€
|value5 = 10.3
|label5 = Human Spaceflight: 410.9 M€
|value6 = 8.5
|label6 = Telecommunications: 341.3 M€
|value7 = 5.4
|label7 = Basic Activities: 216.7 M€
|value8 = 4.5
|label8 = General Budget: 179.9 M€
|value9 = 3.2
|label9 = Robotic Exploration: 129.4 M€
|value10 = 2.5
|label10 = Technology: 105.1 M€
|value11 = 0.4
|label11 = Space Situational Awareness: 15.7 M€
|value12 = 0.2
|label12 = ECSA: 7.9 M€}}

The budget of ESA was €2.977 billion in 2005, €2.904 billion in 2006 and grew to €3.018 billion in 2008 and €3.600 billion in 2009.<ref name="esamultimedia.esa.int">{{cite web | url =http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/corporate/ESA_2009_Budgetsweb.pdf | title = ESA budget for 2009 | publisher = European Space Agency | month = January | year = 2009 | format = PDF}}</ref><ref name = "dqbiya">{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMFEPYV1SD_index_0.html | title = ESA and the EU | publisher = European Space Agency | date = 9 October 2008}}</ref> Every 3–4 years, ESA member states agree on a budget plan for several years at an ESA member states conference. This plan can be amended in future years, however provides the major guideline for ESA for several years. The last major conference was held at the end of 2008, setting the budget for the years to 2012.

The 2011 funding allocations for major areas of ESA activity are shown on the pie-chart on the right. The section called 'Other' includes Technology Development, Space Situational Awareness and spending related to European Cooperating States.<ref name="esamultimedia.esa.int"/>

Countries typically have their own space programmes that differ in how they operate organisationally and financially with ESA. For example, the French space agency CNES has a budget double the amount it contributes to ESA. Several space-related projects are joint projects between national space agencies and ESA (e.g. [[COROT]]). Also, ESA is not the only European space organisation (for example [[European Union Satellite Centre]]).

===Enlargement===
{{See also|History of European Space Agency enlargement}}
After the decision of the ESA Council of 21/22 March 2001, the procedure for accession of the[[European states]] was detailed as described here.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://pecs.esa.int/system/files/PECSPresentation2006.pdf | title = The Plan for European Co-operating States (PECS): Towards an enlarged ESA Partnership | first = Bernard | last = Zufferey | date = 22 November 2006 | publisher = European Space Agency | format = PDF}}</ref>
Nations who want to become a full member of ESA do so in 3 stages. First a Cooperation Agreement is signed between the country and ESA. In this stage, the country has very limited financial responsibilities. If a country wants to cooperate more fully with ESA, it signs a European Cooperating State (ECS) Agreement. The ECS Agreement makes companies based in the country eligible for participation in ESA procurements. The country can also participate in all ESA programmes, except for the Basic Technology Research Programme. While the financial contribution of the country concerned increases, it is still much lower than that of a full member state. The agreement is normally followed by a Plan For European Cooperating State (or PECS Charter). This is a 5-year programme of basic research and development activities aimed at improving the nation's space industry capacity. At the end of the 5-year period, the country can either begin negotiations to become a full member state or an associated state or sign a new PECS Charter.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://pecs.esa.int/node/24 | title = PECS: General Overview | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> ESA is likely to expand quite rapidly in the coming years. Many countries, most of which joined the EU in both 2004 and 2007, have started to cooperate with ESA on various levels:

{| class="wikitable sortable" cellspacing="2"
|-
! Applicant state
! Cooperation Agreement
! ECS Agreement
! PECS Charter(s)
! ESA Convention
! class="unsortable" | National Program
|-
| {{HUN}} || {{dts|April 1991}}<ref>{{cite web | url = http://pecs.esa.int/node/104 | title = Hungary and ESA sign PECS Agreement for another five years | publisher = European Space Agency| date = 11 November 2008}}</ref><ref name="polandCA" /> || {{dts|7 April 2003}}<ref name="AR2003">{{cite book | chapterurl =http://www.esa.int/esapub/annuals/annual03/ar3_agree_signed.pdf | chapter = Agreements 2003 |title = ESA Annual Report 2003 | publisher = European Space Agency | pages = 112–113 | format = PDF}}</ref> || 1st: 5 November 2003<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMLTLUZJND_index_0.html | title = Hungary and the Czech Republic sign ECS agreements with ESA | accessdate = 2008-07-17 | date = 4 December 2003 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref><br />2nd: 26 September 2008<ref>{{cite web | url =http://pecs.esa.int/node/104 | title = Hungary and ESA sign PECS Agreement for another five years | accessdate = 2008-11-20 | date = 11 November 2008 | publisher = European Space Agency}}{{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> || || [[Hungarian Space Office|HSO]]
|-
| {{ROM}} || {{dts|December 1992}}<ref name=romania /><ref name="polandCA" /> || {{dts|17 February 2006}}<ref name=romania>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMI2HMVGJE_Benefits_0.html | title = Romania becomes third ESA European Cooperating State | accessdate = 2008-07-17 | date = 27 February 2006 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> || 16 February 2007<ref>{{cite web | url =http://pecs.esa.int/node/82 | work = ESA PECS | title = Romania | accessdate = 2008-07-17 |publisher = European Space Agency |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20080716083244/http://pecs.esa.int/node/82 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2008-07-16}}</ref> || {{dts|20 January 2011}}<ref>Actmedia.eu –[http://www.actmedia.eu/2011/01/20/top+story/romania+is+to+sign+agreement+on+joining+european+space+agency+convention+/31695Romania is to sign agreement on joining European Space Agency Convention]</ref> || [[Romanian Space Agency|ROSA]]
|-
| {{POL}} || {{dts|28 January 1994}}<ref name="polandCA">{{cite press release | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_4_1994_p_EN.html | title = ESA/Poland cooperation agreement | date = 28 January 1994 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> || {{dts|27 April 2007}}<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaMI/About_ESA/SEMVKSU681F_0.html | title = Poland becomes the fourth ESA European Cooperating State | date = 4 May 2007 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> || 28 April 2008<ref>{{cite web | url =http://pecs.esa.int/node/99 | title = Poland and ESA sign the Plan for European Cooperating State | accessdate = 2008-07-17 | date = 5 May 2008 | publisher = European Space Agency}}{{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> ||style="color:#aa0;" | (2012 or 2013)<ref>Kosmonauta.net –[http://www.kosmonauta.net/index.php/Przyszlosc/Polska/2011-06-18-esa.html KBKiS PAN o decyzji premiera w sprawie przystąpienia do ESA (PAN KBKiS Prime Minister's decision on accession to ESA)]</ref> || [[Space Research Centre|CBK-PAN]]
|-
| {{TUR}} || {{dts|15 July 2004}}<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMOCD0XDYD_index_0.html | title = ESA signs Cooperation Agreement with Turkey | date = 6 September 2004 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> || || || ||[[Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey|TÜBİTAK]]
|-
| {{EST}} || {{dts|26 June 2007}}<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMMA09OY2F_Benefits_2.html |title = Estonia signs Cooperation Agreement with ESA | accessdate = 2008-07-17 | date = 26 June 2007 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> || {{dts|10 November 2009}}<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMW8W3VU1G_index_0.html | title = Estonia becomes fifth ESA European Cooperating State | accessdate = 2009-11-14 | date = 12 November 2009 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> || || || through [[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications (Estonia)|MoEC]]
|-
| {{UKR}} || {{dts|25 January 2008}}<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.nkau.gov.ua/nsau/newsnsau.nsf/HronolE/54F1C600559E994CC22573DB00489EE7?OpenDocument&Lang=E | title = A cooperation agreement between the Government of Ukraine and the European Space Agency was signed in Paris | accessdate = 2008-01-25 | publisher = [[State Space Agency of Ukraine]]}}</ref> || || || || [[State Space Agency of Ukraine|SSAU]]
|-
| {{SLO}} || {{dts|28 May 2008}}<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.ukom.gov.si/eng/slovenia/publications/slovenia-news/6537/6554/ | publisher = Slovenian Government Communication Office | title = Slovenian Government and ESA Sign Cooperation Agreement | date = 28 May 2008 | archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20080608123103/http://www.ukom.gov.si/eng/slovenia/publications/slovenia-news/6537/6554/| archivedate = 8 June 2008}}</ref> || {{dts|22 January 2010}}<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/About_ESA/SEM2BMRJR4G_0.html | title = Slovenia becomes sixth ESA European Cooperating State | accessdate = 2010-01-25 | date = 25 January 2010 | publisher = ESA}}</ref> || {{dts|30 November 2010}}<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.mvzt.gov.si/nc/en/splosno/cns/news/article/94/6845/049772920e/ | title = European Space Agency selects and confirms ten Slovenian proposals | accessdate = 6 December 2010 |publisher = Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology of Slovenia | date = 3 December 2010}}</ref> || || through [[Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology (Slovenia)|MoHEST]]
|-
| {{LAT}} || {{dts|23 July 2009}}<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.diena.lv/lat/politics/hot/parakstis-ligumu-par-sadarbibu-kosmosa-joma | title = Līgums ar Kosmosa aģentūru liks tiekties pēc augstākiem rezultātiem | accessdate = 2009-07-24 |work = [[Diena.lv]] | date = 23 July 2009 | language = Latvian}}</ref> || || || || through[[Ministry of Education and Science (Latvia)|MoES]]
|-
|-
| {{CYP}} || {{dts|27 August 2009}}<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.famagusta-gazette.com/default.asp?sdetail=9458 | title = Cyprus signs space agreement | accessdate = 2009-08-30 | date = 28 August 2009 | work = Famagusta Gazette Online}}</ref> || || || || through [[Ministry of Communications and Works (Cyprus)|MoCW]]
! Skylab 1 ''SL-1''
|[[File:Skylab Program Patch.png|50px]]
! colspan="3"|''unmanned launch of space station''
|1973-05-14<br>17:30:00 UTC
|1979-07-11<br>16:37:00 UTC
| style="text-align:right;"|2248.96
|-
|-
| {{SVK}} || {{dts|28 April 2010}}<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/About_ESA/SEMYC1KPO8G_0.html }}</ref> || || || || through[[Ministry of Education (Slovakia)|MoE]]
! [[Skylab 2|Skylab 2 ''SL-2'' (''SLM-1'')]]
|[[File:Skylab1-Patch.png|50px]]
|[[Pete Conrad]]
|[[Paul J. Weitz|Paul Weitz]]
|[[Joseph Kerwin]]
|1973-05-25<br>13:00:00 UTC
|1973-06-22<br>13:49:48 UTC
| style="text-align:right;"|28.03
|-
|-
| {{LTU}} || {{dts|7 October 2010}}<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.baltic-course.com/eng/Technology/?doc=32461 }}</ref> || || || || through [[Ministry of Economy (Lithuania)|MoE]]<ref>Previously participation was announced by the Lithuanian[[Ministry of Education and Science (Lithuania)|Ministry of Education and Science]].[http://www.ve.lt/?rub=1065924810&data=2008-07-17&id=1216294527 Lietuva stoja į Europos kosmoso agentūrą (Lithuanian)]</ref>
! [[Skylab 3|Skylab 3 ''SL-3'' (''SLM-2'')]]
|[[File:Skylab2-Patch.png|50px]]
|[[Alan Bean]]
|[[Jack Lousma]]
|[[Owen Garriott]]
|1973-07-28<br>11:10:50 UTC
|1973-09-25<br>22:19:51 UTC
| style="text-align:right;"|59.46
|-
|-
| {{ISR}} || {{dts|30 January 2011}}<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMKE3Y1LJG_index_0.html | title = Israel signs Cooperation Agreement| accessdate = 2011-02-01 | date = 31 January 2011 | work = ESA.int}}</ref> || || || ||[[Israeli Space Agency|ISA]]
! [[Skylab 4|Skylab 4 ''SL-4'' (''SLM-3'')]]
|[[File:Skylab3-Patch.png|50px]]
|[[Gerald P. Carr|Gerald Carr]]
|[[William R. Pogue|William Pogue]]
|[[Edward Gibson]]
|1973-11-16<br>14:01:23 UTC
|1974-02-08<br>15:16:53 UTC
| style="text-align:right;"|84.04
|}
|}


