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A zoonosis (/zoʊˈɒnəsɪs, ˌzoʊəˈnoʊsɪs/;^[1] plural zoonoses) or zoonotic disease is an infectious disease of humans caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite, or prion) that can jump from a non-human (usually a vertebrate) to a human and vice versa.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Major modern diseases such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis are zoonoses. HIV was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in the early part of the 20th century, though it has now evolved into a separate human-only disease.^[4]^[5]^[6] Most strains of influenza that infect humans are human diseases,^{[citation needed]}^{[clarification needed]} although many strains of avian influenza and swine influenza are zoonoses;^{[clarification needed]} these viruses occasionally recombine with human strains of the flu and can cause pandemics such as the 2009 swine flu.^[7] Taenia solium infection is one of the neglected tropical diseases with public health and veterinary concern in endemic regions.^[8] Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as emergent viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic.^[9] Most human diseases originated in non-humans; however, only diseases that routinely involve non-human to human transmission, such as rabies, are considered direct zoonoses.^[10]

Zoonoses have different modes of transmission. In direct zoonosis the disease is directly transmitted from non-humans to humans through media such as air (influenza) or bites and saliva (rabies).^[11] In contrast, transmission can also occur via an intermediate species (referred to as a vector), which carry the disease pathogen without getting sick. When humans infect non-humans, it is called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis.^[12] The term is from Greek: ζῷον zoon "animal" and νόσος nosos "sickness".

Host genetics plays an important role in determining which non-human viruses will be able to make copies of themselves in the human body. Dangerous non-human viruses are those that require few mutations to begin replicating themselves in human cells. These viruses are dangerous since the required combinations of mutations might randomly arise in the natural reservoir.^[13]

Causes

The emergence of zoonotic diseases originated with the domestication of animals.^[14] Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there is contact with or consumption of animals, animal products, or animal derivatives. This can occur in a companionistic (pets), economic (farming, trade, butchering, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering, or consuming wild game), or research context.^[15]

Recently, there has been a rise in frequency of appearance of new zoonotic diseases. "Approximately 1.67 million undescribed viruses are thought to exist in mammals and birds, up to half of which are estimated to have the potential to spill over into humans", says a study^[16] led by researchers at the University of California, Davis. According to a report from the United Nations Environment Programme and International Livestock Research Institute a large part of the causes are environmental like climate change, unsustainable agriculture, exploitation of wildlife, and land use change. Others are linked to changes in human society such as an increase in mobility. The organizations propose a set of measures to stop the rise.^[17]^[18]

Contamination of food or water supply

The most significant zoonotic pathogens causing foodborne diseases are Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter, Caliciviridae, and Salmonella.^[19]^[20]^[21]

In 2006 a conference held in Berlin focused on the issue of zoonotic pathogen effects on food safety, urging government intervention and public vigilance against the risks of catching food-borne diseases from farm-to-table dining.^[22]

Many food-borne outbreaks can be linked to zoonotic pathogens. Many different types of food that have an animal origin can become contaminated. Some common food items linked to zoonotic contaminations include eggs, seafood, meat, dairy, and even some vegetables.^[23]

Outbreaks involving contaminated food should be handled in preparedness plans to prevent widespread outbreaks and to efficiently and effectively contain outbreaks.^[24]

Farming, ranching and animal husbandry

Contact with farm animals can lead to disease in farmers or others that come into contact with infected farm animals. Glanders primarily affects those who work closely with horses and donkeys. Close contact with cattle can lead to cutaneous anthrax infection, whereas inhalation anthrax infection is more common for workers in slaughterhouses, tanneries, and wool mills.^[25] Close contact with sheep who have recently given birth can lead to infection with the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci, causing chlamydiosis (and enzootic abortion in pregnant women), as well as increase the risk of Q fever, toxoplasmosis, and listeriosis, in the pregnant or otherwise immunocompromised. Echinococcosis is caused by a tapeworm, which can spread from infected sheep by food or water contaminated by feces or wool. Avian influenza is common in chickens, and, while it is rare in humans, the main public health worry is that a strain of avian influenza will recombine with a human influenza virus and cause a pandemic like the 1918 Spanish flu.^{[citation needed]} In 2017, free-range chickens in the UK were temporarily ordered to remain inside due to the threat of avian influenza.^[26] Cattle are an important reservoir of cryptosporidiosis,^[27] which mainly affects the immunocompromised. Reports have shown mink can also become infected.^[28] In Western countries, hepatitis E burden is largely dependent on exposure to animal products, and pork is a significant source of infection, in this respect.^[29]

Veterinarians are exposed to unique occupational hazards when it comes to zoonotic disease. In the US, studies have highlighted an increased risk of injuries and lack of veterinary awareness of these hazards. Research has proved the importance for continued clinical veterinarian education on occupational risks associated with musculoskeletal injuries, animal bites, needle-sticks, and cuts.^[30]

A July 2020 report by the United Nations Environment Programme stated that the increase in zoonotic pandemics is directly attributable to anthropogenic destruction of nature and the increased global demand for meat and that the industrial farming of pigs and chickens in particular will be a primary risk factor for the spillover of zoonotic diseases in the future.^[31] Habitat loss of viral reservoir species has been identified as a significant source in at least one spillover event.^[32]

Wildlife trade or animal attacks

The wildlife trade may increase spillover risk because it directly increases the number of interactions across animal species, sometimes in small spaces.^[33] The origin of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic^[34]^[35] is traced to the wet markets in China.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]

Zoonotic disease emergence is demonstrably linked to the consumption of wildlife meat, exacerbated by human encroachment into natural habitats and amplified by the unsanitary conditions of wildlife markets.^[40] These markets, where diverse species converge, facilitate the mixing and transmission of pathogens, including those responsible for outbreaks of HIV-1,^[41] Ebola,^[42] and mpox,^[43] and potentially even the COVID-19 pandemic.^[44] Notably, small mammals often harbor a vast array of zoonotic bacteria and viruses,^[45] yet endemic bacterial transmission among wildlife remains largely unexplored. Therefore, accurately determining the pathogenic landscape of traded wildlife is crucial for guiding effective measures to combat zoonotic diseases and documenting the societal and environmental costs associated with this practice.

Rabies

Insect vectors

Pets

Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against rabies. Pets can also transmit ringworm and Giardia, which are endemic in both animal and human populations. Toxoplasmosis is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women.^[46] Dirofilariasis is caused by Dirofilaria immitis through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. Cat-scratch disease is caused by Bartonella henselae and Bartonella quintana, which are transmitted by fleas that are endemic to cats. Toxocariasis is the infection of humans by any of species of roundworm, including species specific to dogs (Toxocara canis) or cats (Toxocara cati). Cryptosporidiosis can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as the leopard gecko. Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a microsporidial parasite carried by many mammals, including rabbits, and is an important opportunistic pathogen in people immunocompromised by HIV/AIDS, organ transplantation, or CD4+ T-lymphocyte deficiency.^[47]

Pets may also serve as a reservoir of viral disease and contribute to the chronic presence of certain viral diseases in the human population. For instance, approximately 20% of domestic dogs, cats, and horses carry anti-hepatitis E virus antibodies and thus these animals probably contribute to human hepatitis E burden as well.^[48] For non-vulnerable populations (e.g., people who are not immunocompromised) the associated disease burden is, however, small.^[49]^{[citation needed]} Furthermore, the trade of non domestic animals such as wild animals as pets can also increase the risk of zoonosis spread.^[50]^[51]

Exhibition

Outbreaks of zoonoses have been traced to human interaction with, and exposure to, other animals at fairs, live animal markets,^[52] petting zoos, and other settings. In 2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings.^[53] The recommendations, developed in conjunction with the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians,^[54] include educational responsibilities of venue operators, limiting public animal contact, and animal care and management.

