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Two-spirit (also two spirit, two-spirited, or rarely twospirit, sometimes capitalized) is a modern umbrella term used by some indigenous North Americans to describe certain spiritual people^[1]^[2] – gay, lesbian, bisexual and gender-variant individuals – in their communities.^[3]^[4] The term was adopted by consensus in 1990 at an indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the outdated, and now seen as inappropriate, anthropological term berdache.^[4]^[5]^[6]

"Two-spirit" is not interchangeable with "LGBT Native American" or "Gay Indian";^[2] this term differs from most Western, mainstream definitions of sexuality and gender identity in that it is not so much about whom one is sexually interested in, or how one personally identifies; rather, it is a spiritual and ceremonial role that is recognized and confirmed by the elders of a two-spirit's ceremonial community.^[1]^[2] While some have found the term a useful tool for intertribal organizing, not all indigenous cultures conceptualize gender or sexuality this way, and most tribes use names in their own languages.^[5]^[7] While pan-Indian terms are not always appropriate or welcome, the term has generally received more acceptance and use than the word it replaced.^[5]

Third- and fourth-gender roles traditionally embodied by two-spirit people include performing work and wearing clothing associated with both men and women. Not all tribes/nations have rigid gender roles, but, among those that do, the most usual spectrum that has been documented is that of four genders: feminine woman, masculine woman, feminine man, masculine man.^[1]

Definition and societal role in indigenous communities

A 2006 New York Times article about a two-spirit gathering summarized the nature of the term thusly, quoting a Jicarilla Apache:

'The elders will tell you the difference between a gay Indian and a Two-Spirit,' [Joey Criddle] said, underscoring the idea that simply being gay and Indian does not make someone a Two-Spirit.^[2]

Historically, the presence of male-bodied two-spirits "was a fundamental institution among most tribal peoples", according to Brian Gilley^[8] and, according to non-indigenous anthropologist Will Roscoe, both male- and female-bodied two-spirits have been documented "in over 130 North American tribes, in every region of the continent".^[9] However, Ojibwe journalist Mary Annette Pember argues that this depiction threatens to homogenize diverse indigenous cultures, painting over them with an overly broad brush, potentially causing the disappearance of "distinct cultural and language differences that Native peoples hold crucial to their identity".^[6] She wrote:

Unfortunately, depending on an oral tradition to impart our ways to future generations opened the floodgates for early non-indigenous explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists to write books describing indigenous peoples and therefore bolstering their own role as experts. These writings were and still are entrenched in the perspective of the authors who were and are mostly white men.^[6]

According to German Anthropologist Sabine Lang, cross dressing of two-spirit people was not always an indicator of gender identity. Lang believes "the mere fact that a male wears women's clothing does not say something about his role behavior, his gender status, or even his choice of partner ...."^[10]

Male-bodied two-spirit people, regardless of gender identification, can go to war and have access to male activities, such as male-only sweat lodge ceremonies.^[11] However, they may also take on "feminine" activities such as cooking and other domestic responsibilities.^[12] According to Lang, two-spirits assigned at birth as female usually have sexual relations or marriages only with females.^[13]

Contemporary issues

The increasing visibility of the two-spirit concept in mainstream culture has been seen as both empowering and as having some undesirable consequences, such as the spread of misinformation about the cultures of indigenous peoples, pan-Indianism, and cultural appropriation of indigenous identities and ceremonial ways among non-indigenous Americans, who do not understand that two-spirit is specifically a Native American and First Nations cultural identity, not to be taken up by the non-indigenous.^[6]^[14]

These sort of simplified black-and-white depictions of Native culture and history perpetuate indiscriminate appropriation of Native peoples. Although the current new meme or legend surrounding the term two spirit is certainly laudable for helping LGBTQ people create their own more empowering terminology to describe themselves, it carries some questionable baggage.
My concern is not so much over the use of the words but over the social meme they have generated that has morphed into a cocktail of historical revisionism, wishful thinking, good intentions, and a soupçon of white, entitled appropriation.^[6]

For First Nations two-spirits whose lives have been impacted by the Canadian Indian residential school system, and other indigenous communities who have experienced severe cultural disruption from colonization, the specific two-spirit traditions in their communities may have been severely fragmented or even lost.^[14] In these cases there have been serious challenges to remembering and reviving their older traditional ways, and to overcoming the homophobia and other learned prejudices of forced assimilation.^[14]

When indigenous people from communities that are less accepting of two-spirits have sought community among non-indigenous LGBT communities, however, the tendency for the non-indigenous to tokenize and appropriate has at times led to rifts rather than unity, with two-spirits feeling like they're just another tacked on initial rather than fully included.^[14]

The term two-spirited was chosen to emphasize our difference in our experiences of multiple, interlocking oppressions as queer Aboriginal people. When non-Aboriginal people decide to "take up" the term two-spirit, it detracts from its original meaning and diffuses its power as a label of resistance for Aboriginal people. Already there is so much of First Nations culture that has been exploited and appropriated in this country; must our terms of resistance also be targeted for mainstream appropriation and consumption?
Two-spirited is a reclaimed term designed by Aboriginals to define our unique cultural context, histories, and legacy. When people do not see the harm in "sharing" the term, they are missing the point and refusing to recognize that by appropriating the term they will inevitably alter its cultural context.^[14]

In academia, there has since 2010 or earlier been a move to "queer the analytics of settler colonialism" and create a two-spirit critique as part of the general field of queer studies.^[6]^[15] However, much of this academic analysis and publishing is not based in traditional indigenous knowledge, but in the more mainstream, non-Native perspectives of the broader LGBT communities, so most of the same cultural misunderstandings tend to be found as in the outdated writing of the non-Native anthropologists and "explorers".^[6] Claiming a viewpoint of "postidentity" analysis, supporters of "queer of color critique" aim to examine settler colonialism and the genocide of indigenous peoples while "queering Native Studies".^[15] However, Indigenous identity is predominantly cultural, rather than a racial classification.^[16] It is based on membership in a particular community, cultural fluency, citizenship, and Native American and First Nations people may or may not even consider themselves to be people of color.^[16]

Terminology

With over 500 surviving indigenous cultures in the Americas, attitudes about sex and gender can be very diverse. Even with the modern adoption of pan-Indian terms like two-spirit, and the creation of a modern pan-Indian community around this naming, not all cultures will perceive two-spirits the same way, or welcome a pan-Indian term to replace the terms already in use by their cultures.^[6] Additionally, not all contemporary indigenous communities are supportive of their gender-variant and non-heterosexual people now. In these communities, those looking for two-spirit community have sometimes faced oppression and rejection.^[6]^[17] While existing terminology in many nations shows historical acknowledgement of differing sexual orientations and gender expressions, members of some these nations have also said that while variance was accepted, they never had separate or defined roles for these members of the community.^[6]^[17] Among the indigenous communities that traditionally have roles for two-spirit people, specific terms in their own languages are used for the social and spiritual roles these individuals fulfill.^[6]^[18]

Cree: napêw iskwêwisêhot, 'a man who dresses as a woman'.^[17]
Cree: iskwêw ka napêwayat, 'a woman who dresses as a man'.^[17]
Cree: ayahkwêw, 'a man dressed/living/accepted as a woman'; possibly not a respectful term. Others have suggested it is a third-gender designation, applied to both biological women and men.^[17]
Cree: înahpîkasoht, 'a woman dressed/living/accepted as a man'; also given as 'one who fights everyone to prove they are the toughest'.^[17]
Cree: iskwêhkân, 'one who acts/lives as a woman'.^[17]
Cree: napêhkân, 'one who acts/lives as a man'.^[17]
Lakota: winkte or wíŋkte is the contraction of an older Lakota word, Winyanktehca, meaning '[wants] to be like a woman'.^[19] Winkte are a social category in historical Lakota culture, of male-bodied people who adopt the clothing, work, and mannerisms that Lakota culture usually consider feminine. In contemporary Lakota culture, the term is more commonly associated with simply being gay. Both historically and in modern culture, usually winkte are homosexual, though they may or may not consider themselves part of the more mainstream LGBT communities. Some winkte participate in the pan-Indian two-spirit community.^[19] While historical accounts of their status vary widely, most accounts see the winkte as regular members of the community, and not in any way marginalized for their status. Other accounts hold the winkte as sacred, occupying a liminal, third gender role in the culture and born to fulfill ceremonial roles that can not be filled by either men or women.^[19] In contemporary Lakota communities, attitudes towards the winkte vary from accepting to homophobic.^[19]
[nádleeh] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help) or nàdleehì}}, 'one who is transformed' or 'one who changes'.^[20]^[21] In traditional Navajo culture, nádleeh are male-bodied individuals described by those in their communities as "effeminate male", or as "half woman, half man".^[1] A 2009 documentary, entitled Two Spirits about the murder of nádleeh Fred Martinez, contributed to awareness of these terms and cultures.^[1]
Ojibwe: ikwekaazo, 'men who chose to function as women', or 'one who endeavors to be like a woman'.^[22]
Ojibwe: ininiikaazo, 'women who functioned as men' or 'one who endeavors to be like a man'.^[22]

Sex [in Ojibwe cultures] usually determined one's gender, and therefore one’s work, but the Ojibwe accepted variation. Men who chose to function as women were called ikwekaazo, meaning 'one who endeavors to be like a woman'. Women who functioned as men were called ininiikaazo, meaning, 'one who endeavors to be like a man'. The French called these people berdaches. Ikwekaazo and ininiikaazo could take spouses of their own sex. Their mates were not considered ikwekaazo or ininiikaazo, however, because their function in society was still in keeping with their sex. If widowed, the spouse of an ikwekaazo or ininiikaazo could remarry someone of the opposite sex or another ikwekaazo or ininiikaazo. The ikwekaazowag worked and dressed like women. The ininiikaazowag worked and dressed like men. Both were considered to be strong spiritually, and they were always honored, especially during ceremonies.^[22]

Before the late twentieth century, anthropologists (primarily non-indigenous, i.e., not Native American or First Nations) used the generic term berdache /bərˈdæʃ/, to identify an indigenous individual fulfilling one of many mixed-gender roles in any given indigenous tribe or nation; but that term has now fallen out of favor. Anthropologists primarily used it to identify feminine indigenous men. Its etymology, however, has meant that it is now considered outdated and potentially offensive: it derives from the French bardache (English equivalent: bardash), an obsolete word meaning 'passive homosexual' or 'catamite',^[23] or even 'male prostitute'. Bardache, in turn, derived from the Persian برده barda meaning 'captive', 'prisoner of war', 'slave'.^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27] Spanish explorers who encountered two-spirits among the Chumash people called them joyas, Spanish for 'jewels'.^[28]

Use of the anthropological term berdache has now been replaced by the self-chosen two-spirit, which, in 1990, gained widespread popularity during the third annual intertribal Native American/First Nations gay and lesbian conference in Winnipeg.^[29] The decision to adopt this new, pan-Indian term was deliberate, with a clear intention to distance themselves from non-indigenous gays and lesbians,^[30] as well as from non-indigenous terminology like berdache, "gay", "lesbian", and "trans".^[6]^[30]^[31] Cameron writes, "The term two-spirit is thus an Aboriginal-specific term of resistance to colonization and non-transferable to other cultures. There are several underlying reasons for two spirited Aboriginals' desire to distance themselves from the mainstream queer community."^[14] Lang explains that for aboriginal people, their sexual orientation or gender identity is secondary to their ethnic identity. She states, "at the core of contemporary two-spirit identities is ethnicity, an awareness of being Native American as opposed to being white or being a member of any other ethnic group".^[30]

Two-spirit societies

Among the goals of two-spirit societies are group support; outreach, education, and activism; revival of their indigenous cultural traditions, including preserving the old languages, skills and dances;^[4] and otherwise working toward social change.^[32]

Some two-spirit societies (past and present) include: 2Spirits of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario; the Wabanaki Two Spirit Alliance in Nova Scotia; the Bay Area American Indian Two-Spirits (est. 1998) in San Francisco, California;^[33] Central Oklahoma Two Spirit Natives in Oklahoma City; the East Coast Two Spirit Society and the NorthEast Two-Spirit Society in New York City; Idaho Two-Spirit Society; the Indiana Two-Spirit Society in Bloomington; Minnesota Two Spirits; the Montana Two-Spirit Society in Browning; the Northwest Two-Spirit Society in Seattle, Washington; the Ohio Valley Two Spirit Society of Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Southern Illinois;^[34]^[35] the Portland Two Spirit Society (est. May 2012) in Portland, Oregon;^[36] the Regina Two-Spirited Society in Regina, Saskatchewan; the Texas Two Spirit Society in Dallas; the Tulsa Two-Spirit Society in Tulsa, Oklahoma; the Two-Spirit Society of Denver in Denver, Colorado; and the Wichita Two-Spirit Society in Wichita, Kansas.^[32]^[37]^[38]^[39]

Historical and anthropological accounts

Don Pedro Fages was third in command of the 1769–1770 Spanish Portolà expedition, the first European land exploration of what is now the U.S. state of California. At least three diaries were kept during the expedition, but Fages wrote his account later, in 1775. Fages gave more descriptive details about the native Californians than any of the others, and he alone reported the presence of homosexuality in the native culture. The English translation reads:

I have substantial evidence that those Indian men who, both here and farther inland, are observed in the dress, clothing and character of women - there being two or three such in each village - pass as sodomites by profession .... They are called joyas, and are held in great esteem.^[40]