Romania signed the ESA Convention on 20 January 2011 and will become the 19th member of ESA once it deposits its instrument of ratification with the government of France. This is due to happen later in 2011.<ref>esa.int – [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/About_ESA/SEMF0P6SXIG_0.htmlRomania accedes to ESA Convention]</ref>
===Operations in orbit===
Skylab orbited Earth 2,476 times during the 171 days and 13 hours of its occupation during the three manned Skylab missions. Astronauts performed ten spacewalks totaling 42 hours 16 minutes. Skylab logged about 2,000 hours of scientific and medical experiments, 127,000 frames of film of the sun and 46,000 of the Earth.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|340}} Solar experiments included photographs of eight [[solar flare]]s, and produced valuable results<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|155}} that scientists stated would have been impossible to obtain with unmanned spacecraft.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|342-344}} The existence of the Sun's [[coronal holes]] were confirmed because of these efforts.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|357}} Many of the experiments conducted investigated the astronauts' adaptation to extended periods of [[microgravity]].


===Life in orbit===
===Possible future cooperation===
A typical day began at 6 AM [[Central Time Zone]].<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|307-308}} Although the toilet was small and noisy, both veteran astronauts&mdash;who had endured earlier missions' rudimentary waste-collection systems&mdash;and rookies complimented it.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|165,307}}<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|80}}<ref name="time19730625"/> The first crew enjoyed taking a shower once a week but found drying themselves in weightlessness<ref name="time19730625">"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,907462,00.html Living It Up in Space]" ''Time'', 25 June 1973.</ref> and vacuuming excess water difficult; later crews usually cleaned themselves with wet washcloths daily instead. Astronauts also found that bending over in weightlessness to put on socks or tie shoelaces strained their stomach muscles.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|306-308}}


The political perspective of the [[European Union]] (EU) is to make ESA an [[Agency of the European Union|agency of the EU]] by 2014.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esapub/br/br268/br268.pdf |title=ESA BR-268 |format=PDF |date=|accessdate=2011-08-29}}</ref>
Breakfast began at 7 AM. Astronauts usually stood to eat, as sitting also strained their stomach muscles. They reported that their food&mdash;although greatly improved from Apollo&mdash;was bland and repetitive, and weightlessness caused utensils, food containers, and bits of food to float away; also, gas in their drinking water contributed to [[flatulence]]. After breakfast and preparation for lunch, experiments, tests and repairs of spacecraft systems and, if possible, 90 minutes of physical exercise followed. After dinner scheduled for 6 PM, crews performed household chores and prepared for the next day's experiments. Following lengthy daily instructions of up to 15 meters long sent via [[teleprinter]], the crews were often busy enough to postpone sleep.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|309,334}}


So far the only two [[EU member states]] that have not signed an ESA Cooperation Agreement are Bulgaria and Malta. Both of them, however, have already announced their intention to join ESA.
Each Skylab mission set a record for the amount of time astronauts spent in space. The station offered "a highly satisfactory living and working environment for crews."<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|2-4}} Although it had a [[darts|dart set]],<ref name="darts">"[http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?id=A19731653000 Darts Game, Skylab]" Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.</ref> [[playing cards]], and other recreational equipment in addition to books and music players, the window became the most popular way to relax in orbit.<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|79-80,134-135}}
*{{BGR}} on 9 April 2009 announced their intention to participate in the activities of ESA<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=102652 | title = Bulgaria Slated to Join European Space Community | date = April 9, 2009 | work = Novinite}}</ref>through [[Bulgarian Space Agency|IKI-BAN]].<ref>[http://www.space.bas.bg/Eng/docs/Otchet_IKI_2004_2008.pdf Bulgarian Academy of Sciences – Space Research Institute (page 18)]</ref>
*{{MLT}} on 20 June 2009 announced their intention to participate in the activities of ESA <ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite news | url =http://www.earsc.eu/news/malta-exploring-ways-of-collaborating-with-european-space-agency |title = Malta exploring ways of collaborating with European Space Agency | date = 20 June 2009| work = EARSC}}</ref> through the [[Malta Council for Science and Technology]].<ref name=autogenerated3 />


==Launch vehicle fleet==
===Science===
ESA has made great progress towards its goal of having a complete fleet of launch vehicles in service, competing in all sectors of the launch market. ESA's fleet will soon consist of three major rocket designs, [[Ariane 5]], [[Soyuz-2 (rocket)|Soyuz-2]] and [[Vega (launcher)|Vega]]. Rocket launches are carried out by [[Arianespace]], which has 23 shareholders representing the industry that manufactures the Ariane 5 as well as [[CNES]], at the [[spaceport]] in French Guiana. Because many communication satellites have equatorial orbits, launches from French Guiana are able to take larger payloads into space than from more northerly spaceports. In addition, equatorial launches give spacecraft an extra 'push' of nearly 500&nbsp;m/s due to the higher [[rotation velocity]] of someone standing on the equator than near the Earth's axis where rotation velocity approaches nil.


==Plans for reuse==
===Ariane 5===
{{main|Ariane 5}}
Skylab was abandoned after the end of the SL-4 mission in February 1974. NASA at the time discouraged discussion of additional visits due to the station's age,<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|335,361}} but in 1977 and 1978, when the agency still believed the shuttle would be ready by 1979, it completed two studies on reusing the station.<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|3-1}}<ref name="oberg199202"/> {{As of|1978|September}} the agency believed Skylab was safe for crews, with all major systems intact and operational.<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|3-2}} It still had 180 [[man-days]] of water and 420 man-days of oxygen, and astronauts could refill both;<ref name="oberg199202"/> the station could hold up to about 600 to 700 man-days of drinkable water and 420 man-days of food.<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|2-7}}
[[Image:Ariane 5 (maquette).jpg|thumb|upright|An [[Ariane 5]]]]
The Ariane 5 rocket is the primary launcher of ESA. Its maximum estimated [[Payload (air and space craft)|payload]] is 6-10 tons to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]] and up to 21 tons to [[Low earth orbit|LEO]]. The launch craft has been in service since 1997 and replaced[[Ariane 4]]. The Ariane rocket exists in several specifications, the heaviest being [[Ariane 5 ECA]], which failed during its first test flight in 2002, but has since made twenty-two consecutive successful flights.


ESA's [[Ariane (rocket)|Ariane]] [[Ariane 1|1]], [[Ariane 2|2]], [[Ariane 3|3]] and [[Ariane 4|4]] launchers (the latter of which was ESA's long-time workhorse) have been retired.
The studies cited several benefits from reusing Skylab, which one called a resource worth "hundreds of millions of dollars"<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|1-13}} already in orbit. Since no more Saturn Vs existed, four to five shuttle flights and extensive [[space architecture]] would have been needed to build another station as large as Skylab's {{convert|12,400|cuft}} volume.<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|1-12 to 1-13}} Its ample size&mdash;much greater than that of the shuttle alone or shuttle plus [[Spacelab]]<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|2-8}}&mdash;was enough with some modifications for up to seven astronauts<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|2-31}} of both sexes,<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|3-14}} and experiments needing long duration in space;<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|1-13}} even a movie projector for recreation was possible.<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|3-11}}


===Soyuz===
Reuse proponents also said repairing and upgrading Skylab would provide information on the results of long-duration exposure to space for future stations.<ref name="oberg199202"/> The most serious issue for reactivation was [[stationkeeping]], as one of the gyroscopes had failed<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|361}} and the [[attitude control system]] needed refueling; they would need EVA to fix or replace. The station had not been designed for extensive resupply. However, while plans had originally called for Skylab crews to perform only limited maintenance<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|34}} they successfully made major repairs during EVA, such as the SL-2 crew's deploying of the solar panel<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|73-75}} and the SL-4 crew's repair of the primary coolant loop.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|317}}<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|130}}<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|3-21}} The SL-2 crew fixed one item during EVA by "hit[ting] it with the hammer."<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|89}}
[[Soyuz-2 (rocket)|Soyuz-2]] (also called the Soyuz-ST) is a Russian medium [[Payload (air and space craft)|payload]] (ca. 3 metric tons to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]]) launcher to be brought into ESA service in April 2010.<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gVS89qN2Zk3D6jSMbJfn5Bc3SA4w | title = Russian rockets shipped for French Guiana launch | agency = [[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] | date = 7 November 2009 | publisher = [[Google]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url =http://en.rian.ru/science/20091107/156748574.html | agency = [[RIA Novosti]] | title = Russia ships Soyuz carrier rockets to Kourou spaceport | date = 7 November 2009}}</ref> ESA has entered into a €340 million joint venture with the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] over the use of the Soyuz launcher.<ref name=international-coop>{{cite web | title = Launchers Home: International cooperation | url = http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Home/SEMCDI1PGQD_0.html| publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> Under the agreement, the Russian agency manufactures Soyuz rocket parts for ESA, which are then shipped to French Guiana for assembly. ESA benefits because it gains a medium [[Payload (air and space craft)|payload]]s launcher, complementing its fleet while saving on development costs. In addition, the Soyuz rocket—which has been the Russian's space launch workhorse for some 40 years—is proven technology with a good safety record.
Russia also benefits in that it gets access to the Kourou launch site. Launching from Kourou rather than [[Baikonur]] will allow the Russians to almost double the Soyuz payload (3.0 tonnes vs. 1.7 tonnes to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]]), because of Kourou's closer proximity to the equator. Both agencies benefit from the long term strategic cooperation, which is also intended to enable future joint technology developments.
Maiden launch is planned for third quarter 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Home/SEMTRRJOXDG_0.html |title=ESA – Launchers Home – Soyuz launch facility nears completion |publisher=Esa.int |date=2010-10-06|accessdate=2011-08-29}}</ref>


===Vega===
Some studies also said beyond the opportunity for space construction and maintenance experience, reactivating the station would free up shuttle flights for other uses,<ref name="reusestudy">''[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19790075817_1979075817.pdf Skylab Reuse Study]''. Martin Marietta and Bendix for NASA, September 1978.</ref>{{rp|1-13}} and reduce the need to [[Extended Duration Orbiter|modify the shuttle for long-duration missions]].<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|2-9 to 2-10}} Even if the station were not manned again, went one argument, it would serve as a useful experimental platform.<ref name="reusestudy"/>{{rp|2-61}}
[[Vega (launcher)|''Vega'']] is ESA's small payload (ca. 1.5 metric tons to 700&nbsp;km orbit) launcher.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.spacenews.com/civil/100115-asi-expects-budget-remain-flat-2010.html | title = Italian Space Agency Expects Budget To Remain Flat for 2010 | work = Space News | date = 15 January 2010 | first = Peter B. | last = de Selding}}</ref> The leading ESA member state for the ''Vega'' Programme is [[Italy]], contributing 65% of the costs. ''Vega'' itself has been designed to be a body launcher with three solid propulsion stages and an additional [[liquid rocket|liquid propulsion]] upper module to place the cargo into the exact orbit intended. For a small-cargo rocket it is remarkable that ''Vega'' will be able to place multiple [[Payload (air and space craft)|payload]]s into orbit.