Hunting and bushmeat

Hunting involves humans tracking, chasing, and capturing wild animals, primarily for food or materials like fur. However, other reasons like pest control or managing wildlife populations can also exist. Transmission of zoonotic diseases, those leaping from animals to humans, can occur through various routes: direct physical contact, airborne droplets or particles, bites or vector transport by insects, oral ingestion, or even contact with contaminated environments.^[55] Wildlife activities like hunting and trade bring humans closer to dangerous zoonotic pathogens, threatening global health.^[56]

According to the Center for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) hunting and consuming wild animal meat ("bushmeat") in regions like Africa can expose people to infectious diseases due to the types of animals involved, like bats and primates. Unfortunately, common preservation methods like smoking or drying aren't enough to eliminate these risks.^[57] Although bushmeat provides protein and income for many, the practice is intricately linked to numerous emerging infectious diseases like Ebola, HIV, and SARS, raising critical public health concerns.^[56]

A review published in 2022 found evidence that zoonotic spillover linked to wildmeat consumption has been reported across all continents.^[58]

Deforestation, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation

Kate Jones, Chair of Ecology and Biodiversity at University College London, says zoonotic diseases are increasingly linked to environmental change and human behavior. The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanization, and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. The resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans, she says, is now "a hidden cost of human economic development".^[59] In a guest article, published by IPBES, President of the EcoHealth Alliance and zoologist Peter Daszak, along with three co-chairs of the 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Josef Settele, Sandra Díaz, and Eduardo Brondizio, wrote that "rampant deforestation, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture, intensive farming, mining and infrastructure development, as well as the exploitation of wild species have created a 'perfect storm' for the spillover of diseases from wildlife to people."^[60]

Joshua Moon, Clare Wenham, and Sophie Harman said that there is evidence that decreased biodiversity has an effect on the diversity of hosts and frequency of human-animal interactions with potential for pathogenic spillover.^[61]

An April 2020 study, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society's Part B journal, found that increased virus spillover events from animals to humans can be linked to biodiversity loss and environmental degradation, as humans further encroach on wildlands to engage in agriculture, hunting, and resource extraction they become exposed to pathogens which normally would remain in these areas. Such spillover events have been tripling every decade since 1980.^[62] An August 2020 study, published in Nature, concludes that the anthropogenic destruction of ecosystems for the purpose of expanding agriculture and human settlements reduces biodiversity and allows for smaller animals such as bats and rats, which are more adaptable to human pressures and also carry the most zoonotic diseases, to proliferate. This in turn can result in more pandemics.^[63]

In October 2020, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services published its report on the 'era of pandemics' by 22 experts in a variety of fields and concluded that anthropogenic destruction of biodiversity is paving the way to the pandemic era and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals – in particular birds and mammals – to humans. The increased pressure on ecosystems is being driven by the "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, palm oil, and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and by a growing human population. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic, or of any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment."^[64]^[65]^[66]

Climate change

According to a report from the United Nations Environment Programme and International Livestock Research Institute, entitled "Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission", climate change is one of the 7 human-related causes of the increase in the number of zoonotic diseases.^[17]^[18] The University of Sydney issued a study, in March 2021, that examines factors increasing the likelihood of epidemics and pandemics like the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers found that "pressure on ecosystems, climate change and economic development are key factors" in doing so. More zoonotic diseases were found in high-income countries.^[67]

A 2022 study dedicated to the link between climate change and zoonosis found a strong link between climate change and the epidemic emergence in the last 15 years, as it caused a massive migration of species to new areas, and consequently contact between species which do not normally come in contact with one another. Even in a scenario with weak climatic changes, there will be 15,000 spillover of viruses to new hosts in the next decades. The areas with the most possibilities for spillover are the mountainous tropical regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is especially vulnerable as it has a large number of bat species that generally do not mix, but could easily if climate change forced them to begin migrating.^[68]

A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 through bats. The authors suggest that climate-driven changes in the distribution and robustness of bat species harboring coronaviruses may have occurred in eastern Asian hotspots (southern China, Myanmar, and Laos), constituting a driver behind the evolution and spread of the virus.^[69]^[70]

Secondary transmission

Ebola and Marburg are examples of viral hemorrhagic disease.

History

During most of human prehistory groups of hunter-gatherers were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate immune response.^[71] To persist in such a population, a pathogen either had to be a chronic infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as reservoir where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected.^[72]^[73] In fact, for many "human" diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and a dead-end host. Examples include rabies, anthrax, tularemia, and West Nile fever. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic.^[74]

Many diseases, even epidemic ones, have zoonotic origin and measles, smallpox, influenza, HIV, and diphtheria are particular examples.^[75]^[76] Various forms of the common cold and tuberculosis also are adaptations of strains originating in other species.^{[citation needed]} Some experts have suggested that all human viral infections were originally zoonotic.^[77]

Zoonoses are of interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus first appeared in the United States in 1999, in the New York City area. Bubonic plague is a zoonotic disease,^[78] as are salmonellosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and Lyme disease.

A major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife.^[79] This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity. An example of this is the outbreak of Nipah virus in peninsular Malaysia, in 1999, when intensive pig farming began within the habitat of infected fruit bats.^[80] The unidentified infection of these pigs amplified the force of infection, transmitting the virus to farmers, and eventually causing 105 human deaths.^[81]

Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have spilled over into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals.^{[citation needed]} Highly mobile animals, such as bats and birds, may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation.

Because they depend on the human host^[82] for part of their life-cycle, diseases such as African schistosomiasis, river blindness, and elephantiasis are not defined as zoonotic, even though they may depend on transmission by insects or other vectors.^[83]

Use in vaccines

The first vaccine against smallpox by Edward Jenner in 1800 was by infection of a zoonotic bovine virus which caused a disease called cowpox.^[84] Jenner had noticed that milkmaids were resistant to smallpox. Milkmaids contracted a milder version of the disease from infected cows that conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result of vaccination, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass inoculation against this disease ceased in 1981.^[85] There are a variety of vaccine types, including traditional inactivated pathogen vaccines, subunit vaccines, live attenuated vaccines. There are also new vaccine technologies such as viral vector vaccines and DNA/RNA vaccines, which include many of the COVID-19 vaccines.^[86]