According to Lang, in most tribes a relationship between a two-spirit and non-two-spirit has historically been seen for the most part as neither heterosexual nor homosexual (in modern-day terms) but more hetero-normative; early European colonists, however, saw such relationships as homosexual. Partners of two-spirits have not historically viewed themselves as homosexual, and moreover drew a sharp conceptual line between themselves and two-spirits.^[41]

Although two-spirits have been both respected and feared in a number of tribes, the two-spirit is not beyond being reproached or, by traditional law, even killed for bad deeds. In the Mojave tribe, for instance, two-spirits frequently become medicine persons and, like all who deal with the supernatural, are at risk of suspicion of witchcraft, notable in cases of failed harvest or of death. There have been instances of murder arising from such suspicions (as in the case of the female-bodied two-spirit named Sahaykwisā).^[42] Another instance in the late 1840s was of a Crow male-bodied two-spirit who was caught, possibly raiding horses, by the Lakota and killed.^[43]

Lang and Jacobs write that historically the Apache, the Lipan, Chiricahua, Mescalero, and southern Dilzhe'e all have alternative gender identities^[44]^[45] (i.e., what today would be included in the umbrella term two-spirit). One tribe in particular, the Eyak, was mentioned in a report from 1938 as not having an alternative gender and as holding such individuals in low esteem, although whether this sentiment was the result of acculturation or not is unknown.^[46]

Among the Iroquois, there is a report from Bacqueville de la Potherie in his book published in 1722, Histoire de l'Amérique septentrionale, that indicates that an alternative gender identity existed among them.^[47]

Many, if not all, tribes have been influenced by European homophobia and misogyny.^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52] Some sources have reported that the Aztecs and Incas had laws against such individuals,^[53]^[54] though there are some authors who feel that this was exaggerated or the result of acculturation, because all of the documents indicating this are post-conquest and any that existed before had been destroyed by the Spanish.^[51]^[55] The belief that these laws existed, at least for the Aztecs, comes from the Florentine Codex, and that evidence exists that indigenous peoples authored many codices, but the Spaniards destroyed most of them in their attempt to eradicate ancient beliefs.^[56] Nowadays, some Zapotec natives from Mexico are born as males, but later cross dress as women and practice all activities associated to the female gender. Such people are known as Muxe.^[57]

Media representation

The 2009 documentary film^[58]^{[user-generated source?]} Two Spirits, directed by Lydia Nibley, tells the story of the hate-crime murder of 16-year-old Navajo Fred Martinez for identifying as two-spirit. In the film, Nibley "affirms Martinez' Navajo sense of being a two spirit 'effeminate male', or nádleeh".^[1]^: 168 Martinez' mother defined nádleeh as "half woman, half man".^[1]^: 169 The film, shown on Independent Lens in 2011 and winner of the annual Audience Award for that year, also covers two-spirit people more generally, though focuses on the Fred Martinez murder.^[59]^[60]

Tributes

In 2012, a marker dedicated to two-spirit people was included in the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display in Chicago, Illinois, that celebrates LGBT history and people.^[61]

Self-identified two-spirits

A traditional two-spirit is recognized as such by the elders of their indigenous community.^[1]^[2] Inclusion in this list is not an indication of whether or not that is the case.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Estrada, Gabriel (2011). "Two Spirits, Nádleeh, and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze" (PDF). American Indian Culture and Research Journal. 35 (4): 167–190. doi:10.17953/aicr.35.4.x500172017344j30.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Leland, John (October 8, 2006). "A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out". The New York Times. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
^ Medicine, Beatrice (August 2002). "Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories". Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. 3 (1). International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology: 7. doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1024. ISSN 2307-0919. Archived from the original on December 28, 2012. Retrieved June 25, 2016. At the Wenner Gren conference on gender held in Chicago, May, 1994 ... the gay American Indian and Alaska Native males agreed to use the term 'Two Spirit' to replace the controversial 'berdache' term. The stated objective was to purge the older term from anthropological literature as it was seen as demeaning and not reflective of Native categories. Unfortunately, the term 'berdache' has also been incorporated in the psychology and women studies domains, so the task for the affected group to purge the term looms large and may be formidable. {{cite journal}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; December 8, 2012 suggested (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c "A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out". The New York Times. October 8, 2006. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Two Spirit 101". NativeOut. Retrieved September 23, 2015. The Two Spirit term was adopted in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the term berdache, which means, 'passive partner in sodomy, boy prostitute.'
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Pember, Mary Annette (October 13, 2016). "'Two Spirit' Tradition Far from Ubiquitous Among Tribes". Rewire. Retrieved October 17, 2016. Additional quotation: "Non-Native anthropologist Will Roscoe gets much of the public credit for coining the term two spirit. However, according to Kristopher Kohl Miner of the Ho-Chunk Nation, Native people such as anthropologist Dr. Wesley Thomas of the Dine or Navajo tribe also contributed to its creation."
^ "Two Spirit Terms in Tribal Languages". NativeOut. Archived from the original on January 2, 2015. Retrieved September 23, 2015.
^ Gilley, Brian Joseph (2006: 8). Becoming Two-Spirit: Gay Identity and Social Acceptance in Indian Country. ISBN 0-8032-7126-3.
^ Roscoe, Will (1991). The Zuni Man-Woman, p.5. ISBN 0-8263-1253-5.
^ (Lang, 62)
^ "Inventory of Aboriginal Services, Issues and Initiatives in Vancouver: Two Spirit – LGTB". Retrieved July 1, 2007.
^ Page 72 – http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/aboriginal-services-inventory.pdf
^ Lang, S. (1998), pp. 289–298.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Cameron, Michelle. (2005). Two-spirited Aboriginal people: Continuing cultural appropriation by non-Aboriginal society. Canadian Women Studies, 24 (2/3), 123–127.
^ ^a ^b Smith, Andrea (2010). "Queer Theory and Native Studies: The Heteronormativity of Settler Colonialism". GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies. 16 (1–2): 41–68.
^ ^a ^b Russell, Steve (2002). "Apples are the Color of Blood". Critical Sociology. 28 (1): 68. Quoting López (1994) p. 55.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Vowel, Chelsea (2016). "All My Queer Relations – Language, Culture, and Two-Spirit Identity". Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis & Inuit Issues in Canada. Winnipeg: Highwater Press. ISBN 978-1553796800.
^ Note: There is not always consensus, even among reporting elders and language workers, about all of these terms and how they are or were applied. See Vowel 2016, p.109.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Medicine, Beatrice (2002). Lonner, W. J.; Dinnel, D. L.; Hayes, S. A.; Sattler, D. N. (eds.). "Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories". Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. Center for Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington University. Unit 3, Chapter 2. Archived from the original on March 20, 2003. Retrieved July 7, 2015. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; March 30, 2003 suggested (help)
^ Newcomb, Franc Johnson. Hosteen Klah: Navaho Medicine Man and Sand Painter. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1008-2.^{[page needed]}
^ Berlo, Janet C.; Phillips, Ruth B. Native North American Art. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-19-284218-3.
^ ^a ^b ^c Treuer, Anton (2011). "Women and Gender". The Assassination of Hole in the Day. Borealis Books. p. url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1aIrg3wiUyoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q=ininiikaazo%20&f=false. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing pipe in: |page= (help)
^ "bardash". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
^ Steingass, Francis Joseph (1892). A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary, Including the Arabic Words and Phrases to Be Met with in Persian Literature. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 173 – via Digital Dictionaries of South Asia database, University of Chicago.
^ Jacobs, S.; Thomas, W.; Lang, S., eds. (1997). Two-spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 4.
^ Roscoe, W. (1998). Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 7.
^ "vulnerable". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2004. Retrieved March 24, 2007 – via Dictionary.Reference.com.
^ Kent Flannery; Joyce Marcus (May 15, 2012). "The Creation of Inequality". Harvard University Press: 70–71. ISBN 978-0-674-06469-0. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ de Vries, Kylan Mattias (2009). "Berdache (Two-Spirit)". In O'Brien, Jodi (ed.). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. p. 64. ISBN 9781412909167. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jacobs, S. (1997), pp. 2–3, 221.
^ Lang, S.: Men as women, women as men: Changing gender in Native American cultures, page XIII. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1998.
^ ^a ^b Lipshultz, Hanna (2007). "Berdach to Two-Spirit: The Revival of Native American Traditions" (PDF). Discoveries (8). Ithaca, New York: John S. Knight Institute for Writing in the Disciplines: 31–32. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
^ Alpert, Emily (December 5, 2004). "Rainbow and red: Queer American Indians from New York to San Francisco are showing both their spirits". In the Fray. New Hyde Park: In the Fray Inc. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
^ Thomas, Wesley K. (June 26, 2006). "Welcome!". Ohio Valley Two-Spirit Society (OVTSS). Retrieved July 18, 2016.
^ Harrell, Helen; Fischer, Carol (August 9, 2009). "Out in Bloomington: Boy Scouts raise debate". The Bloomington Alternative. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
^ Rook, Erin (September 19, 2012). "Portland Two Spirit Society: Finding family and a connection to history in shared identities". PQ. Brilliant Media. Retrieved July 17, 2016.
^ "Two-Spirit Leaders Call on Washington to Include Native Women in Re-Authorization of VAWA". Indian Country Today Media Network. December 18, 2012. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
^ "Two-Spirit gathering at Portland State University, Wednesday, May 26, 2010". Gay & Lesbian Archives of the Pacific Northwest. 2010. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
^ "New Mexico GSA: Resources § Native / First Nations". Santa Fe Mountain Center. New Mexico Gay–Straight Alliance Network. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
^ Fages, P.; Priestley, H. I. (1937). A Historical, Political, and Natural Description of California. Berkeley: University of California Press, in association with Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnografía (Mexico). p. 33. Retrieved September 30, 2017.
^ Lang, S. (1998), pp. 208–212.
^ Lang, S. (1998), pp. 164, 288.
^ Walker, James: Lakota Society, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, p. 147. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1982.
^ Lang, S. (1998), pp. 291–93.
^ Jacobs, S. (1997), pp. 236–251.
^ Lang, S. (1998), pp. 202–203.
^ Roscoe, W. (1998), pp. 250-251n.43. (vol. 3, p. 41)
^ Jacobs, S. (1997), p. 206.
^ Roscoe, W. (1998), p. 114.
^ Lang, S. (1998), pp. 119, 311–313, 322.
^ ^a ^b Trexler, R. : Sex and conquest: Gendered violence, political order, and the European conquest of the Americas, pp. 155–167. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.
^ Swidler, Arlene: Homosexuality and World Religions, pp. 17–19. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1993.
^ Lang, S. (1998), p. 324.
^ Spencer, Colin: Homosexuality in History, p. 142. London: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1995.
^ Greenberg, David: The Construction of Homosexuality, pp. 165–168. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
^ Fitch, Nancy: General Discussion of the Primary Sources Used in This Project, The Conquest of Mexico Annotated Bibliography. Accessed: June 14, 2008.
^ Bennholdt-Thomsen, Veronika (2008). "Muxe: el tercer sexo" (PDF). Goethe.de (in Spanish). Goethe Institut. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
^ "Two Spirits (2009)". IMDb. June 21, 2009. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
^ Nibley, Lydia (June 14, 2011). "Two Spirits: Native American Gender Diversity". Independent Lens. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Retrieved January 26, 2017.
^ "The Bravest Choice Is To Be Yourself". Independent Lens. PBS. June 14, 2011. preview (0:02:01). Retrieved January 26, 2017.
^ Salvo, Victor. "2012 Inductees". Chicago: The Legacy Project. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
^ Gloria Kim, "Why be just one sex?". Maclean's, September 8, 2005.
^ Sorrel, Lorraine (March 31, 1989). "Not Vanishing". Off Our Backs. Vol. 19, no. 3. Washington.
^ "Kent Monkman: Sexuality of Miss Chief". Mason-Studio.com. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
^ "Aboriginal music awards host two-spirited performer". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. September 11, 2014.
^ Jacobs, Sue-Ellen; Thomas, Wesley; Lang, Sabine (January 1, 1997). Two Spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252066450. OCLC 421792266.

Archival resources

Bruce McKinney Papers, 1908–2000 in the Kenneth Spencer Research Library (University of Kansas Libraries).
Claude E. Schaeffer fonds at the Glenbow Museum.
Robert Lynch Papers, 1963–1989, at the Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections of Cornell University Library
Two-Spirited Collection at the University of Winnipeg Archives

External links

"Language, culture, and Two-Spirit identity" – article on Cree and other indigenous perspectives, from the blog Âpihtawikosisân
NativeOut – two-spirit and LGBT news website
Summary of support services for two-spirit youth at the US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA)
"San Francisco Two-Spirit Powwow" – 2017 video by award-winning photographer Matika Wilbur
Two Spirits – 2009 PBS documentary about the murder of two-spirt teen Fred Martinez
"Two-Spirits: Belonging" – 2005 short film by Rope Wolf

[Estrada-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Estrada, Gabriel (2011). "Two Spirits, Nádleeh, and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze" (PDF). American Indian Culture and Research Journal. 35 (4): 167–190. doi:10.17953/aicr.35.4.x500172017344j30.

[NYT2-2] Leland, John (October 8, 2006). "A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out". The New York Times. Retrieved July 28, 2016.

[BMedicine-3] Medicine, Beatrice (August 2002). "Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories". Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. 3 (1). International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology: 7. doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1024. ISSN 2307-0919. Archived from the original on December 28, 2012. Retrieved June 25, 2016. At the Wenner Gren conference on gender held in Chicago, May, 1994 ... the gay American Indian and Alaska Native males agreed to use the term 'Two Spirit' to replace the controversial 'berdache' term. The stated objective was to purge the older term from anthropological literature as it was seen as demeaning and not reflective of Native categories. Unfortunately, the term 'berdache' has also been incorporated in the psychology and women studies domains, so the task for the affected group to purge the term looms large and may be formidable. {{cite journal}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; December 8, 2012 suggested (help)

[NYT1-4] "A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out". The New York Times. October 8, 2006. Retrieved July 28, 2016.