''Vega'''s first and main stage (P80) is a direct modification of the Ariane 5 EAP (solid boosters) developed by CNES, the French space agency.<ref>{{cite journal | url =http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/VEGAbrochure.pdf | title = Vega: a small launcher for Europe| journal = ESA today | month = May/June | year = 2003 | pages = 14–15 | format = PDF |publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref>
===Planned shuttle missions===
The reactivation would have occurred in four phases:<ref name="oberg199202"/>
# [[Cancelled Space Shuttle missions#STS-2A (Columbia)|An early Shuttle flight]] would boost Skylab to a higher orbit that would add five years of life. The shuttle might have pushed or towed the station, but attaching a booster&mdash;the Tele-operated Reboost System (TRS)&mdash;to the station was more likely based on astronauts' training for the task. [[Martin Marietta]] won the contract for the $26 million<ref name="time19790101"/> TRS, which contained about three tons of propellant,<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/skyodule.htm Skylab Reboost Module<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and began work in April 1978.<ref name="time19790101"/>
# In two shuttle flights, Skylab would be refurbished. In January 1982, the first mission would attach a docking adapter and conduct repairs. In August 1983, a second crew would replace several system components.
# In March 1984, shuttle crews would attach a solar-powered Power Expansion Package, refurbish scientific equipment, and conduct 30- to 90-day missions using the Apollo Telescope Mount and the earth resources experiments.
# Over five years Skylab would be expanded to accommodate six to eight astronauts, with a new large docking/interface module, additional logistics modules, Spacelab modules and pallets, and an orbital vehicle space dock using the shuttle's [[external tank]].


==Human space flight==
The first three phases would have required about $60 million in 1980s dollars, not including launch costs.
{{update|date=July 2011}}


===History===
==Abandonment and re-entry==
[[Image:Ulf D. Merbold.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ulf Merbold]] became the first ESA astronaut to fly into space.]]
[[File:USNS Vanguard.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|[[USNS Mission San Fernando|''Vanguard'' (T-AGM-19)]] seen here as a NASA Skylab tracking ship. Note the tracking radar and telemetry antennas.]]
At the time ESA was formed, its main goals did not encompass human space flight, rather it considered itself to be primarily a scientific research organisation for unmanned space exploration in contrast to its American and Soviet counterparts. It is therefore not surprising that the first non-Soviet European in space was not an ESA astronaut on a European space craft: It was [[Czechoslovak]] [[Vladimír Remek]] who in 1978 became the first non-Soviet European in space (the first European in space being [[Yuri Gagarin]] of the Soviet Union) &mdash; on a[[Soviet space program|Soviet]] [[Soyuz spacecraft]], followed by the [[Poles|Pole]] [[Mirosław Hermaszewski]] and [[East German]] [[Sigmund Jähn]] in the same year. This Soviet cooperation programme, known as [[Intercosmos]], primarily involved the participation of [[Eastern bloc]]countries, however in 1982, [[Jean-Loup Chrétien]] became the first western European on a flight to the Soviet [[Salyut 7]] space station.


Because Chrétien did not officially fly into space as an ESA astronaut, but rather as a member of the French [[CNES]] astronaut corps, the German [[Ulf Merbold]] is considered the first ESA astronaut to fly into space. He participated in the [[STS-9]] [[Space Shuttle]] mission that included the first use of the European built [[Spacelab]] in 1983. STS-9 marked the beginning of an extensive ESA/NASA joint partnership that included dozens of space flights of ESA astronauts in the following years. Some of this missions with Spacelab were fully funded and organizationally and scientifically controlled by [[ESA]] (like separate two by [[Germany]] and one by [[Japan]]) with European astronauts as masters not a guests on a board. Beside paying for Spacelab flights and seats on the shuttles, ESA continued its human space flight cooperation with the [[Soviet Union]] and later [[Russia]], including numerous visits to[[Mir]].
After a boost of {{convert|6.8 |mi}} by SL-4's Apollo CSM before its departure, Skylab was left in a [[parking orbit]] of {{convert|269|mi}} by {{convert|283|mi}}<ref name=livingandworking>{{cite web|title=Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab|url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/contents.htm|publisher=[[NASA]]|accessdate=20 February 2011|author=Charles Dunlap Benson|coauthors=William David Compton}}</ref>{{rp|361}} that was expected to last until at least the early 1980s based on estimates of the 11-year [[sunspot cycle]] that began in 1976.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|361}}<ref name="edelson197901">Edelson, Edward. "[http://books.google.com/books?id=kQEAAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA64&ots=t7hvCFHSBl&dq=skylab%20shuttle&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q=skylab%20shuttle&f=false Saving Skylab: The untold story]" ''Popular Science'', January 1979.</ref> At the end of SL-4, only one Saturn IB rocket remained in the inventory&mdash;later used for [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]]&mdash;while all other Saturn IB and Saturn V rocket parts had been donated to museums. NASA began considering the risks from space station reentry as early as 1962, but decided to not incorporate a [[retrorocket]] system in Skylab due to cost and acceptable risk.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|127-129}}


During the latter half of the 1980s, European human space flights changed from being the exception to routine and therefore, in 1990, the [[European Astronaut Centre]] in [[Cologne]],[[Germany]] was established. It selects and trains prospective astronauts and is responsible for the coordination with international partners especially with regards to the [[International Space Station]]. As of 2006, the ESA astronaut corps officially includes 12 members, including nationals from all the large Western European countries except the [[United Kingdom]].
===Solar activity===
Greater-than-expected [[solar activity]]<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|362}} heated the outer layers of the Earth's atmosphere and thereby increased drag on Skylab. By late 1977 [[NORAD]] accurately forecast a reentry in mid-1979;<ref name="edelson197901"/> a [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA) scientist criticized NASA for using an inaccurate model for the second most-intense sunspot cycle in a century, and for ignoring NOAA predictions published in 1976.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|362-363}}


In the summer of 2008 ESA started to recruit new astronauts so that final selection would be due spring 2009. Almost 10,000 people registered as astronaut candidates till the registration ended in June 2008. 8,413 fulfilled the initial application criteria. Of the applicants 918 were chosen to take part in the first stage of psychological testing which narrowed down the field to 192. After two stage psychological tests and medical evaluation in early 2009 as well as formal interviews, six new members of the [[European Astronaut Corps]] were selected: five men and one woman.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaHS/SEMZQPQ4KKF_index_0.html |title = Closing in on new astronauts | date = 24 September 2008 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref>
The reentry of the USSR's [[Cosmos 954]] in January 1978 and the resulting radioactive debris in northern Canada drew more attention to Skylab's orbit. Although Skylab did not contain radioactive materials, the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] warned NASA about diplomatic repercussions from station debris.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|363}} Ground controllers re-established contact with Skylab in March 1978<ref name="edelson197901"/> and recharged its batteries.<ref name="time19790716"/> Although NASA worked on plans to reboost Skylab with the shuttle through 1978 and the TRS was almost complete, the agency gave up in December when it became clear that the shuttle would not be ready in time;<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|363-367}}<ref name="time19790101">"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,916583,00.html Science: Skylab Will Come Tumbling Down]" ''Time'', 1 January 1979.</ref> its first flight, [[STS-1]], did not occur until April 1981. Also rejected was a proposal to launch the TRS using one or two unmanned rockets.<ref name="oberg199202">[[James Oberg|Oberg, James]]. "[http://www.astronautix.com/articles/skyyfate.htm Skylab's Untimely Fate]". ''Air & Space'', February/March 1992.</ref>


===Reentry===
===Astronaut Corps===
{{See also|European Astronaut Corps}}
[[File:Skylabfragment.JPG|thumb|right|The largest fragment of Skylab recovered after its re-entry through Earth's atmosphere. It is on display at the [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]].]]


The astronauts of the European Space Agency are:
Skylab's demise was an international media event, with merchandising, wagering on time and place of re-entry, and nightly news reports.<ref name="time19790716"/> The ''[[San Francisco Examiner]]'' offered a $10,000 prize for the first piece of Skylab delivered to its offices; the competing ''[[San Francisco Chronicle|Chronicle]]'' offered $200,000 if a subscriber suffered personal or property damage.<ref name="time19790716"/> NASA calculated that the odds of station re-entry debris hitting a human were 152 to 1<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|369}}&mdash;although the odds of debris hitting a city of 100,000 or more were 7 to 1&mdash;and teams were ready to head to any country hit by debris and requesting help.<ref name="time19790716">"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,920502,00.html Skylab's Fiery Fall]" ''Time'', 16 July 1979.</ref>
{{multicol}}
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Jean-François Clervoy]]<ref group=note name=Mir />
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Samantha Cristoforetti]]<ref group=note name=selection2009 />
*{{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Frank De Winne]]<ref group=note name=ISS />
*{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Pedro Duque]]<ref group=note name=ISS />
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Reinhold Ewald]]<ref group=note name=Mir />
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Léopold Eyharts]]<ref group=note name=Mir /><ref group=note name=ISS />
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Alexander Gerst]]<ref group=note name=selection2009 />
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Umberto Guidoni]]<ref group=note name=retired /><ref group=note name=ISS />
{{multicol-break}}
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Christer Fuglesang]]<ref group=note name=ISS />
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[André Kuipers]]<ref group=note name=ISS />
*{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Andreas Mogensen]]<ref group=note name=selection2009 />
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo A. Nespoli|Paolo Nespoli]]<ref group=note name=ISS />
*{{flagicon|Switzerland}} [[Claude Nicollier]]<ref group=note name=retired />
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luca Parmitano]]<ref group=note name=selection2009 />
*{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Timothy Peake]]<ref group=note name=selection2009 />
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Philippe Perrin]]<ref group=note name=retired /><ref group=note name=ISS/>
{{multicol-break}}
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Thomas Pesquet]]<ref group=note name=selection2009 />
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Thomas Reiter]]<ref group=note name=Mir /><ref group=note name=ISS />
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Hans Schlegel]]<ref group=note name=ISS />
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Gerhard Thiele]]<ref group=note name=retired />
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Michel Tognini]]<ref group=note name=retired /><ref group=note name=Mir/>
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Vittori]]<ref group=note name=ISS />
{{multicol-end}}