Lists of diseases

Disease^[87]	Pathogen(s)	Animals involved	Mode of transmission	Emergence
African sleeping sickness	Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense	range of wild animals and domestic livestock	transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly	'present in Africa for thousands of years' – major outbreak 1900–1920, cases continue (sub-Saharan Africa, 2020)
Angiostrongyliasis	Angiostrongylus cantonensis, Angiostrongylus costaricensis	rats, cotton rats	consuming raw or undercooked snails, slugs, other mollusks, crustaceans, contaminated water, and unwashed vegetables contaminated with larvae
Anisakiasis	Anisakis	whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions, other marine animals	eating raw or undercooked fish and squid contaminated with eggs
Anthrax	Bacillus anthracis	commonly – grazing herbivores such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and pigs	by ingestion, inhalation or skin contact of spores
Babesiosis	Babesia spp.	mice, other animals	tick bite
Baylisascariasis	Baylisascaris procyonis	raccoons	ingestion of eggs in feces
Barmah Forest fever	Barmah Forest virus	kangaroos, wallabies, opossums	mosquito bite
Avian influenza	Influenza A virus subtype H5N1	wild birds, domesticated birds such as chickens^[88]	close contact	2003–present avian influenza in Southeast Asia and Egypt
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy	Prions	cattle	eating infected meat	isolated similar cases reported in ancient history; in recent UK history probable start in the 1970s^[89]
Brucellosis	Brucella spp.	cattle, goats, pigs, sheep	infected milk or meat	historically widespread in Mediterranean region; identified early 20th century
Bubonic plague, Pneumonic plague, Septicemic plague, Sylvatic plague	Yersinia pestis	rabbits, hares, rodents, ferrets, goats, sheep, camels	flea bite	epidemics like Black Death in Europe around 1347–53 during the Late Middle Age; third plague pandemic in China-Qing dynasty and India alone
Capillariasis	Capillaria spp.	rodents, birds, foxes	eating raw or undercooked fish, ingesting embryonated eggs in fecal-contaminated food, water, or soil
Cat-scratch disease	Bartonella henselae	cats	bites or scratches from infected cats
Chagas disease	Trypanosoma cruzi	armadillos, Triatominae (kissing bug)	Contact of mucosae or wounds with feces of kissing bugs. Accidental ingestion of parasites in food contaminated by bugs or infected mammal excretae.
Clamydiosis / Enzootic abortion	Chlamydophila abortus	domestic livestock, particularly sheep	close contact with postpartum ewes
suspected: COVID-19	Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2	suspected: bats, felines, raccoon dogs, minks. White-tailed deer^[90]	respiratory transmission	2019–present COVID-19 pandemic; ongoing pandemic
Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease	PrP^vCJD	cattle	eating meat from animals with Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)	1996–2001: United Kingdom
Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever	Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus	cattle, goats, sheep, birds, multimammate rats, hares	tick bite, contact with bodily fluids
Cryptococcosis	Cryptococcus neoformans	commonly – birds like pigeons	inhaling fungi
Cryptosporidiosis	Cryptosporidium spp.	cattle, dogs, cats, mice, pigs, horses, deer, sheep, goats, rabbits, leopard geckos, birds	ingesting cysts from water contaminated with feces
Cysticercosis and taeniasis	Taenia solium, Taenia asiatica, Taenia saginata	commonly – pigs and cattle	consuming water, soil or food contaminated with the tapeworm eggs (cysticercosis) or raw or undercooked pork contaminated with the cysticerci (taeniasis)
Dirofilariasis	Dirofilaria spp.	dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals, cats, monkeys, raccoons, bears, muskrats, rabbits, leopards, seals, sea lions, beavers, ferrets, reptiles	mosquito bite
Eastern equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis	Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus	horses, donkeys, zebras, birds	mosquito bite
Ebola virus disease (a haemorrhagic fever)	Ebolavirus spp.	chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, fruit bats, monkeys, shrews, forest antelope and porcupines	through body fluids and organs	2013–16; possible in Africa
Other haemorrhagic fevers (Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Dengue fever, Lassa fever, Marburg viral haemorrhagic fever, Rift Valley fever^[91])	Varies – commonly viruses	varies (sometimes unknown) – commonly camels, rabbits, hares, hedgehogs, cattle, sheep, goats, horses and swine	infection usually occurs through direct contact with infected animals	2019–20 dengue fever
Echinococcosis	Echinococcus spp.	commonly – dogs, foxes, jackals, wolves, coyotes, sheep, pigs, rodents	ingestion of infective eggs from contaminated food or water with feces of an infected definitive host
Fasciolosis	Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica	sheep, cattle, buffaloes	ingesting contaminated plants
Fasciolopsiasis	Fasciolopsis buski	pigs	eating raw vegetables such as water spinach
Foodborne illnesses (commonly diarrheal diseases)	Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Listeria spp., Shigella spp. and Trichinella spp.	animals domesticated for food production (cattle, poultry)	raw or undercooked food made from animals and unwashed vegetables contaminated with feces
Giardiasis	Giardia lamblia	beavers, other rodents, raccoons, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, dogs, cats	ingesting spores and cysts in food and water contaminated with feces
Glanders	Burkholderia mallei.	horses, donkeys	direct contact
Gnathostomiasis	Gnathostoma spp.	dogs, minks, opossums, cats, lions, tigers, leopards, raccoons, poultry, other birds, frogs	raw or undercooked fish or meat
Hantavirus	Hantavirus spp.	deer mice, cotton rats and other rodents	exposure to feces, urine, saliva or bodily fluids
Henipavirus	Henipavirus spp.	horses, bats	exposure to feces, urine, saliva or contact with sick horses
Hepatitis E	Hepatitis E virus	domestic and wild animals	contaminated food or water
Histoplasmosis	Histoplasma capsulatum	birds, bats	inhaling fungi in guano
HIV	SIV Simian immunodeficiency virus	non-human primates	Blood	Immunodeficiency resembling human AIDS was reported in captive monkeys in the United States beginning in 1983.^[92]^[93]^[94] SIV was isolated in 1985 from some of these animals, captive rhesus macaques who had simian AIDS (SAIDS).^[93] The discovery of SIV was made shortly after HIV-1 had been isolated as the cause of AIDS and led to the discovery of HIV-2 strains in West Africa. HIV-2 was more similar to the then-known SIV strains than to HIV-1, suggesting for the first time the simian origin of HIV. Further studies indicated that HIV-2 is derived from the SIVsmm strain found in sooty mangabeys, whereas HIV-1, the predominant virus found in humans, is derived from SIV strains infecting chimpanzees (SIVcpz)
Japanese encephalitis	Japanese encephalitis virus	pigs, water birds	mosquito bite
Kyasanur Forest disease	Kyasanur Forest disease virus	rodents, shrews, bats, monkeys	tick bite
La Crosse encephalitis	La Crosse virus	chipmunks, tree squirrels	mosquito bite
Leishmaniasis	Leishmania spp.	dogs, rodents, other animals^[95]^[96]	sandfly bite	2004 Afghanistan
Leprosy	Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium lepromatosis	armadillos, monkeys, rabbits, mice^[97]	direct contact, including meat consumption. However, scientists believe most infections are spread human to human.^[97]^[98]
Leptospirosis	Leptospira interrogans	rats, mice, pigs, horses, goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, opossums, raccoons, mongooses, foxes, dogs	direct or indirect contact with urine of infected animals	1616–20 New England infection; present day in the United States
Lassa fever	Lassa fever virus	rodents	exposure to rodents
Lyme disease	Borrelia burgdorferi	deer, wolves, dogs, birds, rodents, rabbits, hares, reptiles	tick bite
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis	Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus	rodents	exposure to urine, feces, or saliva
Melioidosis	Burkholderia pseudomallei	various animals	direct contact with contaminated soil and surface water
Microsporidiosis	Encephalitozoon cuniculi	Rabbits, dogs, mice, and other mammals	ingestion of spores
Middle East respiratory syndrome	MERS coronavirus	bats, camels	close contact	2012–present: Saudi Arabia
Mpox	Monkeypox virus	rodents, primates	contact with infected rodents, primates, or contaminated materials
Nipah virus infection	Nipah virus (NiV)	bats, pigs	direct contact with infected bats, infected pigs
Orf	Orf virus	goats, sheep	close contact
Powassan encephalitis	Powassan virus	ticks	tick bites
Psittacosis	Chlamydophila psittaci	macaws, cockatiels, budgerigars, pigeons, sparrows, ducks, hens, gulls and many other bird species	contact with bird droplets
Q fever	Coxiella burnetii	livestock and other domestic animals such as dogs and cats	inhalation of spores, contact with bodily fluid or faeces
Rabies	Rabies virus	commonly – dogs, bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, goats, sheep, wolves, coyotes, groundhogs, horses, mongooses and cats	through saliva by biting, or through scratches from an infected animal	Variety of places like Oceanic, South America, Europe; year is unknown
Rat-bite fever	Streptobacillus moniliformis, Spirillum minus	rats, mice	bites of rats but also urine and mucus secretions
Rift Valley fever	Phlebovirus	livestock, buffaloes, camels	mosquito bite, contact with bodily fluids, blood, tissues, breathing around butchered animals or raw milk	2006–07 East Africa outbreak
Rocky Mountain spotted fever	Rickettsia rickettsii	dogs, rodents	tick bite
Ross River fever	Ross River virus	kangaroos, wallabies, horses, opossums, birds, flying foxes	mosquito bite
Saint Louis encephalitis	Saint Louis encephalitis virus	birds	mosquito bite
Severe acute respiratory syndrome	SARS coronavirus	bats, civets	close contact, respiratory droplets	2002–04 SARS outbreak; began in China
Smallpox	Variola virus	Possible Monkeys or horses	Spread to person to person quickly	The last case was in 1977; certified by WHO to be eradicated (i.e., eliminated worldwide) as of 1980.
Swine influenza	A new strain of the influenza virus endemic in pigs (excludes H1N1 swine flu, which is a human virus)^{[clarification needed]}	pigs	close contact	2009–10; 2009 swine flu pandemic; began in Mexico.
Taenia crassiceps infection	Taenia crassiceps	wolves, coyotes, jackals, foxes	contact with soil contaminated with feces
Toxocariasis	Toxocara spp.	dogs, foxes, cats	ingestion of eggs in soil, fresh or unwashed vegetables or undercooked meat
Toxoplasmosis	Toxoplasma gondii	cats, livestock, poultry	exposure to cat feces, organ transplantation, blood transfusion, contaminated soil, water, grass, unwashed vegetables, unpasteurized dairy products and undercooked meat
Trichinosis	Trichinella spp.	rodents, pigs, horses, bears, walruses, dogs, foxes, crocodiles, birds	eating undercooked meat
Tuberculosis	Mycobacterium bovis	infected cattle, deer, llamas, pigs, domestic cats, wild carnivores (foxes, coyotes) and omnivores (possums, mustelids and rodents)	milk, exhaled air, sputum, urine, faeces and pus from infected animals
Tularemia	Francisella tularensis	lagomorphs (type A), rodents (type B), birds	ticks, deer flies, and other insects including mosquitoes
West Nile fever	Flavivirus	birds, horses	mosquito bite
Zika fever	Zika virus	chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, monkeys, baboons	mosquito bite, sexual intercourse, blood transfusion and sometimes bites of monkeys	2015–16 epidemic in the Americas and Oceanic

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External links

Scholia has a topic profile for Zoonosis.

[mw-1] "zoonosis". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 29 March 2019.

[2] WHO. "Zoonoses". Archived from the original on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2014.

[sgc-3] "A glimpse into Canada's highest containment laboratory for animal health: The National Centre for Foreign Animal Diseases". science.gc.ca. Government of Canada. 22 October 2018. Archived from the original on 20 June 2019. Retrieved 16 August 2019. Zoonoses are infectious diseases which jump from a non-human host or reservoir into humans.

[Orgin2011-4] Sharp PM, Hahn BH (September 2011). "Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 1 (1): a006841. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a006841. PMC 3234451. PMID 22229120.