[NativeOut101-5] "Two Spirit 101". NativeOut. Retrieved September 23, 2015. The Two Spirit term was adopted in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the term berdache, which means, 'passive partner in sodomy, boy prostitute.'

[Pember-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Pember, Mary Annette (October 13, 2016). "'Two Spirit' Tradition Far from Ubiquitous Among Tribes". Rewire. Retrieved October 17, 2016. Additional quotation: "Non-Native anthropologist Will Roscoe gets much of the public credit for coining the term two spirit. However, according to Kristopher Kohl Miner of the Ho-Chunk Nation, Native people such as anthropologist Dr. Wesley Thomas of the Dine or Navajo tribe also contributed to its creation."

[terms-7] "Two Spirit Terms in Tribal Languages". NativeOut. Archived from the original on January 2, 2015. Retrieved September 23, 2015.

[8] Gilley, Brian Joseph (2006: 8). Becoming Two-Spirit: Gay Identity and Social Acceptance in Indian Country. ISBN 0-8032-7126-3.

[9] Roscoe, Will (1991). The Zuni Man-Woman, p.5. ISBN 0-8263-1253-5.

[10] (Lang, 62)

[vancouver-11] "Inventory of Aboriginal Services, Issues and Initiatives in Vancouver: Two Spirit – LGTB". Retrieved July 1, 2007.

[12] Page 72 – http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/aboriginal-services-inventory.pdf

[13] Lang, S. (1998), pp. 289–298.

[Cameron-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Cameron, Michelle. (2005). Two-spirited Aboriginal people: Continuing cultural appropriation by non-Aboriginal society. Canadian Women Studies, 24 (2/3), 123–127.

[Smith-15] Smith, Andrea (2010). "Queer Theory and Native Studies: The Heteronormativity of Settler Colonialism". GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies. 16 (1–2): 41–68.

[Russell-16] Russell, Steve (2002). "Apples are the Color of Blood". Critical Sociology. 28 (1): 68. Quoting López (1994) p. 55.

[Vowel-1-17] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Vowel, Chelsea (2016). "All My Queer Relations – Language, Culture, and Two-Spirit Identity". Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis & Inuit Issues in Canada. Winnipeg: Highwater Press. ISBN 978-1553796800.

[18] Note: There is not always consensus, even among reporting elders and language workers, about all of these terms and how they are or were applied. See Vowel 2016, p.109.

[Medicine-19] Medicine, Beatrice (2002). Lonner, W. J.; Dinnel, D. L.; Hayes, S. A.; Sattler, D. N. (eds.). "Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories". Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. Center for Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington University. Unit 3, Chapter 2. Archived from the original on March 20, 2003. Retrieved July 7, 2015. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; March 30, 2003 suggested (help)

[20] Newcomb, Franc Johnson. Hosteen Klah: Navaho Medicine Man and Sand Painter. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1008-2.^{[page needed]}

[21] Berlo, Janet C.; Phillips, Ruth B. Native North American Art. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-19-284218-3.

[Treur2011-22] Treuer, Anton (2011). "Women and Gender". The Assassination of Hole in the Day. Borealis Books. p. url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1aIrg3wiUyoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q=ininiikaazo%20&f=false. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing pipe in: |page= (help)

[23] "bardash". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved June 7, 2015.

[24] Steingass, Francis Joseph (1892). A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary, Including the Arabic Words and Phrases to Be Met with in Persian Literature. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 173 – via Digital Dictionaries of South Asia database, University of Chicago.

[25] Jacobs, S.; Thomas, W.; Lang, S., eds. (1997). Two-spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 4.

[26] Roscoe, W. (1998). Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 7.

[27] "vulnerable". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2004. Retrieved March 24, 2007 – via Dictionary.Reference.com.

[28] Kent Flannery; Joyce Marcus (May 15, 2012). "The Creation of Inequality". Harvard University Press: 70–71. ISBN 978-0-674-06469-0. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[de_Vries_2009-29] Vries, Kylan Mattias (2009). "Berdache (Two-Spirit)". In O'Brien, Jodi (ed.). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. p. 64. ISBN 9781412909167. Retrieved March 6, 2015.

[Jacobs2-3,221-30] Jacobs, S. (1997), pp. 2–3, 221.

[31] Lang, S.: Men as women, women as men: Changing gender in Native American cultures, page XIII. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1998.

[Lipshultz-32] Lipshultz, Hanna (2007). "Berdach to Two-Spirit: The Revival of Native American Traditions" (PDF). Discoveries (8). Ithaca, New York: John S. Knight Institute for Writing in the Disciplines: 31–32. Retrieved July 18, 2016.

[33] Alpert, Emily (December 5, 2004). "Rainbow and red: Queer American Indians from New York to San Francisco are showing both their spirits". In the Fray. New Hyde Park: In the Fray Inc. Retrieved March 19, 2016.

[34] Thomas, Wesley K. (June 26, 2006). "Welcome!". Ohio Valley Two-Spirit Society (OVTSS). Retrieved July 18, 2016.

[35] Harrell, Helen; Fischer, Carol (August 9, 2009). "Out in Bloomington: Boy Scouts raise debate". The Bloomington Alternative. Retrieved July 18, 2016.

[36] Rook, Erin (September 19, 2012). "Portland Two Spirit Society: Finding family and a connection to history in shared identities". PQ. Brilliant Media. Retrieved July 17, 2016.

[37] "Two-Spirit Leaders Call on Washington to Include Native Women in Re-Authorization of VAWA". Indian Country Today Media Network. December 18, 2012. Retrieved July 18, 2016.

[38] "Two-Spirit gathering at Portland State University, Wednesday, May 26, 2010". Gay & Lesbian Archives of the Pacific Northwest. 2010. Retrieved July 18, 2016.

[39] "New Mexico GSA: Resources § Native / First Nations". Santa Fe Mountain Center. New Mexico Gay–Straight Alliance Network. Retrieved July 18, 2016.

[40] Fages, P.; Priestley, H. I. (1937). A Historical, Political, and Natural Description of California. Berkeley: University of California Press, in association with Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnografía (Mexico). p. 33. Retrieved September 30, 2017.

[41] Lang, S. (1998), pp. 208–212.

[42] Lang, S. (1998), pp. 164, 288.

[43] Walker, James: Lakota Society, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, p. 147. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1982.

[44] Lang, S. (1998), pp. 291–93.

[45] Jacobs, S. (1997), pp. 236–251.

[46] Lang, S. (1998), pp. 202–203.

[47] Roscoe, W. (1998), pp. 250-251n.43. (vol. 3, p. 41)

[48] Jacobs, S. (1997), p. 206.

[49] Roscoe, W. (1998), p. 114.

[50] Lang, S. (1998), pp. 119, 311–313, 322.

[trexler_155-167-51] Trexler, R. : Sex and conquest: Gendered violence, political order, and the European conquest of the Americas, pp. 155–167. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.

[52] Swidler, Arlene: Homosexuality and World Religions, pp. 17–19. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1993.

[53] Lang, S. (1998), p. 324.

[54] Spencer, Colin: Homosexuality in History, p. 142. London: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1995.

[55] Greenberg, David: The Construction of Homosexuality, pp. 165–168. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.

[56] Fitch, Nancy: General Discussion of the Primary Sources Used in This Project, The Conquest of Mexico Annotated Bibliography. Accessed: June 14, 2008.

[57] Bennholdt-Thomsen, Veronika (2008). "Muxe: el tercer sexo" (PDF). Goethe.de (in Spanish). Goethe Institut. Retrieved March 13, 2016.

[58] "Two Spirits (2009)". IMDb. June 21, 2009. Retrieved June 7, 2015.

[59] Nibley, Lydia (June 14, 2011). "Two Spirits: Native American Gender Diversity". Independent Lens. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Retrieved January 26, 2017.

[60] "The Bravest Choice Is To Be Yourself". Independent Lens. PBS. June 14, 2011. preview (0:02:01). Retrieved January 26, 2017.

[61] Salvo, Victor. "2012 Inductees". Chicago: The Legacy Project. Retrieved June 7, 2015.

[62] Gloria Kim, "Why be just one sex?". Maclean's, September 8, 2005.

[63] Sorrel, Lorraine (March 31, 1989). "Not Vanishing". Off Our Backs. Vol. 19, no. 3. Washington.

[64] "Kent Monkman: Sexuality of Miss Chief". Mason-Studio.com. Retrieved June 7, 2015.

[65] "Aboriginal music awards host two-spirited performer". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. September 11, 2014.