{{reflist|group=note|refs=
Ground controllers adjusted Skylab's orientation for ideal re-entry dynamics in the hours before reentry<ref name="time19790716"/> at approximately 16:37 UTC 11 July 1979. They aimed the station at a spot {{convert|810|mi}} south southeast of [[Cape Town, South Africa]]. The station did not burn up as fast as NASA expected, however. Due to a 4% calculation error, debris landed southeast of [[Perth, Western Australia]],<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|371}} and was found between [[Esperance, Western Australia|Esperance]] and [[Rawlinna]], from 31° to 34°S and 122° to 126°E. The [[Shire of Esperance]] fined the United States $400 for littering, a fine which remained unpaid for 30 years.<ref>Taggart, Stewart. "[http://www.space.com/news/spacestation/esperance_mir_010320.html Australians Take Mir Deorbit Risks in Stride.]{{dead link|date=February 2011}}" [[Space.com]], 20 March 2001.</ref> The fine was paid in April 2009, when radio show host Scott Barley of Highway Radio raised the funds from his morning show listeners and paid the fine on behalf of NASA.<ref>Hannah Siemer. "[http://esperance.yourguide.com.au/news/local/news/general/littering-fine-paid/1488319.aspx?storypage=1]". The Esperance Express, 17 April 2009.</ref>


<ref name=retired>retired now</ref>
17 year-old Stan Thornton found a few pieces of Skylab at his home in Esperance and caught the first flight to San Francisco, where he collected the ''Examiner'' prize.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|371}} In a coincidence for the organizers, the annual [[Miss Universe]] pageant was scheduled to be held a few days later, on 20 July 1979 in Perth. A large piece of Skylab debris was displayed on the stage.<ref>[http://criticalbeauty.com/MU_Telecast_1979.html Critical Beauty - Miss Universe 1979]</ref>


<ref name=Mir>have visited [[Mir]]</ref>
==Unflown missions==
=== Skylab 5 ===
Skylab 5 would have been a short 20-day mission to conduct scientific experiments and boost Skylab into a higher orbit. [[Vance Brand]] (commander), [[Don Lind]] (command module pilot), and [[William B. Lenoir]] (science pilot) would have been the crew for this mission, with Brand and Lind being the prime crew for the never-flown [[Skylab Rescue]] flights.<ref name=astronautixskylab5>{{cite web|last=Wade|first=Mark|title=Skylab 5|url=http://www.astronautix.com/flights/skylab5.htm|publisher=Astronautix|accessdate=2011-02-04}}</ref> Brand and Lind also trained for a mission that would have aimed Skylab for a controlled [[deorbit]].<ref name="lindoh">[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/LindDL/linddl.pdf Don L. Lind oral history transcript], NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project, 27 May 2005.</ref>


<ref name=ISS>have visited the [[International Space Station]]</ref>
===Skylab B===
{{Main|Skylab B}}
A flight-quality backup Skylab was built. NASA considered using it for a second station in May 1973 or later, to be called Skylab B, but decided against it. Launching another Skylab with another Saturn V rocket would have been very costly, and it was decided to spend this money on the development of the Space Shuttle instead. The backup is on display at the [[National Air and Space Museum]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]


<ref name=selection2009>2009 selection</ref>
A full-size training mock-up once used for astronaut training is located at the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]] visitor's center in [[Houston, Texas]]. Another full-size training mock-up, made from spare parts, has been rotting for years in a museum parking lot exposed to the elements at [[Huntsville, Alabama]] after it was moved outdoors to make way for an exhibit on the Russian space station MIR. This Skylab engineering mock-up is currently being considered for restoration to the pristine condition it originally enjoyed inside the [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]].<ref>[http://saveskylab.org/ index]. saveskylab.org</ref>


}}


===Manned launch vehicles===
==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Skylab Latrine.jpg|The waste management facilities in the backup Skylab at the [[National Air and Space Museum]].
File:Skylab mockup Smithsonian NASM.jpg|An astronaut dines aboard the backup Skylab at the [[Smithsonian]] [[National Air and Space Museum|NASM]].
File:Skylab2 1974 Issue-10c.jpg|SkyLab [[U.S. Space Exploration History on U.S. Stamps|commemorative issue]], Issue of 1974. The commemorative stamp reflects initial repairs to the station, including the parasol sunshade.
</gallery>


In the 1980s France pressed for an independent European manned launch vehicle. Around 1978 it was decided to pursue a reusable spacecraft model and starting in November 1987 a project to create a mini-shuttle by the name of [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] was introduced. The craft itself was modelled comparable to the first proposals of the [[Space Shuttle]] and consisted of a small reusable spaceship that would carry 3 to 5 astronauts and 3 to 4 metric tons of payload for scientific experiments. With a total maximum weight of 21 metric tons it would have been launched on the [[Ariane 5]] rocket, which was being developed at that time. It was planned solely for use in [[Low-Earth orbit]] space flights. The planning and pre-development phase concluded in 1991; however, the production phase was never fully implemented because at that time the political landscape had changed significantly. With the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]ESA looked forward to cooperation with [[Russia]] to build a next-generation human space vehicle. Thus the [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] program was cancelled in 1995 after about 3 billion dollars had been spent. The [[Columbus (MTFF)|Columbus space station program]] had a similar fate.
==See also==

{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
In the 21st century ESA started new programs in order to create its own manned spacecraft, most notable among its various projects and proposals is [[Hopper (spacecraft)|Hopper]], whose prototype by [[EADS]], called [[EADS Phoenix|Phoenix]], has already been tested. While projects such as [[Hopper (spacecraft)|Hopper]] are neither concrete nor to be realised within the next decade, other possibilities for human spaceflight in cooperation with the [[Russian Space Agency]] have emerged. Following talks with the [[Russian Space Agency]] in 2004 and June 2005,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/space/article/0,14493,1489679,00.html |date = 22 May 2005 | title = Europe to hitch space ride on Russia's rocket | first = Robin |last = McKie | work = [[The Observer]]}}</ref> a cooperation between ESA and the [[Russian Space Agency]] was announced to jointly work on the Russian-designed [[Kliper]], a reusable spacecraft that would be available for space travel beyond LEO (e.g. the moon or even Mars). It was speculated that Europe would finance part of it. However, a €50 million participation study for [[Kliper]], which was expected to be approved in December 2005, was finally not approved by the ESA member states. The Russian state tender for the [[Kliper]] project was subsequently cancelled in the summer of 2006.
*[[Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test|Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test (SMEAT)]]

*[[Splashdown (spacecraft landing)]]
In June 2006 ESA member states granted 15 million to the [[CSTS|Crew Space Transportation System]] (CSTS) study, a two-year study to design a spacecraft capable of going beyond Low-Earth orbit based on the current [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] design. This project is pursued with [[Roskosmos]] instead of the previously cancelled [[Kliper]] proposal. A decision on the actual implementation and construction of the CSTS spacecraft is contemplated for 2008, with the major design decisions being made before the summer of 2007.
In mid-2009 EADS Astrium was awarded a €21 million study into designing a manned variation of the European ATV vehicle which is believed to now be the basis of the Advanced Crew Transportation System design.<ref>{{cite web|last=Coppinger |first=Rob|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/blogs/hyperbola/2009/07/picture-eads-astrium-wins-21-m.html|title=EADS Astrium wins €21 million reentry vehicle study |publisher=Flightglobal.com |date=|accessdate=2011-08-29}}</ref>

==Cooperation with other countries and organisations==
ESA has signed cooperation agreements with the following states that currently neither plan to integrate as tightly with ESA institutions as [[Canada]], nor envision future membership of ESA: [[Argentina]],<ref>{{cite web |url =http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Industry/SEMYD01YUFF_0.html | title = ESA and Argentina sign extension of Cooperation Agreement | date = 20 May 2008 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> [[Brazil]],<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/ESAA3JUTYWC_index_0.html | title = ESA on the world stage –international agreements with Brazil, Poland and India | date = 1 February 2002 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> [[People's Republic of China|China]],<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMJL5ULWFE_Benefits_0.html | title = Closer relations between ESA and China | date = 21 November 2005 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref>[[India]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/SMART-1/SEMZDU5DIAE_0.html | title = Agreement signed for European instruments on Chandrayaan-1 | date = 1 July 2005 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> (for the [[Chandrayan]] mission), and [[Russia]].<ref name="AR2003"/>

Additionally, ESA has joint projects with the [[European Union]], [[NASA]] of the [[United States]] and is participating in the [[International Space Station]] together with the [[United States]] (NASA), [[Russia]] and [[Japan]] (JAXA).

===European Union===
[[Image:ESA and EU.png|thumb|200px|{{legend|#81c846|ESA and EU member countries}}{{legend|#b94954|ESA-only members}}{{legend|#3b54b1|EU-only members}}]]
ESA is not an agency or body of the [[European Union]] (EU), and has non-EU countries[[Switzerland]] and [[Norway]] as members. There are however ties between the two, with various agreements in place and being worked on, to define the legal status of ESA with regard to the EU.<ref name=dqbiya /> There are common goals between ESA and the EU, and ESA has an EU liaison office in Brussels. On certain projects, the EU and ESA cooperate, such as the upcoming[[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo]] satellite navigation system. Space policy has since December 2009 been an area for voting in the [[European Council]]. Under the [[European Space Policy|European Space Policy of 2007]], the EU, ESA and its Member States committed themselves to increasing coordination of their activities and programmes and to organising their respective roles relating to space.<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.cyprus-mail.com/news/main.php?id=47524&archive=1 | title = Opening up the gate to space | accessdate = 30 August 2009 | work = [[Cyprus Mail]] | first = Lucy | last = Millett |date = 29 August 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

Former Italian astronaut [[Umberto Guidoni]], during his tenure as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] from 2004 to 2009, stressed the importance of the European Union as a driving force for space exploration, "since other players are coming up such as India and China it is becoming ever more important that Europeans can have an independent access to space. We have to invest more into space research and technology in order to have an industry capable of competing with other international players."<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/057-42862-322-11-47-909-20081120STO42665-2008-17-11-2008/default_en.htm| title = Former astronaut MEP backs Europe's stellar ambitions | accessdate = 28 November 2008| date = 28 November 2008 | publisher = [[European Parliament]]}}</ref>