[Faria2014-5] Faria NR, Rambaut A, Suchard MA, Baele G, Bedford T, Ward MJ, et al. (October 2014). "HIV epidemiology. The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations". Science. 346 (6205): 56–61. Bibcode:2014Sci...346...56F. doi:10.1126/science.1256739. PMC 4254776. PMID 25278604.

[Marx2001-6] Marx PA, Alcabes PG, Drucker E (June 2001). "Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 356 (1410): 911–920. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0867. PMC 1088484. PMID 11405938.

[7] Scotch M, Brownstein JS, Vegso S, Galusha D, Rabinowitz P (September 2011). "Human vs. animal outbreaks of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic". EcoHealth. 8 (3): 376–380. doi:10.1007/s10393-011-0706-x. PMC 3246131. PMID 21912985.

[8] Coral-Almeida M, Gabriël S, Abatih EN, Praet N, Benitez W, Dorny P (6 July 2015). "Taenia solium Human Cysticercosis: A Systematic Review of Sero-epidemiological Data from Endemic Zones around the World". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 9 (7): e0003919. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003919. PMC 4493064. PMID 26147942.

[9] Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME (July 2001). "Risk factors for human disease emergence". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 356 (1411): 983–989. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0888. PMC 1088493. PMID 11516376.

[10] Marx PA, Apetrei C, Drucker E (October 2004). "AIDS as a zoonosis? Confusion over the origin of the virus and the origin of the epidemics". Journal of Medical Primatology. 33 (5–6): 220–226. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0684.2004.00078.x. PMID 15525322.

[11] "Zoonosis". Medical Dictionary. Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2013.

[12] Messenger AM, Barnes AN, Gray GC (2014). "Reverse zoonotic disease transmission (zooanthroponosis): a systematic review of seldom-documented human biological threats to animals". PLOS One. 9 (2): e89055. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989055M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089055. PMC 3938448. PMID 24586500.

[13] Warren CJ, Sawyer SL (April 2019). "How host genetics dictates successful viral zoonosis". PLOS Biology. 17 (4): e3000217. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000217. PMC 6474636. PMID 31002666.

[14] Nibert D (2013). Animal Oppression and Human Violence: Domesecration, Capitalism, and Global Conflict. Columbia University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-231-15189-4.