[66] Jacobs, Sue-Ellen; Thomas, Wesley; Lang, Sabine (January 1, 1997). Two Spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252066450. OCLC 421792266.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Use American English}}{{Use MDY dates}}
-[[File:SF Pride 2014 - Stierch 3.jpg|thumb|260px|The two spirit contingent marches at [[San Francisco Pride]] 2014.]]
+[[File:SF Pride 2014 - Stierch 3.jpg|thumb|260px|The two-spirit contingent marches at [[San Francisco Pride]] 2014.]]
 {{Indigenous rights}}
+'''Two-spirit''' (also '''two spirit''', '''two-spirited''', or rarely '''twospirit''', sometimes capitalized) is a modern [[umbrella term]] used by some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous North Americans]] to describe certain spiritual people<ref name=Estrada>{{cite journal |last1=Estrada |first1=Gabriel |title=Two Spirits, ''Nádleeh'', and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze |journal=American Indian Culture and Research Journal |date=2011 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=167–190 |doi=10.17953/aicr.35.4.x500172017344j30 |url= http://nativeout.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Two-Spirits-Nadleeh-and-Navajo-LGBTQ2-Gaze.pdf}}</ref><ref name=NYT2>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/08/fashion/08SPIRIT.html?_r=0 |title=A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out |work=The New York Times |first=John |last=Leland |date=October 8, 2006 |access-date=July 28, 2016}}</ref> – [[Homosexuality|gay]], [[lesbian]], [[bisexual]] and [[Gender variance|gender-variant]] individuals – in their communities.<ref name=BMedicine>{{cite journal |last=Medicine |first=Beatrice |date=August 2002 |title=Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories |url= http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=orpc |journal=Online Readings in Psychology and Culture |publisher=International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=7 |issn=2307-0919 |doi=10.9707/2307-0919.1024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121208071034/http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=orpc |archive-date=December 28, 2012 |access-date=June 25, 2016 |quote=At the Wenner Gren conference on gender held in Chicago, May, 1994 ... the gay American Indian and Alaska Native males agreed to use the term 'Two Spirit' to replace the controversial 'berdache' term. The stated objective was to purge the older term from anthropological literature as it was seen as demeaning and not reflective of Native categories. Unfortunately, the term 'berdache' has also been incorporated in the psychology and women studies domains, so the task for the affected group to purge the term looms large and may be formidable.}}</ref><ref name=NYT1>{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/08/fashion/08SPIRIT.html?_r=0 |title=A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out |work=The New York Times |date=October 8, 2006 |access-date=July 28, 2016}}</ref> The term was adopted by consensus in 1990 at an indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the outdated, and now seen as inappropriate, anthropological term ''berdache.''<ref name=NYT1 /><ref name=NativeOut101>{{cite web |url= http://nativeout.com/twospirit-rc/two-spirit-101/ |title=Two Spirit 101 |work=NativeOut |quote=The ''Two Spirit'' term was adopted in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the term ''berdache'', which means, 'passive partner in sodomy, boy prostitute.' |access-date=September 23, 2015}}</ref><ref name=Pember>{{cite web |url= https://rewire.news/article/2016/10/13/two-spirit-tradition-far-ubiquitous-among-tribes/ |title='Two Spirit' Tradition Far from Ubiquitous Among Tribes |work=[[Rewire (website)|Rewire]] |first=Mary Annette |last=Pember |date=October 13, 2016 |access-date=October 17, 2016}} Additional quotation: "Non-Native anthropologist Will Roscoe gets much of the public credit for coining the term ''two spirit''. However, according to Kristopher Kohl Miner of the Ho-Chunk Nation, Native people such as anthropologist Dr. Wesley Thomas of the Dine or Navajo tribe also contributed to its creation."</ref>
+"Two-spirit" is not interchangeable with "[[LGBT]] Native American" or "Gay Indian";<ref name=NYT2 /> this term differs from most Western, mainstream definitions of [[sexuality]] and [[gender identity]] in that it is not so much about whom one is sexually interested in, or how one personally identifies; rather, it is a spiritual and ceremonial role that is recognized and confirmed by the elders of a two-spirit's ceremonial community.<ref name=Estrada /><ref name=NYT2 /> While some have found the term a useful tool for intertribal organizing, not all indigenous cultures conceptualize gender or sexuality this way, and most tribes use names in their own languages.<ref name=NativeOut101 /><ref name=terms>{{cite web |url= http://nativeout.com/twospirit-rc/two-spirit-101/two-spirit-terms-in-tribal-languages |archive-url= https://wayback.archive.org/web/20150102172337/http://nativeout.com/twospirit-rc/two-spirit-101/two-spirit-terms-in-tribal-languages |archive-date=January 2, 2015 |title=Two Spirit Terms in Tribal Languages |work=NativeOut |access-date=September 23, 2015}}</ref> While [[Pan-Indianism|pan-Indian]] terms are not always appropriate or welcome, the term has generally received more acceptance and use than the word it replaced.<ref name=NativeOut101 />
-'''Two-Spirit''' (also '''two spirit''' or, rarely, '''twospirit''') is a modern [[umbrella term]] used by some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous North Americans]] to describe certain spiritual people<ref name=Estrada>{{cite journal|last1=Estrada|first1=Gabriel|title=''Two Spirits'', ''Nádleeh'', and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze|journal=American Indian Culture and Research Journal|date=2011|volume=35|issue=4|pages=167–190|doi=10.17953/aicr.35.4.x500172017344j30|url=http://nativeout.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Two-Spirits-Nadleeh-and-Navajo-LGBTQ2-Gaze.pdf}}</ref><ref name=NYT2>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/08/fashion/08SPIRIT.html?_r=0|title=A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out|publisher=The New York Times|date=8 Oct 2006|accessdate=28 July 2016 |quote='The elders will tell you the difference between a gay Indian and a Two-Spirit,' [Criddle] said, underscoring the idea that simply being gay and Indian does not make someone a Two-Spirit.}}</ref> –  [[Homosexuality|gay]], [[lesbian]], [[bisexual]] and [[Gender variance|gender-variant]] individuals – in their communities.<ref name=BMedicine>{{cite journal |last=Medicine |first=Beatrice |date=August 2002 |title=Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories |url=http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=orpc |journal=Online Readings in Psychology and Culture |publisher= International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=7 |issn=2307-0919 |doi=10.9707/2307-0919.1024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208071034/http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=orpc |archive-date=2012-12-08 |accessdate=2016-06-25 |quote=At the Wenner Gren conference on gender held in Chicago, May, 1994... the gay American Indian and Alaska Native males agreed to use the term "Two Spirit" to replace the controversial "berdache" term. The stated objective was to purge the older term from anthropological literature as it was seen as demeaning and not reflective of Native categories. Unfortunately, the term "berdache" has also been incorporated in the psychology and women studies domains, so the task for the affected group to purge the term looms large and may be formidable.}}</ref><ref name=NYT1>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/08/fashion/08SPIRIT.html?_r=0|title=A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out|publisher=The New York Times|date=8 Oct 2006|accessdate=28 July 2016}}</ref> The term was adopted by consensus in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the outdated, and now seen as inappropriate, anthropological term ''berdache.''<ref name=NYT1/><ref name=NativeOut101>"[http://nativeout.com/twospirit-rc/two-spirit-101/ Two Spirit 101]" at ''NativeOut'': "The Two Spirit term was adopted in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the term berdache, which means, 'passive partner in sodomy, boy prostitute.'" Accessed 23 Sep 2015</ref><ref name=Pember1>{{cite web|url=https://rewire.news/article/2016/10/13/two-spirit-tradition-far-ubiquitous-among-tribes/|title=‘Two Spirit’ Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes|publisher=[[Rewire (website)|Rewire]]|first=Mary Annette |last=Pember |date=Oct 13, 2016|accessdate=Oct 17, 2016 |quote= Non-Native anthropologist Will Roscoe gets much of the public credit for coining the term two spirit. However, according to Kristopher Kohl Miner of the Ho-Chunk Nation, Native people such as anthropologist Dr. Wesley Thomas of the Dine or Navajo tribe also contributed to its creation. (Thomas is a professor in the School of Dine and Law Studies.)}}</ref>
+[[Third gender|Third- and fourth-gender]] roles traditionally embodied by two-spirit people include performing work and [[Transvestism|wearing clothing]] [[Women's clothing|associated with both men and women]]. Not all tribes/nations have rigid [[Gender roles in First Nations and Native American tribes|gender roles]], but, among those that do, the most usual spectrum that has been documented is that of four genders: feminine woman, masculine woman, feminine man, masculine man.<ref name=Estrada />
-"Two Spirit" is not interchangeable with "LGBT Native American" or "Gay Indian";<ref name=NYT2/> this title differs from most western, mainstream definitions of [[sexuality]] and [[gender identity]] in that it is not so much about whom one is sexually interested in, or how one personally identifies; rather, it is a sacred, spiritual and ceremonial role that is recognized and confirmed by the Elders of the Two Spirit's  ceremonial community.<ref name=Estrada/><ref name=NYT2/> While some have found the term a useful tool for intertribal organizing, not all Native cultures conceptualize gender or sexuality this way, and most tribes use names in their own languages.<ref name=NativeOut101/><ref name=terms>"[http://nativeout.com/twospirit-rc/two-spirit-101/two-spirit-terms-in-tribal-languages/ Two Spirit Terms in Tribal Languages]" at ''NativeOut''. Accessed 23 Sep 2015</ref> While [[Pan-Indianism|pan-Indian]] terms are not always appropriate or welcome, the term has generally received more acceptance and use than the term it replaced.<ref name=NativeOut101/>
-[[Third gender|Third and fourth gender]] roles traditionally embodied by two-spirit people include performing work and [[Transvestism|wearing clothing]] [[Women's clothing|associated with both men and women]]. Not all tribes/nations have rigid [[gender roles in First Nations and Native American tribes|gender roles]], but, among those that do, the most usual spectrum that has been documented is that of four genders: feminine woman, masculine woman, feminine man, masculine man.<ref name=Estrada/>
 == Definition and societal role in indigenous communities ==
-[[File:Catlin - Dance to the berdache.jpg|thumb|Drawing by [[George Catlin]] (1796–1872) while on the [[Great Plains]] among the [[Sac and Fox Nation]]. Depicting a ceremonial dance, non-Native artist George Catlin titled the painting ''Dance to the Berdache''.]]
+[[File:Catlin - Dance to the berdache.jpg|thumb|Drawing by [[George Catlin]] (1796–1872) while on the [[Great Plains]] among the [[Sac and Fox Nation]]. Depicting a ceremonial dance, the non-indigenous artist titled the painting ''Dance to the Berdache''.]]
+A 2006 ''[[New York Times]]'' article about a two-spirit gathering summarized the nature of the term thusly, quoting a [[Jicarilla Apache]]:
-<blockquote>'The elders will tell you the difference between a gay Indian and a Two-Spirit,' [Joey Criddle] said, underscoring the idea that simply being gay and Indian does not make someone a Two-Spirit.<ref name=NYT2/></blockquote>
+{{quote|content='The elders will tell you the difference between a gay Indian and a Two-Spirit,' [Joey Criddle] said, underscoring the idea that simply being gay and Indian does not make someone a Two-Spirit.<ref name=NYT2 />
+}}
+Historically, the presence of male-bodied two-spirits "was a fundamental institution among most tribal peoples", according to Brian Gilley<ref>Gilley, Brian Joseph (2006: 8). ''Becoming Two-Spirit: Gay Identity and Social Acceptance in Indian Country''. {{ISBN|0-8032-7126-3}}.</ref> and, according to non-indigenous anthropologist [[Will Roscoe]], both male- and female-bodied two-spirits have been documented "in over 130 North American tribes, in every region of the continent".<ref>Roscoe, Will (1991). ''The Zuni Man-Woman,'' p.5. {{ISBN|0-8263-1253-5}}.</ref> However, [[Ojibwe]] journalist Mary Annette Pember argues that this depiction threatens to homogenize diverse indigenous cultures, painting over them with an overly broad brush, potentially causing the disappearance of "distinct cultural and language differences that Native peoples hold crucial to their identity".<ref name=Pember />  She wrote:
-<blockquote>Unfortunately, depending on an oral tradition to impart our ways to future generations opened the floodgates for early non-Native explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists to write books describing Native peoples and therefore bolstering their own role as experts. These writings were and still are entrenched in the perspective of the authors who were and are mostly white men.<ref name=Pember2>{{cite web|url=https://rewire.news/article/2016/10/13/two-spirit-tradition-far-ubiquitous-among-tribes/|title=‘Two Spirit’ Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes|publisher=[[Rewire (website)|Rewire]]|first=Mary Annette |last=Pember |date=Oct 13, 2016|accessdate=Oct 17, 2016 |quote= Unfortunately, depending on an oral tradition to impart our ways to future generations opened the floodgates for early non-Native explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists to write books describing Native peoples and therefore bolstering their own role as experts. These writings were and still are entrenched in the perspective of the authors who were and are mostly white men.}}</ref></blockquote>
+{{quote|content=Unfortunately, depending on an oral tradition to impart our ways to future generations opened the floodgates for early non-indigenous explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists to write books describing indigenous peoples and therefore bolstering their own role as experts. These writings were and still are entrenched in the perspective of the authors who were and are mostly white men.<ref name=Pember />
+}}
+According to German Anthropologist Sabine Lang, cross dressing of two-spirit people was not always an indicator of gender identity. Lang believes "the mere fact that a male wears women's clothing does not say something about his role behavior, his gender status, or even his choice of partner ...."<ref>(Lang, 62)</ref>
-Historically, the presence of male-bodied two-spirits "was a fundamental institution among most tribal peoples," according to Brian Gilley<ref>Gilley, Brian Joseph (2006: 8). ''Becoming Two-Spirit: Gay Identity and Social Acceptance in Indian Country''. {{ISBN|0-8032-7126-3}}.</ref> and, according to non-Native anthropologist [[Will Roscoe]], both male- and female-bodied two-spirits have been documented "in over 130 North American tribes, in every region of the continent."<ref>Roscoe, Will (1991). ''The Zuni Man-Woman,'' p.5. {{ISBN|0-8263-1253-5}}.</ref> However, [[Ojibwe]] journalist Mary Annette Pember argues that this depiction threatens to homogenize diverse Indigenous cultures, painting over them with an overly broad brush, potentially causing the disappearance of "distinct cultural and language differences that Native peoples hold crucial to their identity."<ref name=Pember>{{cite web|url=https://rewire.news/article/2016/10/13/two-spirit-tradition-far-ubiquitous-among-tribes/|title=‘Two Spirit’ Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes|publisher=[[Rewire (website)|Rewire]]|first=Mary Annette |last=Pember |date=Oct 13, 2016|accessdate=Oct 17, 2016 |quote= }}</ref>