An independent report on the future of ESA, requested by its director-general, recommends further integration of ESA into the structures of the EU. Space policy would be decided by the European Council and ESA would be the ''de facto'' space agency of the European Union, not excluding the possibility of making it a formal EU agency. This would also help with co-operation between space policy and environmental or [[European Security and Defence Policy|security policy]], Galileo itself has a security dimension.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/annex2_wisemen.pdf | title = Towards a Space Agency for the European Union | format = PDF | first1 = Carl | last1 = Bildt | first2 = Jean | last2 = Peyrelevade | first3 = Lothar | last3 = Späth}}</ref>

The first EU-ESA International Conference on Human Space Exploration took place in Prague on 22 and 23 October 2009.<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/10/14/333427/2010-to-see-european-union-human-spaceflight-decision.html| work = [[Flightglobal.com]] | title = 2010 to see European Union human spaceflight decision |accessdate = 18 October 2009 | date = 14 October 2009 | first = Rob | last = Coppinger}}</ref>A road map which would lead to a common vision and strategic planning in the area of space exploration was discussed. Ministers from all 29 EU and ESA members as well as members of parliament were in attendance.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMIE2YRA0G_index_0.html | title = Space exploration: European Ministers in Prague prepare a roadmap towards a common vision | accessdate = 18 October 2009 |date = 14 October 2009 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> If a roadmap is accepted at the November 2010 Brussels conference as planned, it is estimated that an additional €3 billion annually would be made available for European space exploration activities by the [[European Commission]].<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/11/03/334293/european-union-plans-3-billion-a-year-human-exploration.html| title = European Union plans €3 billion a year human exploration roadmap | accessdate = 4 November 2009 | work = [[Flightglobal.com]] | date = 3 November 2009 | first = Rob | last = Coppinger}}</ref> The political perspective of the [[European Union]] (EU) is to make ESA an[[Agency of the European Union|agency of the EU]] by 2014,<ref name=autogenerated1 /> although this date may not be met.

===National space organisations of member countries===
*The ''[[CNES|Centre National d'Études Spatiales]]'' (CNES) (National Centre for Space Study) is the French government space agency (administratively, a "public establishment of industrial and commercial character"). Its headquarters are in central [[Paris]]. CNES is the main participant on the Ariane project. Indeed CNES designed and tested all Ariane family rockets (mainly from its centre in [[Évry, Essonne|Évry]] near [[Paris]])
*The [[UK Space Agency]] is a partnership of the UK government departments which are active in space. Through the UK Space Agency, the partners provide delegates to represent the UK on the various ESA governing bodies. Each partner funds its own programme.
*The [[Italian Space Agency]] (''Agenzia Spaziale Italiana'' or ASI) was founded in 1988 to promote, coordinate and conduct space activities in Italy. Operating under the Ministry of the Universities and of Scientific and Technological Research, the agency cooperates with numerous entities active in space technology and with the president of the Council of Ministers. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the European Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies.
*The [[German Aerospace Center]] (DLR) (German: ''Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.'') is the national research centre for aviation and space flight of the Federal Republic of Germany and of other member states in the [[Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres|Helmholtz Association]]. Its extensive research and development projects are included in national and international cooperative programmes. In addition to its research projects, the centre is the assigned space agency of Germany bestowing headquarters of German space flight activities and its associates.
*The [[Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial]] (INTA) (National Institute for Aerospace Technique) is a Public Research Organization specialized in aerospace research and technology development in [[Spain]]. Between other functions, it serves as a platform for space research and acts as a significant testing facility for the aeronautic and space sector in the country.

===NASA===
ESA has a long history of collaboration with [[NASA]]. Since ESA's astronaut corps was formed, the [[Space Shuttle]] has been the primary launch vehicle used by ESA's astronauts to get into space through partnership programs with NASA. In the 1980s and 1990s, the [[Spacelab]] program was an ESA-NASA joint research program that had ESA develop and manufacture orbital labs for the Space Shuttle for several flights on which ESA participate with astronauts in experiments.

In robotic science mission and exploration missions, NASA has been ESA's main partner.[[Cassini–Huygens]] was a joint NASA-ESA mission, the [[Infrared Space Observatory]],[[INTEGRAL]], [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]], and others. Also, the [[Hubble space telescope]] is a joint project of NASA and ESA. Future unmanned projects that are in development right now and are ESA-NASA joint projects include the [[James Webb Space Telescope]] or the [[Laser Interferometer Space Antenna]]. NASA and ESA will also likely join together for a [[Mars Sample Return Mission]].

===Cooperation with other space agencies===
Since [[People's Republic of China|China]] has started to invest more money into space activities, the [[Chinese Space Agency]] has sought international partnerships. ESA is, beside the [[Russian Space Agency]], one of its most important partners. Recently the two space agencies cooperated in the development of the [[Double Star Mission]].<ref>{{cite video | url =http://www.space.co.uk/DataBank/VideoGallery/VideoPlayer/tabid/384/VideoId/22/An-Interview-With-David-Southwood-ESA-Science-Director.aspx| title = An interview with David Southwood, ESA Science Director | publisher = Space.co.uk |date = 29 March 2008 | medium = Video}}</ref>

ESA entered into a major joint venture with [[Russia]] in the form of the [[CSTS]], the preparation of [[French Guyana]] spaceport for launches of [[Soyuz (rocket)|Soyuz]] rockets and other projects. With India ESA agreed to send instruments into space aboard the [[ISRO]]'s[[Chandrayaan-1]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.space.co.uk/DataBank/Transcripts/20080329DavidSouthwood/tabid/441/Default.aspx |title = David Southwood at the 2008 UK Space Conference | date = 29 March 2008 | work = Space.co.uk}}</ref> ESA is also cooperating with Japan, the most notable current project in collaboration with [[JAXA]] is the [[BepiColombo]] mission to [[Mercury (plant)|Mercury]].

Speaking to reporters at an air show near Moscow in August 2011, ESA head Jean-Jacques Dordain said ESA and Russia's Roskosmos space agency would "carry out the first flight to Mars together."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/science/20110817/165853325.html |title=Russian, European space agencies to team up for Mars mission &#124; RIA Novosti |publisher=En.rian.ru|date=2011-08-17 |accessdate=2011-08-29}}</ref>

===International Space Station===
{{See also|Scientific research on the ISS}}
[[Image:Columbus module delivered to KSC.jpg|thumb|''[[Columbus (ISS module)|ISS module Columbus]]'' at Kennedy Space Center]]

With regard to the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) ESA is not represented by all of its member states:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/partstates.html|title=International Space Station: European Participating States |accessdate=17 January 2009|publisher=European Space Agency |year=2009}}</ref> 10 of the 18 ESA member countries currently participate in the project.<ref group=note>Ten of Europe's member states are participating:[[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]],[[Spain]], [[Sweden]] and [[Switzerland]]. [[Austria]], [[Finland]], and [[Ireland]] chose not to participate, because of lack of interest or concerns about the expense of the project. The[[United Kingdom]] withdrew from the [[International Space Station program|preliminary agreement]] because of concerns about the expense of the project. [[Portugal]], [[Greece]],[[Luxembourg]] and the [[Czech Republic]] joined ESA after the agreement had been signed.</ref>ESA is taking part in the construction and operation of the [[International Space Station|ISS]]with contributions such as [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]], a science laboratory module that was brought into orbit by NASA's [[STS-122]] [[Space Shuttle]] mission and the [[Cupola (ISS module)|Cupola]] observatory module that was completed in July 2005 by [[Alenia Aeronautica|Alenia Spazio]] for ESA. The current estimates for the ISS are approaching €100 billion in total (development, construction and 10 years of maintaining the station) of which ESA has committed to paying €8 billion.<ref>{{cite web | title = International Space Station: How much does it cost? | url = http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAQHA0VMOC_iss_0.html | date = 9 August 2005 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> About 90% of the costs of ESA's ISS share will be contributed by Germany (41%), France (28%) and Italy (20%). German ESA astronaut[[Thomas Reiter]] was the first long-term ISS crew member.

As of 2008, the spacecraft establishing supply links to the ISS are the [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]], [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] and [[Space Shuttle]]. ESA has developed the[[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) for ISS resupply. Each ATV has a cargo capacity of{{convert|7667|kg|lb}}.<ref name="atvspecs">{{cite web|url=http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ATV/FS003_12_ATV_updated_launch_2008.pdf|title=Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Utilisation Relevant Data Rev. 1.2 |publisher=ESA ERASMUS User Centre |format=PDF}}</ref> The first ATV, [[Jules Verne ATV|''Jules Verne'']], was launched on 9 March 2008 and on 3 April 2008 successfully docked with the ISS. This manoeuvre, considered a major technical feat, involved using automated systems to allow the ATV to track the ISS, moving at 27,000&nbsp;km/h, and attach itself with an accuracy of 2&nbsp;cm. No other spacefaring nations or space agency currently possess this level of autonomy in rendezvous and docking activities, considered key to future space exploration. With the Space Shuttle reaching its retirement age in 2010, until [[NASA]] has a replacement for it such as [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services|COTS]] the ATV together with Progress, Soyuz and the Japanese transporter [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]] will be the only links between Earth and the ISS.

European Life and Physical Sciences research onboard the International Space Station (ISS) is mainly based on the [[ELIPS]] programme that was initiated in 2001.

==Miscellaneous==
===Languages===
According to Annex 1, Resolution No. 8 of the ''Convention for the establishment of a European Space Agency'',<ref>{{cite book | title = Convention for the establishment of a European Space Agency | url = http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/SP1271En_final.pdf | chapter = Annex 1 Resolution 8 | page = 116 | format = PDF | isbn = 92-9092-965-0 | edition = 5th | month = March| year = 2003 | publisher = European Space Agency}}</ref> [[English language|English]],[[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]] may be used in all meetings of the Agency, with interpretation provided into these three languages. All official documents are available in English and French with all documents concerning the ESA Council being available in German as well.