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@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 [[File:Rabid dog.jpg|thumb|A dog with [[rabies]], a zoonosis]]
-A '''zoonosis''' ({{IPAc-en|z|oʊ|ˈ|ɒ|n|ə|s|ɪ|s|,_|ˌ|z|oʊ|ə|ˈ|n|oʊ|s|ɪ|s}};<ref name="mw">{{cite Merriam-Webster|zoonosis|access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref> plural '''zoonoses''') or '''zoonotic disease''' is an [[infectious disease]] of humans caused by a [[pathogen]] (an infectious agent, such as a [[bacterium]], [[virus]], [[parasite]] or [[prion]]) that can [[Cross-species transmission|jump]] from a non-human (usually a [[vertebrate]]) to a [[human]] and vice versa.<ref name="mw"/><ref>{{cite web|last1=WHO|title=Zoonoses|url=https://www.who.int/topics/zoonoses/en/|access-date=18 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103010751/http://www.who.int/topics/zoonoses/en/|archive-date=3 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="sgc">{{cite web |title=A glimpse into Canada's highest containment laboratory for animal health: The National Centre for Foreign Animal Diseases |url=http://www.science.gc.ca/eic/site/063.nsf/eng/97704.html |website=science.gc.ca |publisher=Government of Canada |date=22 October 2018 |quote=Zoonoses are infectious diseases which jump from a non-human host or reservoir into humans. |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620024804/http://science.gc.ca/eic/site/063.nsf/eng/97704.html |archive-date=20 June 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+A '''zoonosis''' ({{IPAc-en|z|oʊ|ˈ|ɒ|n|ə|s|ɪ|s|,_|ˌ|z|oʊ|ə|ˈ|n|oʊ|s|ɪ|s}};<ref name="mw">{{cite Merriam-Webster|zoonosis|access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref> plural '''zoonoses''') or '''zoonotic disease''' is an [[infectious disease]] of humans caused by a [[pathogen]] (an infectious agent, such as a [[bacterium]], [[virus]], [[parasite]], or [[prion]]) that can [[Cross-species transmission|jump]] from a non-human (usually a [[vertebrate]]) to a [[human]] and vice versa.<ref name="mw"/><ref>{{cite web|last1=WHO|title=Zoonoses|url=https://www.who.int/topics/zoonoses/en/|access-date=18 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103010751/http://www.who.int/topics/zoonoses/en/|archive-date=3 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="sgc">{{cite web |title=A glimpse into Canada's highest containment laboratory for animal health: The National Centre for Foreign Animal Diseases |url=http://www.science.gc.ca/eic/site/063.nsf/eng/97704.html |website=science.gc.ca |publisher=Government of Canada |date=22 October 2018 |quote=Zoonoses are infectious diseases which jump from a non-human host or reservoir into humans. |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620024804/http://science.gc.ca/eic/site/063.nsf/eng/97704.html |archive-date=20 June 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-Major modern diseases such as [[Ebola virus disease]] and [[salmonellosis]] are zoonoses. [[HIV]] was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in the early part of the 20th century, though it has now evolved into a separate human-only disease.<ref name="Orgin2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharp PM, Hahn BH | title = Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic | journal = Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = a006841 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 22229120 | pmc = 3234451 | doi = 10.1101/cshperspect.a006841 }}</ref><ref name="Faria2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Faria NR, Rambaut A, Suchard MA, Baele G, Bedford T, Ward MJ, Tatem AJ, Sousa JD, Arinaminpathy N, Pépin J, Posada D, Peeters M, Pybus OG, Lemey P | display-authors = 6 | title = HIV epidemiology. The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations | journal = Science | volume = 346 | issue = 6205 | pages = 56–61 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25278604 | pmc = 4254776 | doi = 10.1126/science.1256739 | bibcode = 2014Sci...346...56F }}</ref><ref name="Marx2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marx PA, Alcabes PG, Drucker E | title = Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 356 | issue = 1410 | pages = 911–920 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11405938 | pmc = 1088484 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2001.0867 }}</ref> Most strains of [[influenza]] that infect humans are human diseases, although many strains of [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|bird flu]] and [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|swine flu]] are zoonoses; these viruses occasionally recombine with human strains of the flu and can cause [[pandemic]]s such as the [[1918 Spanish flu]] or the [[2009 swine flu]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scotch M, Brownstein JS, Vegso S, Galusha D, Rabinowitz P | title = Human vs. animal outbreaks of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic | journal = EcoHealth | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 376–380 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21912985 | pmc = 3246131 | doi = 10.1007/s10393-011-0706-x }}</ref> ''[[Taenia solium]]'' infection is one of the neglected [[tropical disease]]s with public health and veterinary concern in [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coral-Almeida M, Gabriël S, Abatih EN, Praet N, Benitez W, Dorny P | title = Taenia solium Human Cysticercosis: A Systematic Review of Sero-epidemiological Data from Endemic Zones around the World | journal = PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 9 | issue = 7 | pages = e0003919 | date = 6 July 2015 | pmid = 26147942 | pmc = 4493064 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003919 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as [[emergent virus]]es, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME | title = Risk factors for human disease emergence | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 356 | issue = 1411 | pages = 983–989 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11516376 | pmc = 1088493 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2001.0888 }}</ref> Most human diseases originated in non-humans; however, only diseases that routinely involve non-human to human transmission, such as [[rabies]], are considered direct zoonoses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marx PA, Apetrei C, Drucker E | title = AIDS as a zoonosis? Confusion over the origin of the virus and the origin of the epidemics | journal = Journal of Medical Primatology | volume = 33 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 220–226 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15525322 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2004.00078.x | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+Major modern diseases such as [[Ebola virus disease]] and [[salmonellosis]] are zoonoses. [[HIV]] was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in the early part of the 20th century, though it has now evolved into a separate human-only disease.<ref name="Orgin2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharp PM, Hahn BH | title = Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic | journal = Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = a006841 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 22229120 | pmc = 3234451 | doi = 10.1101/cshperspect.a006841 }}</ref><ref name="Faria2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Faria NR, Rambaut A, Suchard MA, Baele G, Bedford T, Ward MJ, Tatem AJ, Sousa JD, Arinaminpathy N, Pépin J, Posada D, Peeters M, Pybus OG, Lemey P | display-authors = 6 | title = HIV epidemiology. The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations | journal = Science | volume = 346 | issue = 6205 | pages = 56–61 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25278604 | pmc = 4254776 | doi = 10.1126/science.1256739 | bibcode = 2014Sci...346...56F }}</ref><ref name="Marx2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marx PA, Alcabes PG, Drucker E | title = Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 356 | issue = 1410 | pages = 911–920 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11405938 | pmc = 1088484 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2001.0867 }}</ref> Most strains of [[influenza]] that infect humans are human diseases,{{Citation needed|date=April 2024|reason=Influenza A viruses, which originate primarily in wild birds, are responsible for a significant portion of influenza disease burden in humans, so the claim that "most strains of influenza that infect humans are human diseases" is not self-evident.}}{{Clarify|reason=In addition to what's described in the previous tag, if this is rather referring to the number of individual types of influenza virus that infect humans (A, B, C), then this is more accurate (only A has a known animal reservoir) but could be expressed more clearly.|date=April 2024}} although many strains of [[avian influenza]] and [[swine influenza]] are zoonoses;{{Clarify|reason=Avian influenza and swine influenza viruses are viruses that are endemic to birds and pigs, respectively. In other words, all of them are avian and swine viruses. It's not clear, based on this phrasing, how "many strains" of these can be "zoonoses", which are human diseases of nonhuman-animal origin.|date=April 2024}} these viruses occasionally recombine with human strains of the flu and can cause [[pandemic]]s such as the [[2009 swine flu]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scotch M, Brownstein JS, Vegso S, Galusha D, Rabinowitz P | title = Human vs. animal outbreaks of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic | journal = EcoHealth | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 376–380 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21912985 | pmc = 3246131 | doi = 10.1007/s10393-011-0706-x }}</ref> ''[[Taenia solium]]'' infection is one of the neglected [[tropical disease]]s with public health and veterinary concern in [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coral-Almeida M, Gabriël S, Abatih EN, Praet N, Benitez W, Dorny P | title = Taenia solium Human Cysticercosis: A Systematic Review of Sero-epidemiological Data from Endemic Zones around the World | journal = PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 9 | issue = 7 | pages = e0003919 | date = 6 July 2015 | pmid = 26147942 | pmc = 4493064 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003919 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as [[emergent virus]]es, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME | title = Risk factors for human disease emergence | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 356 | issue = 1411 | pages = 983–989 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11516376 | pmc = 1088493 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2001.0888 }}</ref> Most human diseases originated in non-humans; however, only diseases that routinely involve non-human to human transmission, such as [[rabies]], are considered direct zoonoses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marx PA, Apetrei C, Drucker E | title = AIDS as a zoonosis? Confusion over the origin of the virus and the origin of the epidemics | journal = Journal of Medical Primatology | volume = 33 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 220–226 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15525322 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2004.00078.x | doi-access = free }}</ref>
-Zoonoses have different modes of transmission. In direct zoonosis the disease is directly transmitted from non-humans to humans through media such as air ([[influenza]]) or through bites and saliva ([[rabies]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/medical_dictionary/zonal_zoster.html#zoonosis |title=Zoonosis |work=Medical Dictionary |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628092144/http://www.theodora.com/medical_dictionary/zonal_zoster.html#zoonosis |archive-date=28 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In contrast, transmission can also occur via an intermediate species (referred to as a [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]]), which carry the disease pathogen without getting sick. When humans infect non-humans, it is called [[reverse zoonosis]] or anthroponosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Messenger AM, Barnes AN, Gray GC | title = Reverse zoonotic disease transmission (zooanthroponosis): a systematic review of seldom-documented human biological threats to animals | journal = PLOS One | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = e89055 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24586500 | pmc = 3938448 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0089055 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...989055M }}</ref> The term is from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ζῷον ''zoon'' "animal" and νόσος ''nosos'' "sickness".