+Male-bodied two-spirit people, regardless of gender identification, can go to war and have access to male activities, such as male-only sweat lodge ceremonies.<ref name="vancouver">{{cite web |title=Inventory of Aboriginal Services, Issues and Initiatives in Vancouver: Two Spirit – LGTB |url= http://vancouver.ca/commsvcs/socialplanning/initiatives/aboriginal/tools/directory/twospirit.htm |access-date=July 1, 2007}}</ref> However, they may also take on "feminine" activities such as cooking and other domestic responsibilities.<ref>Page 72 – http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/aboriginal-services-inventory.pdf</ref>  According to Lang, two-spirits assigned at birth as female usually have sexual relations or marriages only with females.<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 289–298.</ref>
-According to German Anthropologist Sabine Lang, cross dressing of two spirit people was not always an indicator of gender identity. Lang believes "the mere fact that a male wears women's clothing does not say something about his role behavior, his gender status, or even his choice of partner..."<ref>(Lang, 62)</ref>
-Male-bodied two spirit people, regardless of gender identification, can go to war and have access to male activities such as male-only sweat lodge ceremonies.<ref name="vancouver">{{cite web |title=Inventory of Aboriginal Services, Issues and Initiatives in Vancouver: Two Spirit – LGTB |url=http://vancouver.ca/commsvcs/socialplanning/initiatives/aboriginal/tools/directory/twospirit.htm |accessdate=2007-07-01}}</ref> However, they may also take on "feminine" activities such as cooking and other domestic responsibilities.<ref>Page 72 – http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/aboriginal-services-inventory.pdf</ref>  According to Lang, female assigned at birth two-spirits usually have sexual relations or marriages with only females.<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 289–298.</ref>
 == Contemporary issues ==
-The increasing visibility of the two spirit concept in mainstream culture has been seen as both empowering and as having some undesirable consequences, such as the spread of [[Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America|misinformation]] about the cultures of Indigenous people, pan-Indianism, and [[cultural appropriation]] of Indigenous identities and ceremonial ways among non-Natives who do not understand that two spirit is specifically a Native American and First Nations cultural identity, not to be taken up by non-Natives.<ref name=Pember/><ref name=Cameron>Cameron, Michelle. (2005). Two-spirited Aboriginal people: Continuing cultural appropriation by non-Aboriginal society. ''Canadian Women Studies'', ''24'' (2/3), 123–127.</ref>
+The increasing visibility of the ''two-spirit'' concept in mainstream culture has been seen as both empowering and as having some undesirable consequences, such as the spread of [[Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America|misinformation]] about the cultures of indigenous peoples, pan-Indianism, and [[cultural appropriation]] of indigenous identities and ceremonial ways among non-indigenous Americans, who do not understand that two-spirit is specifically a Native American and First Nations cultural identity, not to be taken up by the non-indigenous.<ref name=Pember /><ref name=Cameron>Cameron, Michelle. (2005). Two-spirited Aboriginal people: Continuing cultural appropriation by non-Aboriginal society. ''Canadian Women Studies'', ''24'' (2/3), 123–127.</ref>
-<blockquote>These sort of simplified black-and-white depictions of Native culture and history perpetuate indiscriminate appropriation of Native peoples. Although the current new meme or legend surrounding the term two spirit is certainly laudable for helping LGBTQ people create their own more empowering terminology to describe themselves, it carries some questionable baggage.<br/>
+{{quote|content=These sort of simplified black-and-white depictions of Native culture and history perpetuate indiscriminate appropriation of Native peoples. Although the current new meme or legend surrounding the term ''two spirit'' is certainly laudable for helping LGBTQ people create their own more empowering terminology to describe themselves, it carries some questionable baggage.<br />
-My concern is not so much over the use of the words but over the social meme they have generated that has morphed into a cocktail of historical revisionism, wishful thinking, good intentions, and a soupçon of white, entitled appropriation.<ref name=Pember/></blockquote>
+My concern is not so much over the use of the words but over the social meme they have generated that has morphed into a cocktail of historical revisionism, wishful thinking, good intentions, and a soupçon of white, entitled appropriation.<ref name=Pember />
+}}
-For [[First Nations]] two spirits whose lives have been impacted by the [[Canadian Indian residential school system|Residential Schools]], and other Indigenous communities who have experienced severe cultural damage from colonization, the specific two spirit traditions in their communities may have been severely damaged, fragmented, or even lost.<ref name=Cameron/> In these cases there have been serious challenges to remembering and reviving their older traditional ways, and to overcoming the homophobia and other learned prejudices of forced assimilation.<ref name=Cameron/>
+For [[First Nations]] two-spirits whose lives have been impacted by the [[Canadian Indian residential school system]], and other indigenous communities who have experienced severe cultural disruption from colonization, the specific two-spirit traditions in their communities may have been severely fragmented or even lost.<ref name=Cameron /> In these cases there have been serious challenges to remembering and reviving their older traditional ways, and to overcoming the homophobia and other learned prejudices of forced assimilation.<ref name=Cameron />
-When Indigenous people from communities that are less-accepting of two spirits have sought community among non-Native [[LGBT]] communities, however, the tendency for non-Natives to tokenize and appropriate has at times led to rifts rather than unity, with two spirits feeling like they're just another tacked on initial rather than fully included.<ref name=Cameron/>
+When indigenous people from communities that are less accepting of two-spirits have sought community among non-indigenous [[LGBT]] communities, however, the tendency for the non-indigenous to tokenize and appropriate has at times led to rifts rather than unity, with two-spirits feeling like they're just another tacked on initial rather than fully included.<ref name=Cameron />
-<blockquote>The term two-spirited was chosen to emphasize our difference in our experiences of multiple, interlocking oppressions as queer Aboriginal people. When non-Aboriginal people decide to "take up" the term two-spirit, it detracts from its original meaning and diffuses its power as a label of resistance for Aboriginal people. Already there is so much of First Nations culture that has been exploited and appropriated in this country; must our terms of resistance also be targeted for mainstream appropriation and consumption?<br/>
+{{quote|content=The term ''two-spirited'' was chosen to emphasize our difference in our experiences of multiple, interlocking oppressions as queer Aboriginal people. When non-Aboriginal people decide to "take up" the term two-spirit, it detracts from its original meaning and diffuses its power as a label of resistance for Aboriginal people. Already there is so much of First Nations culture that has been exploited and appropriated in this country; must our terms of resistance also be targeted for mainstream appropriation and consumption?<p>
-Two-spirited is a reclaimed term designed by Aboriginals to define our unique cultural context, histories, and legacy. When people do not see the harm in "sharing" the term, they are missing the point and refusing to recognize that by appropriating the term they will inevitably alter its cultural context.<ref name=Cameron/></blockquote>
+''Two-spirited'' is a reclaimed term designed by Aboriginals to define our unique cultural context, histories, and legacy. When people do not see the harm in "sharing" the term, they are missing the point and refusing to recognize that by appropriating the term they will inevitably alter its cultural context.<ref name=Cameron /></p>
+}}
-In academia, there has since 2010 or earlier been a move to "queer the analytics of settler colonialism" and create a "twospirit" critique as part of the general field of [[queer studies]].<ref name=Pember/><ref name=Smith>Smith, Andrea. "Queer Theory and Native Studies: The Heteronormativity of Settler Colonialism." GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 16.1–2 (2010): 41–68. Web.</ref> However, much of this academic analysis and publishing is not based in [[Traditional knowledge|traditional indigenous knowledge]], but in the more mainstream, non-Native perspectives of the broader [[LGBT]] communities, so most of the same cultural misunderstandings tend to be found as in the outdated writing of the non-Native anthropologists and "explorers".<ref name=Pember/> Claiming a viewpoint of "postidentity" analysis, supporters of "[[Queer of Color Critique|queer of color critique]]" aim to examine settler colonialism and the ongoing genocide of Native peoples while "queering Native Studies."<ref name=Smith/> However, [[Native American identity in the United States|Indigenous identity]] is predominantly cultural, rather than a racial classification.<ref name=Russell>Russell, Steve (2002). "Apples are the Color of Blood", Critical Sociology, Vol. 28, 1, 2002, p. p68 (quoting López (1994) p55)</ref> It is based on membership in a particular community, cultural fluency, citizenship, and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] and [[First Nations]] people may or may not even consider themselves to be "[[people of color]]."<ref name=Russell>Russell, Steve (2002). "Apples are the Color of Blood", Critical Sociology, Vol. 28, 1, 2002, p. p68 (quoting López (1994) p55)</ref>
+In academia, there has since 2010 or earlier been a move to "queer the analytics of settler colonialism" and create a two-spirit critique as part of the general field of [[queer studies]].<ref name=Pember /><ref name=Smith>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Andrea |title=Queer Theory and Native Studies: The Heteronormativity of Settler Colonialism |work=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies |volume=16 |issue=1–2 |date=2010 |pages=41–68}}</ref> However, much of this academic analysis and publishing is not based in [[Traditional knowledge|traditional indigenous knowledge]], but in the more mainstream, non-Native perspectives of the broader LGBT communities, so most of the same cultural misunderstandings tend to be found as in the outdated writing of the non-Native anthropologists and "explorers".<ref name=Pember /> Claiming a viewpoint of "postidentity" analysis, supporters of "[[Queer of Color Critique|queer of color critique]]" aim to examine settler colonialism and the genocide of indigenous peoples while "[[queering]] Native Studies".<ref name=Smith /> However, [[Native American identity in the United States|Indigenous identity]] is predominantly cultural, rather than a racial classification.<ref name=Russell>{{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Steve |date=2002 |title=Apples are the Color of Blood |journal=Critical Sociology |volume=28 |issue=1 |page=68}} Quoting López (1994) p. 55.</ref> It is based on membership in a particular community, cultural fluency, citizenship, and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] and [[First Nations]] people may or may not even consider themselves to be [[people of color]].<ref name=Russell />
 == Terminology ==
-With over 500 surviving Native American cultures, attitudes about sex and gender can be very diverse. Even with the modern adoption of pan-Indian terms like two-spirit, and the creation of a modern pan-Indian community around this naming, not all cultures will perceive two-spirits the same way, or welcome a pan-Indian term to replace the terms already in use by their cultures.<ref name=Pember/> Additionally, not  all contemporary Indigenous communities are supportive of their gender-variant and non-heterosexual people now. In these communities, those looking for two-spirit community have sometimes faced oppression and rejection.<ref name=Pember/><ref name=Vowel-1>{{cite book|last1=Vowel|first1=Chelsea|editor1-last=|editor1-first=|title= Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis & Inuit Issues in Canada|date=2016|publisher=Highwater Press|location=Winnipeg, Canada|isbn=978-1553796800|page=|url=|accessdate=|chapter=All My Queer Relations - Language, Culture, and Two-Spirit Identity}}</ref> While existing terminology in many nations shows historical acknowledgement of differing sexual orientations and gender expressions, members of some these nations have also said that while variance was accepted, they never had separate or defined roles for these members of the community.<ref name=Pember/><ref name=Vowel-1/> Among the Indigenous communities that traditionally have roles for two-spirit people, specific terms in their own languages are used for the social and spiritual roles these individuals fulfill.<ref name=Pember/><ref>Note: There is not always consensus, even among reporting elders and language workers, about all of these terms and how they are or were applied. See Vowel 2016, p.109.</ref>
+With over 500 surviving indigenous cultures in the Americas, attitudes about sex and gender can be very diverse. Even with the modern adoption of pan-Indian terms like two-spirit, and the creation of a modern pan-Indian community around this naming, not all cultures will perceive two-spirits the same way, or welcome a pan-Indian term to replace the terms already in use by their cultures.<ref name=Pember /> Additionally, not all contemporary indigenous communities are supportive of their gender-variant and non-heterosexual people now. In these communities, those looking for two-spirit community have sometimes faced oppression and rejection.<ref name=Pember /><ref name=Vowel-1>{{cite book |last=Vowel |first=Chelsea |title=Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis & Inuit Issues in Canada |date=2016 |publisher=Highwater Press |location=Winnipeg |isbn=978-1553796800 |page= |chapter=All My Queer Relations – Language, Culture, and Two-Spirit Identity}}</ref> While existing terminology in many nations shows historical acknowledgement of differing sexual orientations and gender expressions, members of some these nations have also said that while variance was accepted, they never had separate or defined roles for these members of the community.<ref name=Pember /><ref name=Vowel-1 /> Among the indigenous communities that traditionally have roles for two-spirit people, specific terms in their own languages are used for the social and spiritual roles these individuals fulfill.<ref name=Pember /><ref>Note: There is not always consensus, even among reporting elders and language workers, about all of these terms and how they are or were applied. See Vowel 2016, p.109.</ref>
-*{{lang-cr|Napêw iskwêwisêhot}}, "A man who dresses as a woman."<ref name=Vowel-1/>
+*{{lang-cr|napêw iskwêwisêhot}}, 'a man who dresses as a woman'.<ref name=Vowel-1 />
-*{{lang-cr|Iskwêw ka napêwayat}}, "A woman who dresses as a man."<ref name=Vowel-1/>
+*{{lang-cr|iskwêw ka napêwayat|links=no}}, 'a woman who dresses as a man'.<ref name=Vowel-1 />
-*{{lang-cr|ayahkwêw}}, "A man dressed/living/accepted as a woman;" possibly not a respectful term; Others have suggested it is a [[third gender]] designation, applied to both women ''and'' men.<ref name=Vowel-1/>
+*{{lang-cr|ayahkwêw|links=no}}, 'a man dressed/living/accepted as a woman'; possibly not a respectful term. Others have suggested it is a third-gender designation, applied to both biological women {{em|and}} men.<ref name=Vowel-1 />