===Facilities===
*[[Headquarters]] of ESA, [[Paris]], [[France]]
*[[European Space Operations Centre]] (ESOC), [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]]
*[[Centre Spatial Guyanais]], [[Kourou]], [[French Guiana]]
*[[European Space Research and Technology Centre]] (ESTEC), [[Noordwijk]], [[Netherlands|The Netherlands]]
*[[ESA Centre for Earth Observation]] (ESRIN), [[Frascati]], [[Italy]]
*[[European Astronaut Centre]] (EAC), [[Cologne]], [[Germany]]
*[[European Space Astronomy Centre]] (ESAC), [[Madrid]], [[Spain]]<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/ESAC/SEM0EOTLWFE_0.html | title = Contact ESAC | publisher = European Space Agency | date = 14 October 2009}}</ref>
*[[ESTRACK]] European Space Tracking Network
*[[European Robotics and Climate Change Centre]], [[Harwell Science and Innovation Campus]],[[United Kingdom]]<ref>{{cite press release | url =http://www.bnsc.gov.uk/News%20and%20Events/Press%20Notices/10413.aspx | date = 22 July 2009 |title = European Space Agency touches down in UK as part of ambitious vision to strengthen Britain's space economy | publisher = [[British National Space Centre]] | accessdate = 6 June 2009}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Spaceflight|European Space Agency}}
* [[Director General of the European Space Agency|List of director generals of the European Space Agency]]
* [[European integration]], section [[European integration#Space|Space]]
* [[European Launcher Development Organisation]] (ELDO)
* [[ESRO|European Space Research Organisation]] (ESRO)
* [[List of projects of the European Space Agency]]
* [[Space policy of the European Union]]
* [[European Space Policy]]
* [[Agencies of the European Union]] and [[Enhanced co-operation]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4011/cover.htm ''SKYLAB: A CHRONOLOGY'' by Roland W. Newkirk and Ivan D. Ertel with Courtney G. Brooks (NASA SP-4011 1977)]
* [http://www.esa.int/esaMI/ESA_Publications/ ESA Bulletin]([http://www.esa.int/esapub/pi/bulletinPI.htm archive]) is a quarterly magazine about the work of ESA that can be [http://www.esa.int/esaMI/ESA_Publications/SEMR9YZ990E_0.htmlsubscribed]{{dead link|date=August 2011}} free of charge.
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-402/contents.htm SP-402 A New Sun: The Solar Results from Skylab]
* Bonnet, Roger; Manno, Vittorio (1994). ''International Cooperation in Space: The Example of the European Space Agency'' (Frontiers of Space). [[Harvard University Press]]. ISBN 0-674-45835-4.
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740024203_1974024203.pdf Skylab Mission Evaluation - NASA report (PDF format)]
* Johnson, Nicholas (1993). ''Space technologies and space science activities of member states of the European Space Agency''. {{OCLC|29768749}} .
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800012907_1980012907.pdf Skylab Reactivation Mission Report 1980 - NASA report (PDF format)]
* Peeters, Walter (2000). ''Space Marketing: A European Perspective'' (Space Technology Library). ISBN 0-7923-6744-8.
* Zabusky, Stacia (1995 and 2001). ''Launching Europe: An Ethnography of European Cooperation in Space Science''. ISBN B00005OBX2.
* Harvey, Brian (2003). ''Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond''. ISBN 1-85233-722-2.
{{refend}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{Commons|Skylab}}
{{Commons}}
*{{Official website|http://www.esa.int}}
* [http://history.nasa.gov/series95.html NASA History Series Publications] (many of which are on-line)
*[http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/space/index_en.htm A European strategy for space] –[[Europa (web portal)|Europa]]
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/airspace/photos/missilespacesystemscutaways/lockheed-skylab-cutaway-10301.aspx a cutaway drawing of skylab]

* [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/skyodule.htm Sklyab reboost module]
{{coord|48.8482|2.3042|display=title|format=dm}}
* [http://www.spaceref.com/iss/skylab.deorbit.html Skylab De-orbit]
* [http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/94/70094-050-6C93F1E6.jpg Skylab cutaway drawing from Encyclopedia Britannica]


{{European Space Agency|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Skylab | before=[[Apollo 17]]| after=[[Skylab 2]]}}
{{Ariane}}
{{US manned space programs | before=[[Apollo program]] | after=[[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]]}}
{{Public sector space agencies}}
{{Space stations}}
{{Agencies of the European Union}}
{{Apollo program}}
{{McDonnell Douglas military aircraft}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

Revision as of 19:28, 31 August 2011


"ESA" redirects here. For other uses, see ESA (disambiguation).
European Space Agency
File:ESA LOGO.svg
Agency overview
AbbreviationESA
Formed1975
TypeSpace agency
HeadquartersParis
Official languageEnglish, French and German[1]
AdministratorJean-Jacques Dordain
Primary spaceportGuiana Space Centre
Owner
18 European states
Annual budgetIncrease €3.99 billion / £3.51 billion / $5.65 billion US dollars (2011)[2]
Websitewww.esa.int

The European Space Agency (ESA), established in 1975, is anintergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, currently with 18 member states. Headquartered inParis, ESA has a staff of more than 2,000 with an annual budget of about €3.99 billion / $5.65 billion US dollars (2011).[2]

ESA's space flight program includes human spaceflight, mainly through the participation in theInternational Space Station program, the launch and operations of unmanned exploration missions to other planets and the Moon, Earth observation, science, telecommunication as well as maintaining a major spaceport, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou, French Guiana, and designing launch vehicles. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching and further developing this launch vehicle.

ESA science missions are based at ESTEC inNoordwijk, Netherlands, Earth Observation missions at ESRIN in Frascati,Italy, ESA Mission Control (ESOC) is in Darmstadt,Germany, the European Astronaut Centre (EAC) that trains astronauts for future missions is situated in Cologne, Germany, and the European Space Astronomy Centre is located in Villanueva de la Cañada, Spain.

History

Foundation

Main article: ESRO
ESTEC buildings in Noordwijk. ESTEC was the main technical centre of ESRO and remains so for the successor organization, ESA

After World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work either in the United States or the Soviet Union. Although the 1950s boom made it possible for Western European countries to invest in research and specifically in space related activities, Western European scientists realised solely national projects would not be able to compete with the two main superpowers. In 1958, only months after the Sputnik shock, Edoardo Amaldi and Pierre Auger, two prominent members of the western European scientific community at that time, met to discuss the foundation of a common western European space agency. The meeting was attended by scientific representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey (UK).

The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a launch system ELDO (European Launch Development Organization) and the precursor of the European Space Agency, ESRO (European Space Research Organization). The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962. From 1968 to 1972, ESRO carried out numerous successful projects. Seven research satellites were brought into orbit, all by US launch systems. Ariane did not exist at that time.

ESA in its current form was founded in 1975, when ESRO was merged with ELDO. ESA had 10 founding members: Belgium, Denmark,France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerlandand the United Kingdom.[3] ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, a space probe monitoring gamma-ray emissions in the universe first worked on by ESRO.

End of space race

Mock-up of the Ariane 1

Beginning in the 1970s, when the space race between the US and the Soviet Union had cooled down and space budgets were cut dramatically in both countries, ESA established itself as a forerunner in space exploration. ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the world's first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the Comets Halley and Grigg-Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a star-mapping mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses and the Hubble Space Telescope were all jointly carried out with NASA. Recent scientific missions in cooperation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, to which ESA contributed by building the Titan landing module Huygens.

As the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for unmanned scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward. The next two developments of the Ariane rocket were intermediate stages in the development of a more advanced launch system, the Ariane 4, which operated between 1988 and 2003 and established ESA as the world leader in commercial space launches in the 1990s. Although the succeeding Ariane 5experienced a failure on its first flight, it has since firmly established itself within the heavily competitive commercial space launch market with 40 successful launches as of 2009. The successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s.

The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA,JAXA, ISRO and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. While ESA had relied on cooperation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances (such as tough legal restrictions on information sharing by the United States military) led to decisions to rely more on itself and on cooperation with Russia. A recent[when?] press issue thus stated:[4]

Russia is ESA's first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. There is a framework agreement between ESA and the government of the Russian Federation on cooperation and partnership in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, and cooperation is already under way in two different areas of launcher activity that will bring benefits to both partners.

Most notable for its new self-confidence are ESA's own recent successful missions SMART-1, a probe testing cutting-edge new space propulsion technology, the Mars Express and Venus Express missions as well as the development of the Ariane 5 rocket and its role in theISS partnership. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006, a milestone in the search for extrasolar planets.

Mission statement

Since the Cold War ended with the fall of the Soviet Union's "iron curtain",space agencies around the world had to refocus and revise their visions and goals. In an interview with JAXA, the Japanese national space agency, Jean-Jacques Dordain ESA's Director General (since 2003) outlined briefly the European Space Agency's mission:[5]

Today space activities are pursued for the benefit of citizens, and citizens are asking for a better quality of life on earth. They want greater security and economic wealth, but they also want to pursue their dreams, to increase their knowledge, and they want younger people to be attracted to the pursuit of science and technology. I think that space can do all of this: it can produce a higher quality of life, better security, more economic wealth, and also fulfil our citizens' dreams and thirst for knowledge, and attract the young generation. This is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be even more important in the future.

Article II, Purpose, Convention of establishment of a European Space Agency, SP-1271(E) from 2003 also defines ESA's mission statement:[6]

ESA's purpose shall be to provide for, and to promote, for exclusively peaceful purposes, cooperation among European States in space research and technology and their space applications, with a view to their being used for scientific purposes and for operational space applications systems:

  • by elaborating and implementing a long-term European space policy, by recommending space objectives to the Member States, and by concerting the policies of the Member States with respect to other national and international organisations and institutions;
  • by elaborating and implementing activities and programmes in the space field;
  • by coordinating the European space programme and national programmes, and by integrating the latter progressively and as completely as possible into the European space programme, in particular as regards the development of applications satellites;
  • by elaborating and implementing the industrial policy appropriate to its programme and by recommending a coherent industrial policy to the Member States.

Member countries and budget

Membership and contribution to ESA

  ESA member countries
  ECS states
  signed Cooperation Agreement
  ESA member countries
  ESA associate members
  ECS states
  signed Cooperation Agreement

ESA is an intergovernmental organisation of 18 member states (to become 19 once Romania becomes a member in mid-2011).[7] Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory (25% of total expenditures in 2008) and optional space programmes (75% of total expenditures in 2008).[8] The 2008 budget amounted to €3.0 billion the 2009 budget to €3.6 billion.[9]The total budget in 2010 amounted to about €3.7 billion and in 2011 it is €3,99 billion.

The following table gives an overview of all member states and adjunct members and their contributions to ESA in 2011:[10]

Member state ESA membership National Program Contr.
(mill. €) 		Contr.
(%)
 France[note 1] 30 October 1980 CNES 751.4 18.8%
 Germany[note 1] 30 October 1980 DLR 713.8 17.9%
 Italy[note 1] 30 October 1980 ASI 380.0 9.5%
 United Kingdom[note 1] 30 October 1980 UKSA 265.3 6.6%
 Spain[note 1] 30 October 1980 CDTI 201.9 5.1%
 Belgium[note 1] 30 October 1980 BELSPO 164.8 4.1%
 Netherlands[note 1] 30 October 1980 NSO 84.2 2.1%
 Switzerland[note 1] 30 October 1980 SSO 96.2 2.4%
 Sweden[note 1] 30 October 1980 SNSB 59.9 1.5%
 Denmark[note 1] 30 October 1980 DTU Space 31.2 0.8%
 Ireland[note 1][note 2] 10 December 1980 EI 15.6 0.4%
 Norway[note 3] 30 December 1986 NSC 63.2 1.6%
 Austria[note 3] 30 December 1986 FFG 54.0 1.3%
 Finland[note 3] 1 January 1995 TEKES 20.1 0.5%
 Portugal[note 3] 14 November 2000 FCT 15.8 0.4%
 Greece[note 3] 9 March 2005 ISARS 14.9 0.4%
 Luxembourg[note 3] 30 June 2005 Luxinnovation 11.5 0.3%
 Czech Republic[note 3] 8 July 2008 CSO 10.4 0.3%
Associate Members
 Canada[note 4] 1 January 1979[13] CSA 20.5 0.5%
Total Members and Associates 2,975.0 74.5%
 European Union[note 5] 28 May 2004[15] ESP 777.9 19.5%
ECS states various various 7.9 0.2%
Other income — — 233.0 5.8%
Total ESA 3,993.8 100.0%
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Founding members drafted the ESA charter which entered into force on 30 October 1980.[11]
  2. ^ Ireland is considered an initial signatory, but since it was a member of neither ESRO nor ELDO (the precursor organizations to ESA) the Convention entered into force when the last of the other 10 founders ratified it.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Acceded members became ESA member states upon signing an accession agreement.[12]
  4. ^ Canada is an associated member of ESA.[13][14]
  5. ^ Framework Agreement establishing the legal basis for cooperation between ESA and the European Union came into force in May 2004.