+Zoonoses have different modes of transmission. In direct zoonosis the disease is directly transmitted from non-humans to humans through media such as air (influenza) or bites and saliva (rabies).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/medical_dictionary/zonal_zoster.html#zoonosis |title=Zoonosis |work=Medical Dictionary |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628092144/http://www.theodora.com/medical_dictionary/zonal_zoster.html#zoonosis |archive-date=28 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In contrast, transmission can also occur via an intermediate species (referred to as a [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]]), which carry the disease pathogen without getting sick. When humans infect non-humans, it is called [[reverse zoonosis]] or anthroponosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Messenger AM, Barnes AN, Gray GC | title = Reverse zoonotic disease transmission (zooanthroponosis): a systematic review of seldom-documented human biological threats to animals | journal = PLOS One | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = e89055 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24586500 | pmc = 3938448 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0089055 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...989055M }}</ref> The term is from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ζῷον ''zoon'' "animal" and νόσος ''nosos'' "sickness".
 Host genetics plays an important role in determining which non-human viruses will be able to make copies of themselves in the human body. Dangerous non-human viruses are those that require few mutations to begin replicating themselves in human cells. These viruses are dangerous since the required combinations of mutations might randomly arise in the [[natural reservoir]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Warren CJ, Sawyer SL | title = How host genetics dictates successful viral zoonosis | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000217 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 31002666 | pmc = 6474636 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000217 | author2-link = Sara Sawyer | doi-access = free }}</ref>
 == Causes ==
-The emergence of zoonotic diseases originated with the [[domestication]] of animals.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Nibert D |author-link=David Nibert |date=2013 |title=Animal Oppression and Human Violence: Domesecration, Capitalism, and Global Conflict |location= |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |page=5 |isbn=978-0-231-15189-4}}</ref> Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there is contact with or consumption of animals, animal products, or animal derivatives. This can occur in a companionistic (pets), economic (farming, trade, butchering, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering or consuming wild game) or research context.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Agbalaka |first1= P |last2= Ejinaka |first2= O |last3= Etukudoh |first3= NS |last4= Obeta |first4= U |last5= Shaahia |first5= D |last6= Utibe |first6= E |date= 2020 |title= Zoonotic and Parasitic Agents in Bioterrorism |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341655751 |journal= Journal of Infectious Diseases & Travel Medicine |volume= 4 |issue= 2 |pages= 1–7 |access-date= 1 March 2023}}</ref>
+The emergence of zoonotic diseases originated with the [[domestication]] of animals.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Nibert D |author-link=David Nibert |date=2013 |title=Animal Oppression and Human Violence: Domesecration, Capitalism, and Global Conflict |location= |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |page=5 |isbn=978-0-231-15189-4}}</ref> Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there is contact with or consumption of animals, animal products, or animal derivatives. This can occur in a companionistic (pets), economic (farming, trade, butchering, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering, or consuming wild game), or research context.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Agbalaka |first1= P |last2= Ejinaka |first2= O |last3= Etukudoh |first3= NS |last4= Obeta |first4= U |last5= Shaahia |first5= D |last6= Utibe |first6= E |date= 2020 |title= Zoonotic and Parasitic Agents in Bioterrorism |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341655751 |journal= Journal of Infectious Diseases & Travel Medicine |volume= 4 |issue= 2 |pages= 1–7 |access-date= 1 March 2023}}</ref>
-Recently, there has been a rise in frequency of appearance of new zoonotic diseases. "Approximately 1.67 million undescribed viruses are thought to exist in [[mammal]]s and birds, up to half of which are estimated to have the potential to spill over into humans", says a study<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grange ZL, Goldstein T, Johnson CK, Anthony S, Gilardi K, Daszak P, Olival KJ, O'Rourke T, Murray S, Olson SH, Togami E, Vidal G, Mazet JA | display-authors = 6 | title = Ranking the risk of animal-to-human spillover for newly discovered viruses | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 118 | issue = 15 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 33822740 | pmc = 8053939 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.2002324118 | bibcode = 2021PNAS..11802324G | doi-access = free }}</ref> led by researchers at the [[University of California, Davis]]. According to a report from the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and [[International Livestock Research Institute]] a large part of the causes are environmental like [[climate change]], unsustainable agriculture, exploitation of wildlife, [[land use change]]. Others are linked to changes in human society such as an increase in mobility. The organizations propose a set of measures to stop the rise.<ref name="bbc.com">{{cite news |title=Coronavirus: Fear over rise in animal-to-human diseases |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-53314432 |access-date=7 July 2020 |agency=BBC |date=6 July 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707015347/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-53314432 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="United Nations">{{cite web |title=Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission |url=https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/preventing-future-zoonotic-disease-outbreaks-protecting-environment-animals-and |website=United Nations Environmental Programm |date=15 May 2020 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=6 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706201638/https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/preventing-future-zoonotic-disease-outbreaks-protecting-environment-animals-and |url-status=live }}</ref>
+Recently, there has been a rise in frequency of appearance of new zoonotic diseases. "Approximately 1.67 million undescribed viruses are thought to exist in [[mammal]]s and birds, up to half of which are estimated to have the potential to spill over into humans", says a study<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grange ZL, Goldstein T, Johnson CK, Anthony S, Gilardi K, Daszak P, Olival KJ, O'Rourke T, Murray S, Olson SH, Togami E, Vidal G, Mazet JA | display-authors = 6 | title = Ranking the risk of animal-to-human spillover for newly discovered viruses | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 118 | issue = 15 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 33822740 | pmc = 8053939 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.2002324118 | bibcode = 2021PNAS..11802324G | doi-access = free }}</ref> led by researchers at the [[University of California, Davis]]. According to a report from the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and [[International Livestock Research Institute]] a large part of the causes are environmental like [[climate change]], unsustainable agriculture, exploitation of wildlife, and [[land use change]]. Others are linked to changes in human society such as an increase in mobility. The organizations propose a set of measures to stop the rise.<ref name="bbc.com">{{cite news |title=Coronavirus: Fear over rise in animal-to-human diseases |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-53314432 |access-date=7 July 2020 |agency=BBC |date=6 July 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707015347/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-53314432 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="United Nations">{{cite web |title=Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission |url=https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/preventing-future-zoonotic-disease-outbreaks-protecting-environment-animals-and |website=United Nations Environmental Programm |date=15 May 2020 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=6 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706201638/https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/preventing-future-zoonotic-disease-outbreaks-protecting-environment-animals-and |url-status=live }}</ref>
 ===Contamination of food or water supply===
@@ Line 28: / Line 28: @@
 === Farming, ranching and animal husbandry ===
 {{see also|Intensive animal farming#Human health impact}}
-Contact with farm animals can lead to disease in farmers or others that come into contact with infected farm animals. [[Glanders]] primarily affects those who work closely with horses and donkeys. Close contact with cattle can lead to [[Anthrax#Cause|cutaneous anthrax]] infection, whereas [[Anthrax#Cause|inhalation anthrax]] infection is more common for workers in [[slaughterhouse]]s, [[tannery|tanneries]] and [[wool mill]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/basics/types/inhalation.html|title=Inhalation Anthrax|website=[[cdc.gov]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326230905/https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/basics/types/inhalation.html|archive-date=26 March 2017|access-date=26 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Close contact with sheep who have recently given birth can lead to infection with the bacterium ''[[Chlamydia psittaci]],'' causing chlamydiosis (and [[enzootic abortion]] in pregnant women), as well as increase the risk of [[Q fever]], [[toxoplasmosis]], and [[listeriosis]], in the pregnant or otherwise [[immunocompromised]]. [[Echinococcosis]] is caused by a tapeworm, which can spread from infected sheep by food or water contaminated by feces or wool. [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|Bird flu]] is common in chickens and, while rare in humans, the main public health worry is that a strain of bird flu will recombine with a human flu virus and cause a pandemic like the [[1918 flu pandemic|1918 Spanish flu]]. In 2017, [[Free range|free-range]] chickens in the UK were temporarily ordered to remain inside due to the threat of bird flu.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bnews/uk-wales-politics-39103191|title=Avian flu: Poultry to be allowed outside under new rules|date=28 February 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=26 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307040605/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-39103191|archive-date=7 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Cattle are an important reservoir of [[cryptosporidiosis]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lassen B, Ståhl M, Enemark HL | title = Cryptosporidiosis - an occupational risk and a disregarded disease in Estonia | journal = Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | page = 36 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24902957 | pmc = 4089559 | doi = 10.1186/1751-0147-56-36 | doi-access = free }}</ref> which mainly affects the immunocompromised. Reports have shown [[mink]] can also become infected.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/mink-found-coronavirus-two-dutch-114943885.html|title=Mink found to have coronavirus on two Dutch farms – ministry|date=26 April 2020|agency=Reuters|access-date=27 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427142458/https://news.yahoo.com/mink-found-coronavirus-two-dutch-114943885.html|archive-date=27 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> In Western countries, [[Hepatitis E]] burden is largely dependent on exposure to animal products, and pork is a significant source of infection, in this respect.