-*{{lang-cr|Înahpîkasoht}}, "A woman dressed/living/accepted as a man;" also given as "someone who fights everyone to prove they are the toughest."<ref name=Vowel-1/>
+*{{lang-cr|înahpîkasoht|links=no}}, 'a woman dressed/living/accepted as a man'; also given as 'one who fights everyone to prove they are the toughest'.<ref name=Vowel-1 />
-*{{lang-cr|iskwêhkân}}, "One who acts/lives as a woman."<ref name=Vowel-1/>
+*{{lang-cr|iskwêhkân|links=no}}, 'one who acts/lives as a woman'.<ref name=Vowel-1 />
-*{{lang-cr|napêhkân}}, "One who acts/lives as a man."<ref name=Vowel-1/>
+*{{lang-cr|napêhkân|links=no}}, 'one who acts/lives as a man'.<ref name=Vowel-1 />
-*{{lang-lkt|Wíŋkte}} is the contraction of an older Lakota word, ''Winyanktehca'', meaning "wants to be like a woman."<ref name=Medicine>{{cite web | last = Medicine | first =Beatrice | authorlink = | title = Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories by Beatrice Medicine | work = Online Readings in Psychology and Culture (Unit 3, Chapter 2). W. J. Lonner, D. L. Dinnel, S. A. Hayes, & D. N. Sattler (Eds.)| publisher = Center for Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington University |date=2002 | url = http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/medicine.htm | archiveurl  = https://web.archive.org/web/20030330115133/http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/medicine.htm | archivedate = 2003-03-30 | doi = | accessdate = 2015-07-07 }}</ref> ''[[Winkte]]'' are a social category in historical [[Lakota people|Lakota culture]], of male-bodied people who adopt the clothing, work, and mannerisms that Lakota culture usually consider [[feminine]]. In contemporary Lakota culture, the term is more commonly associated with simply being gay. Both historically and in modern culture, usually ''winkte'' are [[homosexual]], though they may or may not consider themselves part of the more mainstream [[LGBT]] communities. Some  ''winkte'' participate in the pan-Indian Two Spirit community.<ref name=Medicine/> While historical accounts of their status vary widely, most accounts see the ''winkte'' as regular members of the community, and not in any way marginalized for their status. Other accounts hold the ''winkte'' as sacred, occupying a [[liminality|liminal]], [[third gender]] role in the culture and born to fulfill ceremonial roles that can not be filled by either men or women.<ref name=Medicine/> In contemporary Lakota communities, attitudes towards the ''winkte'' vary from acceptance to homophobic.<ref name=Medicine/>
+*{{lang-lkt|winkte}} or ''{{lang|lkt|wíŋkte}}'' is the contraction of an older Lakota word, ''Winyanktehca'', meaning '[wants] to be like a woman'.<ref name=Medicine>{{cite web |last=Medicine |first=Beatrice |title=Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories |work=Online Readings in Psychology and Culture |at=Unit 3, Chapter 2 |editor1-first=W. J. |editor1-last=Lonner |editor2-first=D. L. |editor2-last=Dinnel |editor3-first=S. A. |editor3-last=Hayes |editor4-first=D. N. |editor4-last=Sattler |publisher=Center for Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington University |date=2002 |url= http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/medicine.htm | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20030330115133/http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/medicine.htm |archive-date=March 20, 2003 |access-date=July 7, 2015}}</ref> ''{{lang|lkt|[[Winkte]]}}'' are a social category in historical [[Lakota people|Lakota culture]], of male-bodied people who adopt the clothing, work, and mannerisms that Lakota culture usually consider [[feminine]]. In contemporary Lakota culture, the term is more commonly associated with simply being gay. Both historically and in modern culture, usually ''{{lang|lkt|winkte}}'' are [[homosexual]], though they may or may not consider themselves part of the more mainstream LGBT communities. Some  ''{{lang|lkt|winkte}}'' participate in the pan-Indian two-spirit community.<ref name=Medicine /> While historical accounts of their status vary widely, most accounts see the ''{{lang|lkt|winkte}}'' as regular members of the community, and not in any way marginalized for their status. Other accounts hold the ''{{lang|lkt|winkte}}'' as sacred, occupying a [[liminality|liminal]], [[third gender]] role in the culture and born to fulfill ceremonial roles that can not be filled by either men or women.<ref name=Medicine /> In contemporary Lakota communities, attitudes towards the ''{{lang|lkt|winkte}}'' vary from accepting to homophobic.<ref name=Medicine />
-*{{lang-nv|''Nádleeh'' (also given as ''nàdleehì'')}}, "One who is transformed" or "one who changes."<ref>Franc Johnson Newcomb (1980-06). Hosteen Klah: Navaho Medicine Man and Sand Painter. University of Oklahoma Press. {{ISBN|0-8061-1008-2}}.</ref><ref>Lapahie, Harrison, Jr. Hosteen Klah (Sir Left Handed). Lapahie.com. 2001 (retrieved 19 Oct 2009)</ref><ref>Berlo, Janet C. and Ruth B.
+*{{lang-nv|''nádleeh''}} or ''{{lang|nv|nàdleehì}}''}}, 'one who is transformed' or 'one who changes'.<ref>{{cite book |first=Franc Johnson |last=Newcomb |title=Hosteen Klah: Navaho Medicine Man and Sand Painter |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-1008-2}}{{page needed|{{subst:DATE}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Berlo |first1=Janet C. |last2=Phillips |first2=Ruth B. |title=Native North American Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-284218-3 |page=34}}</ref> In traditional [[Navajo]] culture, ''{{lang|nv|nádleeh}}'' are male-bodied individuals described by those in their communities as "effeminate male", or as "half woman, half man".<ref name=Estrada /> A 2009 documentary, entitled ''Two Spirits'' about the murder of ''{{lang|nv|nádleeh|links=no}}'' Fred Martinez, contributed to awareness of these terms and cultures.<ref name=Estrada />
+*{{lang-oj|ikwekaazo}}, 'men who chose to function as women', or 'one who endeavors to be like a woman'.<ref name=Treur2011>{{cite book |last=Treuer |first=Anton |title=The Assassination of Hole in the Day |date=2011 |publisher=Borealis Books |page=<!--This work's pages are not numbered, though the Google Books URL links to specific pages for us.--> url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1aIrg3wiUyoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q=ininiikaazo%20&f=false |access-date=October 17, 2016 |chapter=Women and Gender}}</ref>
-Phillips. Native North American Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-284218-3}} . pg. 34</ref> In traditional [[Navajo]] culture, ''nádleeh'' are male-bodied individuals described by those in their communities as "effeminate male," or as "half woman, half man".<ref name=Estrada/> A 2009 documentary about the tragic murder of ''nádleeh'' Fred Martinez, entitled, ''Two Spirits'', contributed to awareness of these terms and cultures.<ref name=Estrada/>
+*{{lang-oj|ininiikaazo|lnks=no}}, 'women who functioned as men' or 'one who endeavors to be like a man'.<ref name=Treur2011 />
-*[[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]: ''Ikwekaazo'', "Men who chose to function as women...One who endeavors to be like a woman."<ref name=Treur2011>{{cite book|last1=Treuer|first1=Anton|editor1-last=|editor1-first=|title= The Assassination of Hole in the Day|date=2011|publisher=Borealis Books|location=|isbn=|page=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1aIrg3wiUyoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q=ininiikaazo%20&f=false|accessdate=17 October 2016|chapter=Women and Gender}}</ref>
-*[[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]: ''Ininiikaazo'', "Women who functioned as men...one who endeavors to be like a man."<ref name=Treur2011/>
-<blockquote>[In Ojibwe cultures] Sex usually determined one’s gender, and therefore one’s work, but the Ojibwe accepted variation. Men who chose to function as women were called ''ikwekaazo'', meaning ‘one who endeavors to be like a woman. Women who functioned as men were called ''ininiikaazo'', meaning, 'one who endeavors to be like a man.' The French called these people ''berdaches''. ''Ikwekaazo'' and ''ininiikaazo'' could take spouses of their own sex. Their mates were not considered ''ikwekaazo'' or ''ininiikaazo'', however, because their function in society was still in keeping with their sex. If widowed, the spouse of an ''ikwekaazo'' or ''ininiikaazo'' could remarry someone of the opposite sex or another ''ikwekaazo'' or ''ininiikaazo''. The ''ikwekaazowag'' worked and dressed like women. The ''ininiikaazowag'' worked and dressed like men. Both were considered to be strong spiritually, and they were always honoured, especially during ceremonies.<ref name=Treur2011/></blockquote>
+{{quote|content=Sex [in Ojibwe cultures] usually determined one's gender, and therefore one’s work, but the Ojibwe accepted variation. Men who chose to function as women were called ''{{lang|oj|ikwekaazo}}'', meaning 'one who endeavors to be like a woman'. Women who functioned as men were called ''{{lang|oj|ininiikaazo}}'', meaning, 'one who endeavors to be like a man'. The French called these people ''{{lang|fr|berdaches}}''. ''{{lang|oj|Ikwekaazo}}'' and ''{{lang|oj|ininiikaazo}}'' could take spouses of their own sex. Their mates were not considered ''{{lang|oj|ikwekaazo}}'' or ''{{lang|oj|ininiikaazo}}'', however, because their function in society was still in keeping with their sex. If widowed, the spouse of an ''{{lang|oj|ikwekaazo}}'' or ''{{lang|oj|ininiikaazo}}'' could remarry someone of the opposite sex or another ''{{lang|oj|ikwekaazo}}'' or ''{{lang|oj|ininiikaazo}}''. The ''{{lang|oj|ikwekaazowag}}'' worked and dressed like women. The ''{{lang|oj|ininiikaazowag}}'' worked and dressed like men. Both were considered to be strong spiritually, and they were always honored, especially during ceremonies.<ref name=Treur2011 />
+}}
-Before the late twentieth-century, non-Native (i.e. non-[[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]/[[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Canadian]]) [[anthropologist]]s used the generic term ''berdache'' {{nowrap|{{IPAc-en|b|ər|ˈ|d|æ|ʃ|}}}} to identify an indigenous individual fulfilling one of many mixed gender roles in their tribe, but that term has now fallen out of favor. Anthropologists primarily used it to identify feminine Native men. Its [[etymology]], however, has meant that it is now considered outdated and potentially offensive: it derives from the [[French language|French]] ''{{lang|fr|bardache}}'' (English equivalent: "[[wikt:bardash|bardash]]") meaning "passive homosexual", "[[catamite]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bardash|title=Definition of "bardash" – Collins English Dictionary|publisher=|accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref> or even "[[male prostitute]]". ''Bardache'', in turn, derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]] {{big|{{lang|fa|برده}}}} ''barda'' meaning "captive", "prisoner of war", "slave".<!--
+Before the late twentieth century, [[anthropologist]]s (primarily non-indigenous, i.e., not [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] or [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|First Nations]]) used the generic term ''berdache'' {{nowrap|{{IPAc-en|b|ər|ˈ|d|æ|ʃ|}}}}, to identify an indigenous individual fulfilling one of many mixed-gender roles in any given indigenous tribe or nation; but that term has now fallen out of favor. Anthropologists primarily used it to identify feminine indigenous men. Its [[etymology]], however, has meant that it is now considered outdated and potentially offensive: it derives from the [[French language|French]] ''{{lang|fr|bardache}}'' (English equivalent: ''[[wikt:bardash|bardash]]''), an obsolete word meaning 'passive homosexual' or '[[catamite]]',<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bardash |title=bardash |work=Collins English Dictionary |publisher=HarperCollins |access-date=June 7, 2015}}</ref> or even '[[male prostitute]]'. ''Bardache'', in turn, derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]] {{big|{{lang|fa|برده}}}} ''barda'' meaning 'captive', 'prisoner of war', 'slave'.<!--
-   --><ref>Steingass, Francis Joseph. ''[http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:8571.steingass A Comprehensive Persian-English dictionary, including the Arabic words and phrases to be met with in Persian literature.]'' London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1892. p. 173</ref><!--
+--><ref>{{cite book |last=Steingass |first=Francis Joseph |url= http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:8571.steingass |title=A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary, Including the Arabic Words and Phrases to Be Met with in Persian Literature |location=London |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |date=1892 |page=173 |via=''Digital Dictionaries of South Asia'' database, University of Chicago}}</ref><!--
-   --><ref>Jacobs, S.; Thomas, W.; Lang, S. (Eds.): ''Two-spirit people: Native American gender identity, sexuality, and spirituality'', page 4. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997.</ref><!--
+--><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Jacobs |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Thomas |editor2-first=W. |editor3-last=Lang |editor3-first=S. |title=Two-spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality |page=4 |location=Urbana |publisher=University of Illinois Press |date=1997}}</ref><!--
-   --><ref>Roscoe, W.: ''Changing ones: Third and fourth genders in native North America'', page 7. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998.</ref><!--
+--><ref>{{cite book |last=Roscoe |first=W. |title=Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America |page=7 |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's Press |date=1998}}</ref><!--
-   --><ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/vulnerable vulnerable], ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition''. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Accessed: March 24, 2007.</ref> <!--
+--><ref>{{cite book |url= http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/vulnerable |chapter=vulnerable |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |edition=4th |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |date=2004 |via=Dictionary.Reference.com |access-date=March 24, 2007}}</ref> <!--
--->Spanish explorers who encountered two spirits among the [[Chumash people]] called them "''{{lang|es|joyas}}''", the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "jewels".<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kent Flannery |authorlink1=Kent V. Flannery |author2=Joyce Marcus |authorlink2=Joyce Marcus |title=The Creation of Inequality |date=15 May 2012 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-06469-0 |pages=70–71}}</ref>
+-->Spanish explorers who encountered two-spirits among the [[Chumash people]] called them ''{{lang|es|joyas}}'', [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for 'jewels'.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kent Flannery |authorlink1=Kent V. Flannery |author2=Joyce Marcus |authorlink2=Joyce Marcus |title=The Creation of Inequality |date=May 15, 2012 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-06469-0 |pages=70–71}}</ref>
-Use of the anthropological term ''berdache'' has now been replaced by the self-chosen two spirit, which, in 1990, gained widespread popularity during the third annual intertribal Native American/First Nations gay and lesbian conference in [[Winnipeg]].<ref name="de Vries 2009">{{cite book|last1=de Vries|first1=Kylan Mattias|editor1-last=O'Brien|editor1-first=Jodi|title=Encyclopedia of gender and society|date=2009|publisher=SAGE|location=Los Angeles |isbn=9781412909167 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0|accessdate=6 March 2015|chapter=Berdache (Two-Spirit)}}</ref> The decision to adopt this new, pan-Indian term was deliberate, with a clear intention to distance themselves from non-Native gays and lesbians,<ref name=Jacobs2-3,221>Jacobs, S. (1997), pp. 2–3, 221.</ref> as well as from non-Native terminology like ''berdache'', "gay", "lesbian", and "trans".<ref name=Pember1/><ref name=Jacobs2-3,221/><ref>Lang, S.: ''Men as women, women as men: Changing gender in Native American cultures,'' page XIII. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1998.</ref> Cameron writes, "The term two-spirit is thus an Aboriginal-specific term of resistance to colonization and non-transferable to other cultures. There are several underlying reasons for two spirited Aboriginals' desire to distance themselves from the mainstream queer community."<ref name=Cameron/> Lang explains that for Aboriginal people, their sexual orientation or gender identity is secondary to their ethnic identity. She states, "at the core of contemporary two-spirit identities is ethnicity, an awareness of being Native American as opposed to being white or being a