Associate Members

Currently the only associated member of ESA is Canada.[14] Previously associated members were Austria, Norway and Finland, all of which later joined ESA as full members.

Canada

Since 1 January 1979, Canada has had the special status of a Cooperating State within ESA. By virtue of this accord, the Canadian Space Agency takes part in ESA's deliberative bodies and decision-making and also in ESA's programmes and activities. Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The accord has a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada.[16]

Budget appropriation and allocation

ESA budget chart by programme for 2011[10]

  Earth Observation: 843.9 M€ (21.1%)
  Navigation: 665.7 M€ (16.7%)
  Launchers: 612.5 M€ (15.3%)
  Science: 464.8 M€ (11.6%)
  Human Spaceflight: 410.9 M€ (10.3%)
  Telecommunications: 341.3 M€ (8.5%)
  Basic Activities: 216.7 M€ (5.4%)
  General Budget: 179.9 M€ (4.5%)
  Robotic Exploration: 129.4 M€ (3.2%)
  Technology: 105.1 M€ (2.5%)
  Space Situational Awareness: 15.7 M€ (0.4%)
  ECSA: 7.9 M€ (0.2%)
  Other (0.3%)

The budget of ESA was €2.977 billion in 2005, €2.904 billion in 2006 and grew to €3.018 billion in 2008 and €3.600 billion in 2009.[17][18] Every 3–4 years, ESA member states agree on a budget plan for several years at an ESA member states conference. This plan can be amended in future years, however provides the major guideline for ESA for several years. The last major conference was held at the end of 2008, setting the budget for the years to 2012.

The 2011 funding allocations for major areas of ESA activity are shown on the pie-chart on the right. The section called 'Other' includes Technology Development, Space Situational Awareness and spending related to European Cooperating States.[17]

Countries typically have their own space programmes that differ in how they operate organisationally and financially with ESA. For example, the French space agency CNES has a budget double the amount it contributes to ESA. Several space-related projects are joint projects between national space agencies and ESA (e.g. COROT). Also, ESA is not the only European space organisation (for example European Union Satellite Centre).

Enlargement

See also: History of European Space Agency enlargement

After the decision of the ESA Council of 21/22 March 2001, the procedure for accession of theEuropean states was detailed as described here.[19] Nations who want to become a full member of ESA do so in 3 stages. First a Cooperation Agreement is signed between the country and ESA. In this stage, the country has very limited financial responsibilities. If a country wants to cooperate more fully with ESA, it signs a European Cooperating State (ECS) Agreement. The ECS Agreement makes companies based in the country eligible for participation in ESA procurements. The country can also participate in all ESA programmes, except for the Basic Technology Research Programme. While the financial contribution of the country concerned increases, it is still much lower than that of a full member state. The agreement is normally followed by a Plan For European Cooperating State (or PECS Charter). This is a 5-year programme of basic research and development activities aimed at improving the nation's space industry capacity. At the end of the 5-year period, the country can either begin negotiations to become a full member state or an associated state or sign a new PECS Charter.[20] ESA is likely to expand quite rapidly in the coming years. Many countries, most of which joined the EU in both 2004 and 2007, have started to cooperate with ESA on various levels:

Applicant state Cooperation Agreement ECS Agreement PECS Charter(s) ESA Convention National Program
 Hungary April 1991[21][22] 7 April 2003[23] 1st: 5 November 2003[24]
2nd: 26 September 2008[25]		 HSO
 Romania December 1992[26][22] 17 February 2006[26] 16 February 2007[27] 20 January 2011[28] ROSA
 Poland 28 January 1994[22] 27 April 2007[29] 28 April 2008[30] (2012 or 2013)[31] CBK-PAN
 Turkey 15 July 2004[32] TÜBİTAK
 Estonia 26 June 2007[33] 10 November 2009[34] through MoEC
 Ukraine 25 January 2008[35] SSAU
 Slovenia 28 May 2008[36] 22 January 2010[37] 30 November 2010[38] through MoHEST
 Latvia 23 July 2009[39] throughMoES
 Cyprus 27 August 2009[40] through MoCW
 Slovakia 28 April 2010[41] throughMoE
 Lithuania 7 October 2010[42] through MoE[43]
 Israel 30 January 2011[44] ISA

Romania signed the ESA Convention on 20 January 2011 and will become the 19th member of ESA once it deposits its instrument of ratification with the government of France. This is due to happen later in 2011.[45]

Possible future cooperation

The political perspective of the European Union (EU) is to make ESA an agency of the EU by 2014.[46]

So far the only two EU member states that have not signed an ESA Cooperation Agreement are Bulgaria and Malta. Both of them, however, have already announced their intention to join ESA.

Launch vehicle fleet

ESA has made great progress towards its goal of having a complete fleet of launch vehicles in service, competing in all sectors of the launch market. ESA's fleet will soon consist of three major rocket designs, Ariane 5, Soyuz-2 and Vega. Rocket launches are carried out by Arianespace, which has 23 shareholders representing the industry that manufactures the Ariane 5 as well as CNES, at the spaceport in French Guiana. Because many communication satellites have equatorial orbits, launches from French Guiana are able to take larger payloads into space than from more northerly spaceports. In addition, equatorial launches give spacecraft an extra 'push' of nearly 500 m/s due to the higher rotation velocity of someone standing on the equator than near the Earth's axis where rotation velocity approaches nil.

Ariane 5

Main article: Ariane 5
An Ariane 5

The Ariane 5 rocket is the primary launcher of ESA. Its maximum estimated payload is 6-10 tons to GTO and up to 21 tons to LEO. The launch craft has been in service since 1997 and replacedAriane 4. The Ariane rocket exists in several specifications, the heaviest being Ariane 5 ECA, which failed during its first test flight in 2002, but has since made twenty-two consecutive successful flights.

ESA's Ariane 1, 2, 3 and 4 launchers (the latter of which was ESA's long-time workhorse) have been retired.

Soyuz

Soyuz-2 (also called the Soyuz-ST) is a Russian medium payload (ca. 3 metric tons to GTO) launcher to be brought into ESA service in April 2010.[50][51] ESA has entered into a €340 million joint venture with the Russian Federal Space Agency over the use of the Soyuz launcher.[4] Under the agreement, the Russian agency manufactures Soyuz rocket parts for ESA, which are then shipped to French Guiana for assembly. ESA benefits because it gains a medium payloads launcher, complementing its fleet while saving on development costs. In addition, the Soyuz rocket—which has been the Russian's space launch workhorse for some 40 years—is proven technology with a good safety record. Russia also benefits in that it gets access to the Kourou launch site. Launching from Kourou rather than Baikonur will allow the Russians to almost double the Soyuz payload (3.0 tonnes vs. 1.7 tonnes to GTO), because of Kourou's closer proximity to the equator. Both agencies benefit from the long term strategic cooperation, which is also intended to enable future joint technology developments. Maiden launch is planned for third quarter 2011.[52]

Vega

Vega is ESA's small payload (ca. 1.5 metric tons to 700 km orbit) launcher.[53] The leading ESA member state for the Vega Programme is Italy, contributing 65% of the costs. Vega itself has been designed to be a body launcher with three solid propulsion stages and an additional liquid propulsion upper module to place the cargo into the exact orbit intended. For a small-cargo rocket it is remarkable that Vega will be able to place multiple payloads into orbit.

Vega's first and main stage (P80) is a direct modification of the Ariane 5 EAP (solid boosters) developed by CNES, the French space agency.[54]

Human space flight

History

Ulf Merbold became the first ESA astronaut to fly into space.

At the time ESA was formed, its main goals did not encompass human space flight, rather it considered itself to be primarily a scientific research organisation for unmanned space exploration in contrast to its American and Soviet counterparts. It is therefore not surprising that the first non-Soviet European in space was not an ESA astronaut on a European space craft: It was Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek who in 1978 became the first non-Soviet European in space (the first European in space being Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union) — on aSoviet Soyuz spacecraft, followed by the Pole Mirosław Hermaszewski and East German Sigmund Jähn in the same year. This Soviet cooperation programme, known as Intercosmos, primarily involved the participation of Eastern bloccountries, however in 1982, Jean-Loup Chrétien became the first western European on a flight to the Soviet Salyut 7 space station.

Because Chrétien did not officially fly into space as an ESA astronaut, but rather as a member of the French CNES astronaut corps, the German Ulf Merbold is considered the first ESA astronaut to fly into space. He participated in the STS-9 Space Shuttle mission that included the first use of the European built Spacelab in 1983. STS-9 marked the beginning of an extensive ESA/NASA joint partnership that included dozens of space flights of ESA astronauts in the following years. Some of this missions with Spacelab were fully funded and organizationally and scientifically controlled by ESA (like separate two by Germany and one by Japan) with European astronauts as masters not a guests on a board. Beside paying for Spacelab flights and seats on the shuttles, ESA continued its human space flight cooperation with the Soviet Union and later Russia, including numerous visits toMir.

During the latter half of the 1980s, European human space flights changed from being the exception to routine and therefore, in 1990, the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne,Germany was established. It selects and trains prospective astronauts and is responsible for the coordination with international partners especially with regards to the International Space Station. As of 2006, the ESA astronaut corps officially includes 12 members, including nationals from all the large Western European countries except the United Kingdom.