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li TC, Chijiwa K, Sera N, Ishibashi T, Etoh Y, Shinohara Y, Kurata Y, Ishida M, Sakamoto S, Takeda N, Miyamura T | display-authors = 6 | title = Hepatitis E virus transmission from wild boar meat | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 11 | issue = 12 | pages = 1958–1960 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16485490 | pmc = 8606544 | doi = 10.1016/j.onehlt.2021.100350 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+Contact with farm animals can lead to disease in farmers or others that come into contact with infected farm animals. [[Glanders]] primarily affects those who work closely with horses and donkeys. Close contact with cattle can lead to [[Anthrax#Cause|cutaneous anthrax]] infection, whereas [[Anthrax#Cause|inhalation anthrax]] infection is more common for workers in [[slaughterhouse]]s, [[tannery|tanneries]], and [[wool mill]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/basics/types/inhalation.html|title=Inhalation Anthrax|website=[[cdc.gov]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326230905/https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/basics/types/inhalation.html|archive-date=26 March 2017|access-date=26 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Close contact with sheep who have recently given birth can lead to infection with the bacterium ''[[Chlamydia psittaci]],'' causing chlamydiosis (and [[enzootic abortion]] in pregnant women), as well as increase the risk of [[Q fever]], [[toxoplasmosis]], and [[listeriosis]], in the pregnant or otherwise [[immunocompromised]]. [[Echinococcosis]] is caused by a tapeworm, which can spread from infected sheep by food or water contaminated by feces or wool. [[Avian influenza]] is common in chickens, and, while it is rare in humans, the main public health worry is that a strain of avian influenza will recombine with a human influenza virus and cause a pandemic like the [[1918 flu pandemic|1918 Spanish flu]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} In 2017, [[Free range|free-range]] chickens in the UK were temporarily ordered to remain inside due to the threat of avian influenza.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bnews/uk-wales-politics-39103191|title=Avian flu: Poultry to be allowed outside under new rules|date=28 February 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=26 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307040605/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-39103191|archive-date=7 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Cattle are an important reservoir of [[cryptosporidiosis]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lassen B, Ståhl M, Enemark HL | title = Cryptosporidiosis - an occupational risk and a disregarded disease in Estonia | journal = Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | page = 36 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24902957 | pmc = 4089559 | doi = 10.1186/1751-0147-56-36 | doi-access = free }}</ref> which mainly affects the immunocompromised. Reports have shown [[mink]] can also become infected.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/mink-found-coronavirus-two-dutch-114943885.html|title=Mink found to have coronavirus on two Dutch farms – ministry|date=26 April 2020|agency=Reuters|access-date=27 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427142458/https://news.yahoo.com/mink-found-coronavirus-two-dutch-114943885.html|archive-date=27 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> In Western countries, [[hepatitis E]] burden is largely dependent on exposure to animal products, and pork is a significant source of infection, in this respect.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li TC, Chijiwa K, Sera N, Ishibashi T, Etoh Y, Shinohara Y, Kurata Y, Ishida M, Sakamoto S, Takeda N, Miyamura T | display-authors = 6 | title = Hepatitis E virus transmission from wild boar meat | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 11 | issue = 12 | pages = 1958–1960 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16485490 | pmc = 8606544 | doi = 10.1016/j.onehlt.2021.100350 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
 [[Veterinary physician|Veterinarians]] are exposed to unique [[occupational hazard]]s when it comes to zoonotic disease. In the US, studies have highlighted an increased risk of injuries and lack of veterinary awareness of these hazards. Research has proved the importance for continued clinical veterinarian education on occupational risks associated with [[musculoskeletal]] injuries, animal bites, needle-sticks, and cuts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rood KA, Pate ML | title = Assessment of Musculoskeletal Injuries Associated with Palpation, Infection Control Practices, and Zoonotic Disease Risks among Utah Clinical Veterinarians | journal = Journal of Agromedicine | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–45 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30362924 | doi = 10.1080/1059924X.2018.1536574 | s2cid = 53092026 }}</ref>
-A July 2020 report by the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] stated that the increase in zoonotic pandemics is directly attributable to [[Human impact on the environment#Ecosystem impacts|anthropogenic destruction of nature]] and the increased global demand for meat, and that the [[Industrial meat production|industrial farming]] of pigs and chickens in particular will be a primary risk factor for the spillover of zoonotic diseases in the future.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Carrington D |date=6 July 2020 |title=Coronavirus: world treating symptoms, not cause of pandemics, says UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/06/coronavirus-world-treating-symptoms-not-cause-pandemics-un-report |work=The Guardian |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707004708/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/06/coronavirus-world-treating-symptoms-not-cause-pandemics-un-report |url-status=live }}</ref> Habitat loss of viral reservoir species has been identified as a significant source in at least one [[Spillover infection|spillover event]].<ref>{{citation |last=von Csefalvay |first=Chris |title=Host-vector and multihost systems |date=2023 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978032395389400013X |work=Computational Modeling of Infectious Disease |pages=121–149 |access-date=6 March 2023 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-32-395389-4.00013-x |isbn=978-0-323-95389-4}}</ref>
+A July 2020 report by the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] stated that the increase in zoonotic pandemics is directly attributable to [[Human impact on the environment#Ecosystem impacts|anthropogenic destruction of nature]] and the increased global demand for meat and that the [[Industrial meat production|industrial farming]] of pigs and chickens in particular will be a primary risk factor for the spillover of zoonotic diseases in the future.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Carrington D |date=6 July 2020 |title=Coronavirus: world treating symptoms, not cause of pandemics, says UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/06/coronavirus-world-treating-symptoms-not-cause-pandemics-un-report |work=The Guardian |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707004708/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/06/coronavirus-world-treating-symptoms-not-cause-pandemics-un-report |url-status=live }}</ref> Habitat loss of viral reservoir species has been identified as a significant source in at least one [[Spillover infection|spillover event]].<ref>{{citation |last=von Csefalvay |first=Chris |title=Host-vector and multihost systems |date=2023 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978032395389400013X |work=Computational Modeling of Infectious Disease |pages=121–149 |access-date=6 March 2023 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-32-395389-4.00013-x |isbn=978-0-323-95389-4}}</ref>
 === Wildlife trade or animal attacks ===
 The wildlife trade may increase spillover risk because it directly increases the number of interactions across animal species, sometimes in small spaces.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Glidden CK, Nova N, Kain MP, Lagerstrom KM, Skinner EB, Mandle L, Sokolow SH, Plowright RK, Dirzo R, De Leo GA, Mordecai EA | display-authors = 6 | title = Human-mediated impacts on biodiversity and the consequences for zoonotic disease spillover | journal = Current Biology | volume = 31 | issue = 19 | pages = R1342–R1361 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34637744 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.070 | s2cid = 238588772 | pmc = 9255562 }}</ref> The origin of the ongoing [[COVID-19 pandemic]]<ref name="BJC_Beirne2021">{{cite journal | vauthors = You M | title = Changes of China's regulatory regime on commercial artificial breeding of terrestrial wildlife in time of COVID-19 outbreak and impacts on the future | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 250 | issue = 3 | page = 108756 | date = October 2020 | pmc = 7953978 | doi = 10.1093/bjc/azaa084 | publisher = Oxford University Press | jfm =  | zbl =  | jstor =  | pmid = 32863392 | mr =  }}</ref><ref name="CovidAndCapital">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blattner C, Coulter K, Wadiwel D, Kasprzycka E | title = Covid-19 and Capital: Labour Studies and Nonhuman Animals – A Roundtable Dialogue | journal = Animal Studies Journal | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 240–272 | publisher = University of Wollongong | date = 2021 | url = https://ro.uow.edu.au/asj/vol10/iss1/11/ | jstor = | issn = 2201-3008 | doi = 10.14453/asj.v10i1.10 | id = | mr = | zbl = | jfm = | access-date = 19 September 2021| doi-access = free }}</ref> is traced to the [[wet markets in China]].<ref name="SunEtAl_2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sun J, He WT, Wang L, Lai A, Ji X, Zhai X, Li G, Suchard MA, Tian J, Zhou J, Veit M, Su S | display-authors = 6 | title = COVID-19: Epidemiology, Evolution, and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives | journal = Trends in Molecular Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 483–495 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32359479 | pmc = 7118693 | doi = 10.1016/j.molmed.2020.02.008 | name-list-style = vanc }}</ref><ref name="WHOPoints_2021">{{cite news |title=WHO Points To Wildlife Farms In Southern China As Likely Source Of Pandemic |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/03/15/977527808/who-points-to-wildlife-farms-in-southwest-china-as-likely-source-of-pandemic?t=1616302540855 |publisher=[[NPR]] |date=15 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="Maxmen_2021">{{cite journal | vauthors = Maxmen A | title = WHO report into COVID pandemic origins zeroes in on animal markets, not labs | journal = Nature | volume = 592 | issue = 7853 | pages = 173–174 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 33785930 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-00865-8 | s2cid = 232429241 | bibcode = 2021Natur.592..173M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Chaolin |last2=Wang |first2=Yeming |last3=Li |first3=Xingwang |last4=Ren |first4=Lili |last5=Zhao |first5=Jianping |last6=Hu |first6=Yi |last7=Zhang |first7=Li |last8=Fan |first8=Guohui |last9=Xu |first9=Jiuyang |last10=Gu |first10=Xiaoying |last11=Cheng |first11=Zhenshun |last12=Yu |first12=Ting |last13=Xia |first13=Jiaan |last14=Wei |first14=Yuan |last15=Wu |first15=Wenjuan |date=2020-02-15 |title=Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China |journal=Lancet |volume=395 |issue=10223 |pages=497–506 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5 |issn=1474-547X |pmc=7159299 |pmid=31986264}}</ref>