+Use of the anthropological term ''berdache'' has now been replaced by the self-chosen ''two-spirit'', which, in 1990, gained widespread popularity during the third annual intertribal Native American/First Nations gay and lesbian conference in [[Winnipeg]].<ref name="de Vries 2009">{{cite book |last=de Vries |first=Kylan Mattias |editor-last=O'Brien |chapter=Berdache (Two-Spirit) |editor-first=Jodi |title=Encyclopedia of Gender and Society |date=2009 |publisher=SAGE Publications |location=Los Angeles |isbn=9781412909167 |page=64 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0 |access-date=March 6, 2015}}</ref> The decision to adopt this new, pan-Indian term was deliberate, with a clear intention to distance themselves from non-indigenous gays and lesbians,<ref name=Jacobs2-3,221>Jacobs, S. (1997), pp. 2–3, 221.</ref> as well as from non-indigenous terminology like ''berdache'', "gay", "lesbian", and "trans".<ref name=Pember /><ref name=Jacobs2-3,221 /><ref>Lang, S.: ''Men as women, women as men: Changing gender in Native American cultures,'' page XIII. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1998.</ref> Cameron writes, "The term two-spirit is thus an Aboriginal-specific term of resistance to colonization and non-transferable to other cultures. There are several underlying reasons for two spirited Aboriginals' desire to distance themselves from the mainstream queer community."<ref name=Cameron /> Lang explains that for aboriginal people, their sexual orientation or gender identity is secondary to their ethnic identity. She states, "at the core of contemporary two-spirit identities is ethnicity, an awareness of being Native American as opposed to being white or being a member of any other ethnic group".<ref name=Jacobs2-3,221 />
-member of any other ethnic group."<ref name=Jacobs2-3,221/>
 == Two-spirit societies ==
-Among the goals of two spirit societies are [[Support group|group support]]; [[outreach]], education, and [[activism]]; revival of their Indigenous cultural traditions, including preserving the old languages, skills and dances;<ref name=NYT1/> and otherwise working toward [[social change]].<ref name="Lipshultz">{{cite journal |title=Berdach to Two-Spirit: The Revival of Native American Traditions |last=Lipshultz |first=Hanna |journal=Discoveries |year=2007 |issue=8 |publisher=John S. Knight Institute for Writing in the Disciplines |location=Ithaca |url=https://www.arts.cornell.edu/knight_institute/publicationsprizes/discoveries/discoveriesspring2007/Lipshultz.pdf |format=PDF |pages=31–32 |accessdate=2016-07-18}}</ref>
+Among the goals of two-spirit societies are [[Support group|group support]]; [[outreach]], education, and [[activism]]; revival of their indigenous cultural traditions, including preserving the old languages, skills and dances;<ref name=NYT1 /> and otherwise working toward [[social change]].<ref name="Lipshultz">{{cite journal |title=Berdach to Two-Spirit: The Revival of Native American Traditions |last=Lipshultz |first=Hanna |journal=Discoveries |year=2007 |issue=8 |publisher=John S. Knight Institute for Writing in the Disciplines |location=Ithaca, New York |url= https://www.arts.cornell.edu/knight_institute/publicationsprizes/discoveries/discoveriesspring2007/Lipshultz.pdf |format=PDF |pages=31–32 |access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref>
-Some two-spirit societies (past and present) include: 2Spirits of Toronto in [[Toronto, Ontario]]; the Wabanaki Two Spirit Alliance in Nova Scotia; the Bay Area American Indian Two-Spirits (est. 1998) in [[San Francisco, California]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inthefray.org/2004/12/rainbow-and-red-2/|title=Rainbow and red: Queer American Indians from New York to San Francisco are showing both their spirits. |last=Alpert |first=Emily |date=December 5, 2004 |website=In the Fray |publisher=In the Fray, Inc. |location=New Hyde Park |accessdate=2016-04-10}}</ref> Central Oklahoma Two Spirit Natives in [[Oklahoma City]]; the East Coast Two Spirit Society and the NorthEast Two-Spirit Society in [[New York City]]; Idaho Two-Spirit Society; the Indiana Two-Spirit Society in [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]]; Minnesota Two Spirits; the Montana Two-Spirit Society in [[Browning, Montana|Browning]]; the Northwest Two-Spirit Society in [[Seattle, Washington]]; the Ohio Valley Two Spirit Society of [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Kentucky]], and [[Southern Illinois]];<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ohiovalleytwospiritsociety.blogspot.com/ |title=Welcome! |last=Thomas |first=Wesley K. |website=Ohio Valley Two-Spirit Society (OVTSS) |date=June 26, 2006 |accessdate=2016-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bloomingtonalternative.com/articles/2009/08/09/10075 |title=Out in Bloomington: Boy Scouts raise debate |date=August 9, 2009 |last=Harrell |first=Helen |last2=Fischer |first2=Carol |website=The Bloomington Alternative |accessdate=2016-07-18}}</ref> the Portland Two Spirit Society (est. May 2012) in [[Portland, Oregon]];<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pqmonthly.com/portland-two-spirit-society-finding-family-and-a-connection-to-history-in-shared-identities/7648 |title=Portland Two Spirit Society: Finding family and a connection to history in shared identities |date=September 19, 2012 |last=Rook |first=Erin |website=PQ |publisher=Brilliant Media |accessdate=2016-07-17}}</ref> the Regina Two-Spirited Society in [[Regina, Saskatchewan]]; the Texas Two Spirit Society in [[Dallas]]; the Tulsa Two-Spirit Society in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]]; the Two-Spirit Society of Denver in [[Denver, Colorado]]; and the Wichita Two-Spirit Society in [[Wichita, Kansas]].<ref name="Lipshultz"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/12/18/two-spirit-leaders-call-washington-include-native-women-re-authorization-vawa-146397 |title= Two-Spirit Leaders Call on Washington to Include Native Women in Re-Authorization of VAWA |author=<!-- staff writer --> |date=December 18, 2012 |website=[[Indian Country Today Media Network]] |accessdate=2016-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.glapn.org/6200twospirit.html |title=Two-Spirit gathering at Portland State University, Wednesday, May 26, 2010 |author=<!-- no byline --> |year=2010 |website=Gay & Lesbian Archives of the Pacific Northwest |accessdate=2016-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.santafemc.org/programs/new-mexico-gay-straight-alliance-network/new-mexico-gsa-resources/#native |title=New Mexico GSA: Resources § Native / First Nations |author=<!-- no byline --> |website=Santa Fe Mountain Center |publisher=New Mexico Gay–Straight Alliance Network |accessdate=2016-07-18}}</ref>
+Some two-spirit societies (past and present) include: 2Spirits of Toronto in [[Toronto, Ontario]]; the Wabanaki Two Spirit Alliance in Nova Scotia; the Bay Area American Indian Two-Spirits (est. 1998) in [[San Francisco, California]];<ref>{{cite web|url= http://inthefray.org/2004/12/rainbow-and-red-2/|title=Rainbow and red: Queer American Indians from New York to San Francisco are showing both their spirits. |last=Alpert |first=Emily |date=December 5, 2004 |website=In the Fray |publisher=In the Fray Inc. |location=New Hyde Park |access-date=March 19, 2016}}</ref> Central Oklahoma Two Spirit Natives in [[Oklahoma City]]; the East Coast Two Spirit Society and the NorthEast Two-Spirit Society in [[New York City]]; Idaho Two-Spirit Society; the Indiana Two-Spirit Society in [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]]; Minnesota Two Spirits; the Montana Two-Spirit Society in [[Browning, Montana|Browning]]; the Northwest Two-Spirit Society in [[Seattle, Washington]]; the Ohio Valley Two Spirit Society of [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Kentucky]], and [[Southern Illinois]];<ref>{{cite web |url= https://ohiovalleytwospiritsociety.blogspot.com/ |title=Welcome! |last=Thomas |first=Wesley K. |website=Ohio Valley Two-Spirit Society (OVTSS) |date=June 26, 2006 |access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.bloomingtonalternative.com/articles/2009/08/09/10075 |title=Out in Bloomington: Boy Scouts raise debate |date=August 9, 2009 |last=Harrell |first=Helen |last2=Fischer |first2=Carol |website=The Bloomington Alternative |access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref> the Portland Two Spirit Society (est. May 2012) in [[Portland, Oregon]];<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pqmonthly.com/portland-two-spirit-society-finding-family-and-a-connection-to-history-in-shared-identities/7648 |title=Portland Two Spirit Society: Finding family and a connection to history in shared identities |date=September 19, 2012 |last=Rook |first=Erin |website=PQ |publisher=Brilliant Media |access-date=July 17, 2016}}</ref> the Regina Two-Spirited Society in [[Regina, Saskatchewan]]; the Texas Two Spirit Society in [[Dallas]]; the Tulsa Two-Spirit Society in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]]; the Two-Spirit Society of Denver in [[Denver, Colorado]]; and the Wichita Two-Spirit Society in [[Wichita, Kansas]].<ref name="Lipshultz" /><ref>{{cite web |url= http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/12/18/two-spirit-leaders-call-washington-include-native-women-re-authorization-vawa-146397 |title= Two-Spirit Leaders Call on Washington to Include Native Women in Re-Authorization of VAWA |author=<!-- staff writer --> |date=December 18, 2012 |website=[[Indian Country Today Media Network]] |access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.glapn.org/6200twospirit.html |title=Two-Spirit gathering at Portland State University, Wednesday, May 26, 2010 |author=<!-- no byline --> |year=2010 |website=Gay & Lesbian Archives of the Pacific Northwest |access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.santafemc.org/programs/new-mexico-gay-straight-alliance-network/new-mexico-gsa-resources/#native |title=New Mexico GSA: Resources § Native / First Nations |author=<!-- no byline --> |work=Santa Fe Mountain Center |publisher=New Mexico Gay–Straight Alliance Network |access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref>
 == Historical and anthropological accounts ==
-Don [[Pedro Fages]] was third in command of the 1769–70 Spanish [[Portolà expedition]], the first European land exploration of what is now the U.S. state of California. At least three diaries were kept during the expedition, but Fages wrote his account later, in 1775. Fages gave more descriptive details about the native Californians than any of the others, and he alone reported the presence of homosexuality in the native culture. The English translation reads:
+Don [[Pedro Fages]] was third in command of the 1769–1770 Spanish [[Portolà expedition]], the first European land exploration of what is now the U.S. state of California. At least three diaries were kept during the expedition, but Fages wrote his account later, in 1775. Fages gave more descriptive details about the native Californians than any of the others, and he alone reported the presence of homosexuality in the native culture. The English translation reads:
-{{Quote |I have submitted substantial evidence that those Indian men who, both here and farther inland, are observed in the dress, clothing and character of women&nbsp;- there being two or three such in each village&nbsp;- pass as sodomites by profession.... They are called ''joyas'', and are held in great esteem.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fages |first=P., Priestley, H. I., & Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnografía (Mexico) |year=1937 |page=33 |title=A historical, political, and natural description of California  |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027939639 (HathiTrust limited search only) |deadurl= yes|location=Berkeley, Calif |publisher=University of California Press |accessdate=}}</ref>}}
+{{Quote|content=I have substantial evidence that those Indian men who, both here and farther inland, are observed in the dress, clothing and character of women&nbsp;- there being two or three such in each village&nbsp;- pass as sodomites by profession .... They are called ''{{lang|es|joyas}}'', and are held in great esteem.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fages |first=P. |last2=Priestley |first2=H. I. |year=1937 |page=33 |title=A Historical, Political, and Natural Description of California |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=gL4dAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22They+are+called+joyas%22 |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press, in association with Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnografía (Mexico) |access-date=September 30, 2017}}</ref>}}
-According to Lang, in most tribes a relationship between a two spirit and non-two-spirit has historically been seen for the most part as neither [[heterosexual]] nor [[homosexual]] (in modern-day terms) but more hetero-normative;  early European colonists, however, saw such relationships as homosexual. Partners of two spirit have not historically viewed themselves as homosexual, and moreover drew a sharp conceptual line between themselves and two-spirits.<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 208–212.</ref>
+According to Lang, in most tribes a relationship between a two-spirit and non-two-spirit has historically been seen for the most part as neither heterosexual nor homosexual (in modern-day terms) but more [[hetero-normative]];  early European colonists, however, saw such relationships as homosexual. Partners of two-spirits have not historically viewed themselves as homosexual, and moreover drew a sharp conceptual line between themselves and two-spirits.<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 208–212.</ref>
-Although two spirit have been both respected and feared in a number of tribes, the two spirit is not beyond being reproached or, by traditional law, even killed for bad deeds. In the [[Mojave people|Mojave]] tribe, for instance, two spirit frequently become medicine persons and, like all who deal with the supernatural, are at risk of suspicion of [[witchcraft]], notable in cases of failed harvest or of death. There have been instances of murder in these cases (such as in the case of the female-bodied two spirit named Sahaykwisā).<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 164, 288.</ref> Another instance in the late 1840s was of a [[Crow (people)|Crow]] male-bodied two spirit who was caught, possibly raiding horses, by the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] and was killed.<ref>Walker, James: ''Lakota Society'', edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, p. 147. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1982.</ref>
+Although two-spirits have been both respected and feared in a number of tribes, the two-spirit is not beyond being reproached or, by traditional law, even killed for bad deeds. In the [[Mojave people|Mojave]] tribe, for instance, two-spirits frequently become [[Medicine man|medicine persons]] and, like all who deal with the supernatural, are at risk of suspicion of [[witchcraft]], notable in cases of failed harvest or of death. There have been instances of murder arising from such suspicions (as in the case of the female-bodied two-spirit named Sahaykwisā).<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 164, 288.</ref> Another instance in the late 1840s was of a [[Crow (people)|Crow]] male-bodied two-spirit who was caught, possibly raiding horses, by the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] and killed.<ref>Walker, James: ''Lakota Society'', edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, p. 147. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1982.</ref>