In the summer of 2008 ESA started to recruit new astronauts so that final selection would be due spring 2009. Almost 10,000 people registered as astronaut candidates till the registration ended in June 2008. 8,413 fulfilled the initial application criteria. Of the applicants 918 were chosen to take part in the first stage of psychological testing which narrowed down the field to 192. After two stage psychological tests and medical evaluation in early 2009 as well as formal interviews, six new members of the European Astronaut Corps were selected: five men and one woman.[55]

Astronaut Corps

See also: European Astronaut Corps

The astronauts of the European Space Agency are: Template:Multicol

Template:Multicol-break

Template:Multicol-break

Template:Multicol-end

  1. ^ a b c d e have visited Mir
  2. ^ a b c d e f 2009 selection
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k have visited the International Space Station
  4. ^ a b c d e retired now

Manned launch vehicles

In the 1980s France pressed for an independent European manned launch vehicle. Around 1978 it was decided to pursue a reusable spacecraft model and starting in November 1987 a project to create a mini-shuttle by the name of Hermes was introduced. The craft itself was modelled comparable to the first proposals of the Space Shuttle and consisted of a small reusable spaceship that would carry 3 to 5 astronauts and 3 to 4 metric tons of payload for scientific experiments. With a total maximum weight of 21 metric tons it would have been launched on the Ariane 5 rocket, which was being developed at that time. It was planned solely for use in Low-Earth orbit space flights. The planning and pre-development phase concluded in 1991; however, the production phase was never fully implemented because at that time the political landscape had changed significantly. With the fall of the Soviet UnionESA looked forward to cooperation with Russia to build a next-generation human space vehicle. Thus the Hermes program was cancelled in 1995 after about 3 billion dollars had been spent. The Columbus space station program had a similar fate.

In the 21st century ESA started new programs in order to create its own manned spacecraft, most notable among its various projects and proposals is Hopper, whose prototype by EADS, called Phoenix, has already been tested. While projects such as Hopper are neither concrete nor to be realised within the next decade, other possibilities for human spaceflight in cooperation with the Russian Space Agency have emerged. Following talks with the Russian Space Agency in 2004 and June 2005,[56] a cooperation between ESA and the Russian Space Agency was announced to jointly work on the Russian-designed Kliper, a reusable spacecraft that would be available for space travel beyond LEO (e.g. the moon or even Mars). It was speculated that Europe would finance part of it. However, a €50 million participation study for Kliper, which was expected to be approved in December 2005, was finally not approved by the ESA member states. The Russian state tender for the Kliper project was subsequently cancelled in the summer of 2006.

In June 2006 ESA member states granted 15 million to the Crew Space Transportation System (CSTS) study, a two-year study to design a spacecraft capable of going beyond Low-Earth orbit based on the current Soyuz design. This project is pursued with Roskosmos instead of the previously cancelled Kliper proposal. A decision on the actual implementation and construction of the CSTS spacecraft is contemplated for 2008, with the major design decisions being made before the summer of 2007. In mid-2009 EADS Astrium was awarded a €21 million study into designing a manned variation of the European ATV vehicle which is believed to now be the basis of the Advanced Crew Transportation System design.[57]

Cooperation with other countries and organisations

ESA has signed cooperation agreements with the following states that currently neither plan to integrate as tightly with ESA institutions as Canada, nor envision future membership of ESA: Argentina,[58] Brazil,[59] China,[60]India[61] (for the Chandrayan mission), and Russia.[23]

Additionally, ESA has joint projects with the European Union, NASA of the United States and is participating in the International Space Station together with the United States (NASA), Russia and Japan (JAXA).

European Union

  ESA and EU member countries
  ESA-only members
  EU-only members

ESA is not an agency or body of the European Union (EU), and has non-EU countriesSwitzerland and Norway as members. There are however ties between the two, with various agreements in place and being worked on, to define the legal status of ESA with regard to the EU.[18] There are common goals between ESA and the EU, and ESA has an EU liaison office in Brussels. On certain projects, the EU and ESA cooperate, such as the upcomingGalileo satellite navigation system. Space policy has since December 2009 been an area for voting in the European Council. Under the European Space Policy of 2007, the EU, ESA and its Member States committed themselves to increasing coordination of their activities and programmes and to organising their respective roles relating to space.[62]

Former Italian astronaut Umberto Guidoni, during his tenure as a Member of the European Parliament from 2004 to 2009, stressed the importance of the European Union as a driving force for space exploration, "since other players are coming up such as India and China it is becoming ever more important that Europeans can have an independent access to space. We have to invest more into space research and technology in order to have an industry capable of competing with other international players."[63]

An independent report on the future of ESA, requested by its director-general, recommends further integration of ESA into the structures of the EU. Space policy would be decided by the European Council and ESA would be the de facto space agency of the European Union, not excluding the possibility of making it a formal EU agency. This would also help with co-operation between space policy and environmental or security policy, Galileo itself has a security dimension.[64]

The first EU-ESA International Conference on Human Space Exploration took place in Prague on 22 and 23 October 2009.[65]A road map which would lead to a common vision and strategic planning in the area of space exploration was discussed. Ministers from all 29 EU and ESA members as well as members of parliament were in attendance.[66] If a roadmap is accepted at the November 2010 Brussels conference as planned, it is estimated that an additional €3 billion annually would be made available for European space exploration activities by the European Commission.[67] The political perspective of the European Union (EU) is to make ESA anagency of the EU by 2014,[46] although this date may not be met.

National space organisations of member countries

  • The Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) (National Centre for Space Study) is the French government space agency (administratively, a "public establishment of industrial and commercial character"). Its headquarters are in central Paris. CNES is the main participant on the Ariane project. Indeed CNES designed and tested all Ariane family rockets (mainly from its centre in Évry near Paris)
  • The UK Space Agency is a partnership of the UK government departments which are active in space. Through the UK Space Agency, the partners provide delegates to represent the UK on the various ESA governing bodies. Each partner funds its own programme.
  • The Italian Space Agency (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana or ASI) was founded in 1988 to promote, coordinate and conduct space activities in Italy. Operating under the Ministry of the Universities and of Scientific and Technological Research, the agency cooperates with numerous entities active in space technology and with the president of the Council of Ministers. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the European Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies.
  • The German Aerospace Center (DLR) (German: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.) is the national research centre for aviation and space flight of the Federal Republic of Germany and of other member states in the Helmholtz Association. Its extensive research and development projects are included in national and international cooperative programmes. In addition to its research projects, the centre is the assigned space agency of Germany bestowing headquarters of German space flight activities and its associates.
  • The Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA) (National Institute for Aerospace Technique) is a Public Research Organization specialized in aerospace research and technology development in Spain. Between other functions, it serves as a platform for space research and acts as a significant testing facility for the aeronautic and space sector in the country.

NASA

ESA has a long history of collaboration with NASA. Since ESA's astronaut corps was formed, the Space Shuttle has been the primary launch vehicle used by ESA's astronauts to get into space through partnership programs with NASA. In the 1980s and 1990s, the Spacelab program was an ESA-NASA joint research program that had ESA develop and manufacture orbital labs for the Space Shuttle for several flights on which ESA participate with astronauts in experiments.

In robotic science mission and exploration missions, NASA has been ESA's main partner.Cassini–Huygens was a joint NASA-ESA mission, the Infrared Space Observatory,INTEGRAL, SOHO, and others. Also, the Hubble space telescope is a joint project of NASA and ESA. Future unmanned projects that are in development right now and are ESA-NASA joint projects include the James Webb Space Telescope or the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna. NASA and ESA will also likely join together for a Mars Sample Return Mission.

Cooperation with other space agencies

Since China has started to invest more money into space activities, the Chinese Space Agency has sought international partnerships. ESA is, beside the Russian Space Agency, one of its most important partners. Recently the two space agencies cooperated in the development of the Double Star Mission.[68]

ESA entered into a major joint venture with Russia in the form of the CSTS, the preparation of French Guyana spaceport for launches of Soyuz rockets and other projects. With India ESA agreed to send instruments into space aboard the ISRO'sChandrayaan-1 in 2008.[69] ESA is also cooperating with Japan, the most notable current project in collaboration with JAXA is the BepiColombo mission to Mercury.

Speaking to reporters at an air show near Moscow in August 2011, ESA head Jean-Jacques Dordain said ESA and Russia's Roskosmos space agency would "carry out the first flight to Mars together."[70]

International Space Station

See also: Scientific research on the ISS
ISS module Columbus at Kennedy Space Center

With regard to the International Space Station (ISS) ESA is not represented by all of its member states:[71] 10 of the 18 ESA member countries currently participate in the project.[note 1]ESA is taking part in the construction and operation of the ISSwith contributions such as Columbus, a science laboratory module that was brought into orbit by NASA's STS-122 Space Shuttle mission and the Cupola observatory module that was completed in July 2005 by Alenia Spazio for ESA. The current estimates for the ISS are approaching €100 billion in total (development, construction and 10 years of maintaining the station) of which ESA has committed to paying €8 billion.[72] About 90% of the costs of ESA's ISS share will be contributed by Germany (41%), France (28%) and Italy (20%). German ESA astronautThomas Reiter was the first long-term ISS crew member.

As of 2008, the spacecraft establishing supply links to the ISS are the Progress, Soyuz and Space Shuttle. ESA has developed theAutomated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) for ISS resupply. Each ATV has a cargo capacity of7,667 kilograms (16,903 lb).[73] The first ATV, Jules Verne, was launched on 9 March 2008 and on 3 April 2008 successfully docked with the ISS. This manoeuvre, considered a major technical feat, involved using automated systems to allow the ATV to track the ISS, moving at 27,000 km/h, and attach itself with an accuracy of 2 cm. No other spacefaring nations or space agency currently possess this level of autonomy in rendezvous and docking activities, considered key to future space exploration. With the Space Shuttle reaching its retirement age in 2010, until NASA has a replacement for it such as COTS the ATV together with Progress, Soyuz and the Japanese transporter HTV will be the only links between Earth and the ISS.

European Life and Physical Sciences research onboard the International Space Station (ISS) is mainly based on the ELIPS programme that was initiated in 2001.

Miscellaneous

Languages

According to Annex 1, Resolution No. 8 of the Convention for the establishment of a European Space Agency,[74] English,French and German may be used in all meetings of the Agency, with interpretation provided into these three languages. All official documents are available in English and French with all documents concerning the ESA Council being available in German as well.

Facilities

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Ten of Europe's member states are participating:Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway,Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Austria, Finland, and Ireland chose not to participate, because of lack of interest or concerns about the expense of the project. TheUnited Kingdom withdrew from the preliminary agreement because of concerns about the expense of the project. Portugal, Greece,Luxembourg and the Czech Republic joined ESA after the agreement had been signed.

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  67. ^ Coppinger, Rob (3 November 2009). "European Union plans €3 billion a year human exploration roadmap". Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 4 November 2009.
  68. ^ An interview with David Southwood, ESA Science Director (Video). Space.co.uk. 29 March 2008.
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Further reading

  • ESA Bulletin(archive) is a quarterly magazine about the work of ESA that can be [1][dead link] free of charge.
  • Bonnet, Roger; Manno, Vittorio (1994). International Cooperation in Space: The Example of the European Space Agency (Frontiers of Space). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-45835-4.
  • Johnson, Nicholas (1993). Space technologies and space science activities of member states of the European Space Agency. OCLC 29768749 .
  • Peeters, Walter (2000). Space Marketing: A European Perspective (Space Technology Library). ISBN 0-7923-6744-8.
  • Zabusky, Stacia (1995 and 2001). Launching Europe: An Ethnography of European Cooperation in Space Science. ISBN B00005OBX2.
  • Harvey, Brian (2003). Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. ISBN 1-85233-722-2.
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