-Lang and Jacobs write that historically among the [[Apache]], the [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan]], [[Chiricahua]], [[Mescalero]], and southern [[Tonto Apache|Dilzhe'e]] have alternative gender identities.<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 291–93.</ref><ref>Jacobs, S. (1997), pp. 236–251.</ref> One tribe in particular, the [[Eyak]], has a single report from 1938 that they did not have an alternative gender and they held such individuals in low esteem, although whether this sentiment is the result of acculturation or not is unknown.<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 202–203.</ref>
+Lang and Jacobs write that historically the [[Apache]], the [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan]], [[Chiricahua]], [[Mescalero]], and southern [[Tonto Apache|Dilzhe'e]] all have alternative gender identities<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 291–93.</ref><ref>Jacobs, S. (1997), pp. 236–251.</ref>  (i.e., what today would be included in the umbrella term ''two-spirit'').  One tribe in particular, the [[Eyak]], was mentioned in a report from 1938 as not having an alternative gender and as holding such individuals in low esteem, although whether this sentiment was the result of acculturation or not is unknown.<ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 202–203.</ref>
-Among the [[Iroquois]], there is a single report from [[Bacqueville de la Potherie]] in his book published in 1722, ''Histoire de l'Amérique septentrionale'', that indicates that an alternative gender identity exists among them.<ref>Roscoe, W. (1998), pp. 250-251''n.43''.  (vol. 3, p.&nbsp;41)</ref>
+Among the [[Iroquois]], there is a report from [[Bacqueville de la Potherie]] in his book published in 1722, ''Histoire de l'Amérique septentrionale'', that indicates that an alternative gender identity existed among them.<ref>Roscoe, W. (1998), pp. 250-251''n.43''.  (vol. 3, p.&nbsp;41)</ref>
-Many, if not all, tribes have been influenced by European [[homophobia]] and [[misogyny]].<ref>Jacobs, S. (1997), p. 206.</ref><ref>Roscoe, W. (1998), p. 114.</ref><ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 119, 311–313, 322.</ref><ref name="trexler 155-167"/><ref>Swidler, Arlene: ''Homosexuality and World Religions'', pp. 17–19. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1993.</ref> Some sources have reported that the [[Aztecs]] and [[Incas]] had laws against such individuals,<ref>Lang, S. (1998), p. 324.</ref><ref>Spencer, Colin: ''Homosexuality in History'', p. 142. London: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1995.</ref> though there are some authors who feel that this was exaggerated or the result of acculturation, because all of the documents indicating this are post-conquest and any that existed before had been destroyed by the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]].<ref name="trexler 155-167">Trexler, R. : ''Sex and conquest: Gendered violence, political order, and the European conquest of the Americas'', pp. 155–167. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.</ref><ref>Greenberg, David: ''The Construction of Homosexuality'', pp. 165–168. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.</ref> The belief that these laws existed, at least for the Aztecs, comes from the [[Florentine Codex]], and that evidence exists that indigenous peoples authored many codices, but the Spaniards destroyed most of them in their attempt to eradicate ancient beliefs.<ref>Fitch, Nancy: [http://www.historians.org/tl/LessonPlans/ca/Fitch/conquestbib.htm General Discussion of the Primary Sources Used in This Project], ''The Conquest of Mexico Annotated Bibliography''. Accessed: June 14, 2008.</ref> Nowadays, some [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotec]] natives from Mexico are born as males, but later cross dress as women and practice all activities associated to the female gender. Such people are known as [[Muxe]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://origin-www.goethe.de/mmo/priv/4038800-STANDARD.pdf|title=Muxe: el tercer sexo|last=Bennholdt-Thomsen|first=Veronika|date=|work=|year=2008|agency=Goethe Institut|language=Spanish|access-date=March 13, 2016|via=}}</ref>
+Many, if not all, tribes have been influenced by European [[homophobia]] and [[misogyny]].<ref>Jacobs, S. (1997), p. 206.</ref><ref>Roscoe, W. (1998), p. 114.</ref><ref>Lang, S. (1998), pp. 119, 311–313, 322.</ref><ref name="trexler 155-167" /><ref>Swidler, Arlene: ''Homosexuality and World Religions'', pp. 17–19. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1993.</ref> Some sources have reported that the [[Aztecs]] and [[Incas]] had laws against such individuals,<ref>Lang, S. (1998), p. 324.</ref><ref>Spencer, Colin: ''Homosexuality in History'', p. 142. London: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1995.</ref> though there are some authors who feel that this was exaggerated or the result of acculturation, because all of the documents indicating this are post-conquest and any that existed before had been destroyed by the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]].<ref name="trexler 155-167">Trexler, R. : ''Sex and conquest: Gendered violence, political order, and the European conquest of the Americas'', pp. 155–167. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.</ref><ref>Greenberg, David: ''The Construction of Homosexuality'', pp. 165–168. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.</ref> The belief that these laws existed, at least for the Aztecs, comes from the [[Florentine Codex]], and that evidence exists that indigenous peoples authored many codices, but the Spaniards destroyed most of them in their attempt to eradicate ancient beliefs.<ref>Fitch, Nancy: [http://www.historians.org/tl/LessonPlans/ca/Fitch/conquestbib.htm General Discussion of the Primary Sources Used in This Project], ''The Conquest of Mexico Annotated Bibliography''. Accessed: June 14, 2008.</ref> Nowadays, some [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotec]] natives from Mexico are born as males, but later cross dress as women and practice all activities associated to the female gender. Such people are known as [[Muxe]].<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://origin-www.goethe.de/mmo/priv/4038800-STANDARD.pdf |title=Muxe: el tercer sexo |last=Bennholdt-Thomsen |first=Veronika |work=Goethe.de |date=2008 |publisher=Goethe Institut |language=Spanish |access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref>
 == Media representation ==
-[[File:SF Pride 2014 - Stierch 2.jpg|thumbnail|The two spirit pride trolley at San Francisco Pride 2014.]]
+[[File:SF Pride 2014 - Stierch 2.jpg|thumbnail|The two-spirit pride trolley at [[San Francisco Pride]] 2014.]]
-The 2009 documentary film<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1296906/|title=Two Spirits (2009)|date=21 June 2009|work=IMDb|accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref> ''Two Spirits'', directed by Lydia Nibley, tells the story of the hate-murder of 16-year-old [[Navajo people|Navajo]] Fred Martinez. In the film, Nibley "affirms Martinez' Navajo sense of being a two spirit 'effeminate male', or ''nádleeh''."<ref name=Estrada/>{{rp|168}} Martinez' mother defined ''nádleeh'' as "half woman, half man".<ref name=Estrada/>{{rp|169}}
-The film ''Two Spirits'', shown on [[Independent Lens]] in 2011, and winner of the annual Audience Award for that year, is about two-spirit people, particularly Fred Martinez, who was murdered at age 16 for identifying as a two-spirit.<ref>{{cite web|last=Nibley |first=Lydia |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/films/two-spirits/ |title=Two Spirits &#124; Native American Gender Diversity &#124; Independent Lens |publisher=PBS |date=2011-06-14 |accessdate=2017-01-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Preview (0:02:01) |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/videos/the-bravest-choice-is-to-be-yourself/ |title=The Bravest Choice Is To Be Yourself &#124; Video &#124; Independent Lens |publisher=PBS |date=2011-06-14 |accessdate=2017-01-26}}</ref>
+The 2009 documentary film<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1296906/ |title=Two Spirits (2009) |date=June 21, 2009 |work=[[IMDb]] |access-date=June 7, 2015}}</ref>{{user-generated inline|date=October 2017}} ''Two Spirits'', directed by Lydia Nibley, tells the story of the [[hate-crime]] murder of 16-year-old [[Navajo people|Navajo]] Fred Martinez for identifying as two-spirit. In the film, Nibley "affirms Martinez' Navajo sense of being a two spirit 'effeminate male', or ''{{lang|nv|nádleeh}}''".<ref name=Estrada />{{rp|168}} Martinez' mother defined ''{{lang|nv|nádleeh}}'' as "half woman, half man".<ref name=Estrada />{{rp|169}}  The film, shown on [[Independent Lens]] in 2011 and winner of the annual Audience Award for that year, also covers two-spirit people more generally, though focuses on the Fred Martinez murder.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nibley |first=Lydia |url= https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/films/two-spirits/ |title=Two Spirits: Native American Gender Diversity |work=[[Independent Lens]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] (PBS) |date=June 14, 2011 |access-date=January 26, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |at=preview (0:02:01) |url= https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/videos/the-bravest-choice-is-to-be-yourself/ |title=The Bravest Choice Is To Be Yourself |work=Independent Lens |publisher=PBS |date=June 14, 2011 |access-date=January 26, 2017}}</ref>
 == Tributes ==
-In 2012, a marker dedicated to two spirit people was included in the [[Legacy Walk]], an outdoor public display in Chicago, Illinois that celebrates [[LGBT]] history and people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legacyprojectchicago.org/2012_INDUCTEES.html|title=2012 INDUCTEES|author=Victor Salvo // The Legacy Project|publisher=|accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref>
+In 2012, a marker dedicated to two-spirit people was included in the [[Legacy Walk]], an outdoor public display in Chicago, Illinois, that celebrates LGBT history and people.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.legacyprojectchicago.org/2012_INDUCTEES.html|title=2012 Inductees |first=Victor |last=Salvo |location=Chicago |publisher=The Legacy Project |access-date=June 7, 2015}}</ref>
-== Self-identified two spirits ==
+== Self-identified two-spirits ==
-A traditional two spirit must be recognized as such by the Elders of their Indigenous community.<ref name=Estrada/><ref name=NYT2/> Inclusion in this list is not an indication of whether or not that is the case.
+A traditional two-spirit is recognized as such by the elders of their indigenous community.<ref name=Estrada /><ref name=NYT2 /> Inclusion in this list is not an indication of whether or not that is the case.
 * [[Alec Butler]]<ref>Gloria Kim, [http://www.macleans.ca/article.jsp?content=20050912_112043_112043&source=srch "Why be just one sex?"]. ''[[Maclean's]]'', September 8, 2005.</ref>
-* [[Chrystos]]<ref>Sorrel, Lorraine, "Not Vanishing," review in "Off Our Backs." Washington: Mar 31, 1989. Vol.19, Iss. 3.</ref>
+* [[Chrystos]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Sorrel |first=Lorraine |title=Not Vanishing |work=[[Off Our Backs]] |location=Washington |date=March 31, 1989 |volume=19 |issue=3}}</ref>
 * [[Raven Davis]]
-* [[Kent Monkman]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mason-studio.com/journal/2012/03/kent-monkman-sexuality-of-miss-chief/|title=Kent Monkman: Sexuality of Miss Chief|publisher=|accessdate=7 June 2015}}</ref>
+* [[Kent Monkman]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.mason-studio.com/journal/2012/03/kent-monkman-sexuality-of-miss-chief |title=Kent Monkman: Sexuality of Miss Chief |work=Mason-Studio.com |publisher= |access-date=June 7, 2015}}</ref>
-* [[Massey Whiteknife]]<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/aboriginal-music-awards-host-two-spirited-performer-1.2763666 "Aboriginal music awards host two-spirited performer"]. [[CBC News]], September 11, 2014.</ref>
+* [[Massey Whiteknife]]<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/aboriginal-music-awards-host-two-spirited-performer-1.2763666 |title=Aboriginal music awards host two-spirited performer |work=CBC News |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |date=September 11, 2014}}</ref>
-* [[Richard LaFortune]] <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/421792266|title=Two Spirit People : native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality|last=...|first=Jacobs, Sue-Ellen, 1936-|last2=...|first2=Thomas, Wesley, 1954-|last3=...|first3=Lang, Sabine, 1958-|date=1997-01-01|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252066450|oclc=421792266}}</ref>
+* [[Richard LaFortune]] <ref>{{cite book|url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/421792266|title=Two Spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality |last1=Jacobs |first1=Sue-Ellen |last2=Thomas |first2=Wesley |last3=Lang |first3=Sabine |date=January 1, 1997 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=9780252066450 |oclc=421792266}}</ref>
 == See also ==
 {{Portal|Indigenous peoples of North America|LGBT|Transgender}}
 *[[Gender roles among the indigenous peoples of North America]]
-*[[Koekchuch]]
+*''{{lang|itl|[[Koekchuch]]}}''
-*[[Māhū]], those "in the middle", between the polar genders, in some Pacific Islander indigenous communities
+*''[[Māhū]]'', literally 'in the middle', between the polar genders, in some Pacific Islander indigenous communities
+*''{{lang|xap|[[Muxe]]}}'', third-gender individuals from Mexican indigenous cultures
-*[[Mapuche]]
-*[[Muxe]], third-gender individuals from Mexican indigenous cultures
 *[[Native American identity in the United States]]
 *[[Sovereign erotic]]
@@ Line 125: / Line 125: @@
 == External links ==
 {{Wiktionary}}
-* ''[http://apihtawikosisan.com/2012/03/language-culture-and-two-spirit-identity/ Language, culture, and Two-Spirit identity]'' – âpihtawikosisân – Cree and other Indigenous perspectives
+* [http://apihtawikosisan.com/2012/03/language-culture-and-two-spirit-identity/ "Language, culture, and Two-Spirit identity"] – article on Cree and other indigenous perspectives, from the blog ''Âpihtawikosisân''
-* [http://www.nativeout.com NativeOUT.com] – Two-Spirit and LGBT news at NativeOut
+* [http://www.nativeout.com ''NativeOut''] – two-spirit and LGBT news website
+* [https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/lgbtqi2-s-practice-brief.pdf Summary of support services for two-spirit youth] at the US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA)
-* [http://www.samhsa.gov/obhe/docs/LGBTQI2-S-Practice-Brief.pdf Support Services for Two-Spirit Youth]
-*''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4BQbRnKdIY San Francisco Two-Spirit Powwow]'' – 2017 video by award-winning photographer [[Matika Wilbur]]
+* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4BQbRnKdIY "San Francisco Two-Spirit Powwow"] – 2017 video by award-winning photographer [[Matika Wilbur]]
-* [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/two-spirits ''Two Spirits''] – 2009 documentary about ''nádleehí'' Fred Martinez, tragically murdered at age 16
+* [https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/two-spirits ''Two Spirits''] – 2009 [[PBS]] documentary about the murder of two-spirt teen Fred Martinez
-* [https://ticketing.frameline.org/festival/film/detail.aspx?id=801&FID=38  ''Two-Spirits: Belonging''] – 2005 short film by Rope Wolf
+* [https://ticketing.frameline.org/festival/film/detail.aspx?id=801&FID=38  "Two-Spirits: Belonging"] – 2005 short film by Rope Wolf
 {{Indigenous rights footer}}