-Zoonotic disease emergence is demonstrably linked to the consumption of wildlife meat, exacerbated by human encroachment into natural habitats and amplified by the unsanitary conditions of wildlife markets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karesh |first1=William B. |last2=Cook |first2=Robert A. |last3=Bennett |first3=Elizabeth L. |last4=Newcomb |first4=James |date=July 2005 |title=Wildlife trade and global disease emergence |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1000–1002 |doi=10.3201/eid1107.050194 |issn=1080-6040 |pmc=3371803 |pmid=16022772}}</ref> These markets, where diverse species converge, facilitate the mixing and transmission of pathogens, including those responsible for outbreaks of HIV-1,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hahn |first1=B. H. |last2=Shaw |first2=G. M. |last3=De Cock |first3=K. M. |last4=Sharp |first4=P. M. |date=2000-01-28 |title=AIDS as a zoonosis: scientific and public health implications |journal=Science |volume=287 |issue=5453 |pages=607–614 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5453.607 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=10649986|bibcode=2000Sci...287..607H }}</ref> Ebola,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leroy |first1=Eric M. |last2=Rouquet |first2=Pierre |last3=Formenty |first3=Pierre |last4=Souquière |first4=Sandrine |last5=Kilbourne |first5=Annelisa |last6=Froment |first6=Jean-Marc |last7=Bermejo |first7=Magdalena |last8=Smit |first8=Sheilag |last9=Karesh |first9=William |last10=Swanepoel |first10=Robert |last11=Zaki |first11=Sherif R. |last12=Rollin |first12=Pierre E. |date=2004-01-16 |title=Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5656 |pages=387–390 |doi=10.1126/science.1092528 |issn=1095-9203 |pmid=14726594|bibcode=2004Sci...303..387L |s2cid=43305484 }}</ref> and monkeypox,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=Kurt D. |last2=Melski |first2=John W. |last3=Graham |first3=Mary Beth |last4=Regnery |first4=Russell L. |last5=Sotir |first5=Mark J. |last6=Wegner |first6=Mark V. |last7=Kazmierczak |first7=James J. |last8=Stratman |first8=Erik J. |last9=Li |first9=Yu |last10=Fairley |first10=Janet A. |last11=Swain |first11=Geoffrey R. |last12=Olson |first12=Victoria A. |last13=Sargent |first13=Elizabeth K. |last14=Kehl |first14=Sue C. |last15=Frace |first15=Michael A. |date=2004-01-22 |title=The detection of monkeypox in humans in the Western Hemisphere |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=350 |issue=4 |pages=342–350 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa032299 |issn=1533-4406 |pmid=14736926}}</ref> and potentially even the current pandemic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xiaojun |last2=Giorgi |first2=Elena E. |last3=Marichannegowda |first3=Manukumar Honnayakanahalli |last4=Foley |first4=Brian |last5=Xiao |first5=Chuan |last6=Kong |first6=Xiang-Peng |last7=Chen |first7=Yue |last8=Gnanakaran |first8=S. |last9=Korber |first9=Bette |last10=Gao |first10=Feng |date=July 2020 |title=Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 through recombination and strong purifying selection |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=27 |pages=eabb9153 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abb9153 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=7458444 |pmid=32937441|bibcode=2020SciA....6.9153L }}</ref> Notably, small mammals often harbor a vast array of zoonotic bacteria and viruses,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=J. N. |last2=Childs |first2=J. E. |date=1998 |title=Ecologic studies of rodent reservoirs: their relevance for human health |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=529–537 |doi=10.3201/eid0404.980403 |issn=1080-6040 |pmc=2640244 |pmid=9866729}}</ref> yet endemic bacterial transmission among wildlife remains largely unexplored. Therefore, accurately determining the pathogenic landscape of traded wildlife is crucial for guiding effective measures to combat zoonotic diseases and documenting the societal and environmental costs associated with this practice.
+Zoonotic disease emergence is demonstrably linked to the consumption of wildlife meat, exacerbated by human encroachment into natural habitats and amplified by the unsanitary conditions of wildlife markets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karesh |first1=William B. |last2=Cook |first2=Robert A. |last3=Bennett |first3=Elizabeth L. |last4=Newcomb |first4=James |date=July 2005 |title=Wildlife trade and global disease emergence |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1000–1002 |doi=10.3201/eid1107.050194 |issn=1080-6040 |pmc=3371803 |pmid=16022772}}</ref> These markets, where diverse species converge, facilitate the mixing and transmission of pathogens, including those responsible for outbreaks of HIV-1,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hahn |first1=B. H. |last2=Shaw |first2=G. M. |last3=De Cock |first3=K. M. |last4=Sharp |first4=P. M. |date=2000-01-28 |title=AIDS as a zoonosis: scientific and public health implications |journal=Science |volume=287 |issue=5453 |pages=607–614 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5453.607 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=10649986|bibcode=2000Sci...287..607H }}</ref> Ebola,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leroy |first1=Eric M. |last2=Rouquet |first2=Pierre |last3=Formenty |first3=Pierre |last4=Souquière |first4=Sandrine |last5=Kilbourne |first5=Annelisa |last6=Froment |first6=Jean-Marc |last7=Bermejo |first7=Magdalena |last8=Smit |first8=Sheilag |last9=Karesh |first9=William |last10=Swanepoel |first10=Robert |last11=Zaki |first11=Sherif R. |last12=Rollin |first12=Pierre E. |date=2004-01-16 |title=Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5656 |pages=387–390 |doi=10.1126/science.1092528 |issn=1095-9203 |pmid=14726594|bibcode=2004Sci...303..387L |s2cid=43305484 }}</ref> and [[mpox]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=Kurt D. |last2=Melski |first2=John W. |last3=Graham |first3=Mary Beth |last4=Regnery |first4=Russell L. |last5=Sotir |first5=Mark J. |last6=Wegner |first6=Mark V. |last7=Kazmierczak |first7=James J. |last8=Stratman |first8=Erik J. |last9=Li |first9=Yu |last10=Fairley |first10=Janet A. |last11=Swain |first11=Geoffrey R. |last12=Olson |first12=Victoria A. |last13=Sargent |first13=Elizabeth K. |last14=Kehl |first14=Sue C. |last15=Frace |first15=Michael A. |date=2004-01-22 |title=The detection of monkeypox in humans in the Western Hemisphere |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=350 |issue=4 |pages=342–350 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa032299 |issn=1533-4406 |pmid=14736926}}</ref> and potentially even the COVID-19 pandemic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xiaojun |last2=Giorgi |first2=Elena E. |last3=Marichannegowda |first3=Manukumar Honnayakanahalli |last4=Foley |first4=Brian |last5=Xiao |first5=Chuan |last6=Kong |first6=Xiang-Peng |last7=Chen |first7=Yue |last8=Gnanakaran |first8=S. |last9=Korber |first9=Bette |last10=Gao |first10=Feng |date=July 2020 |title=Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 through recombination and strong purifying selection |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=27 |pages=eabb9153 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abb9153 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=7458444 |pmid=32937441|bibcode=2020SciA....6.9153L }}</ref> Notably, small mammals often harbor a vast array of zoonotic bacteria and viruses,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=J. N. |last2=Childs |first2=J. E. |date=1998 |title=Ecologic studies of rodent reservoirs: their relevance for human health |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=529–537 |doi=10.3201/eid0404.980403 |issn=1080-6040 |pmc=2640244 |pmid=9866729}}</ref> yet endemic bacterial transmission among wildlife remains largely unexplored. Therefore, accurately determining the pathogenic landscape of traded wildlife is crucial for guiding effective measures to combat zoonotic diseases and documenting the societal and environmental costs associated with this practice.
 * [[Rabies]]
@@ Line 55: / Line 55: @@
 === Pets ===
 {{Further|Feline zoonosis}}
-Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against [[rabies]]. Pets can also transmit [[ringworm]] and ''[[Giardia]]'', which are endemic in both animal and human populations. [[Toxoplasmosis]] is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/gen_info/pregnant.html|title=Toxoplasmosis – General Information – Pregnant Women|last=Prevention|first=CDC – Centers for Disease Control and|website=cdc.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118053645/http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/gen_info/pregnant.html|archive-date=18 November 2015|access-date=1 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Dirofilariasis]] is caused by ''[[Dirofilaria immitis]]'' through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. [[Cat-scratch disease]] is caused by ''[[Bartonella henselae]]'' and ''[[Bartonella quintana]]'', which are transmitted by fleas that are endemic to cats. [[Toxocariasis]] is the infection of humans by any of species of [[roundworm]], including species specific to dogs (''[[Toxocara canis]])'' or cats (''[[Toxocara cati]]''). [[Cryptosporidiosis]]&nbsp;can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as the [[leopard gecko]]. ''[[Encephalitozoon cuniculi]]'' is a [[microsporidia]]l parasite carried by many mammals, including rabbits, and is an important [[opportunistic infection|opportunistic pathogen]] in people [[immunodeficiency|immunocompromised]] by [[HIV/AIDS]], [[organ transplantation]], or [[CD4+ T cells and antitumor immunity|CD4+ T-lymphocyte]] deficiency.<ref name=Weese2011>{{cite book | vauthors = Weese JS |title=Companion animal zoonoses |date=2011 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-0-8138-1964-8 |pages=282–84}}</ref>
+Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against [[rabies]]. Pets can also transmit [[ringworm]] and ''[[Giardia]]'', which are endemic in both animal and human populations. [[Toxoplasmosis]] is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/gen_info/pregnant.html|title=Toxoplasmosis – General Information – Pregnant Women|last=Prevention|first=CDC – Centers for Disease Control and|website=cdc.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118053645/http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/gen_info/pregnant.html|archive-date=18 November 2015|access-date=1 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Dirofilariasis]] is caused by ''[[Dirofilaria immitis]]'' through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. [[Cat-scratch disease]] is caused by ''[[Bartonella henselae]]'' and ''[[Bartonella quintana]]'', which are transmitted by fleas that are endemic to cats. [[Toxocariasis]] is the infection of humans by any of species of [[roundworm]], including species specific to dogs (''[[Toxocara canis]])'' or cats (''[[Toxocara cati]]''). [[Cryptosporidiosis]] can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as the [[leopard gecko]]. ''[[Encephalitozoon cuniculi]]'' is a [[microsporidia]]l parasite carried by many mammals, including rabbits, and is an important [[opportunistic infection|opportunistic pathogen]] in people [[immunodeficiency|immunocompromised]] by [[HIV/AIDS]], [[organ transplantation]], or [[CD4+ T cells and antitumor immunity|CD4+ T-lymphocyte]] deficiency.<ref name=Weese2011>{{cite book | vauthors = Weese JS |title=Companion animal zoonoses |date=2011 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-0-8138-1964-8 |pages=282–84}}</ref>
-Pets may also serve as a reservoir of viral disease and contribute to the chronic presence of certain viral diseases in the human population. For instance, approximately 20% of domestic dogs, cats and horses carry anti-Hepatitis E virus [[antibodies]] and thus these animals probably contribute to human Hepatitis E burden as well.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li Y, Qu C, Spee B, Zhang R, Penning LC, de Man RA, Peppelenbosch MP, Fieten H, Pan Q | display-authors = 6 | title = Hepatitis E virus seroprevalence in pets in the Netherlands and the permissiveness of canine liver cells to the infection | journal = Irish Veterinary Journal | volume = 73 | page = 6 | year = 2020 | pmid = 32266057 | pmc = 7119158 | doi = 10.1186/s13620-020-00158-y | doi-access = free }}</ref> For non-vulnerable populations (people who are not immunocompromised) the associated disease burden is, however, small.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hepatitis E |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-e |access-date=2023-10-26 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Furthermore, the trade of non domestic animals such as wild animals as pets can also increase the risk of zoonosis spread.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=D'Cruze |first1=Neil |last2=Green |first2=Jennah |last3=Elwin |first3=Angie |last4=Schmidt-Burbach |first4=Jan |date=December 2020 |title=Trading Tactics: Time to Rethink the Global Trade in Wildlife |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=10 |issue=12 |page=2456 |doi=10.3390/ani10122456 |doi-access=free |pmid=33371486 |pmc=7767496 |issn=2076-2615}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aguirre |first1=A. Alonso |last2=Catherina |first2=Richard |last3=Frye |first3=Hailey |last4=Shelley |first4=Louise |date=September 2020 |title=Illicit Wildlife Trade, Wet Markets, and COVID-19: Preventing Future Pandemics |journal=World Medical & Health Policy |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=256–265 |doi=10.1002/wmh3.348 |issn=1948-4682 |pmc=7362142 |pmid=32837772}}</ref>
+Pets may also serve as a reservoir of viral disease and contribute to the chronic presence of certain viral diseases in the human population. For instance, approximately 20% of domestic dogs, cats, and horses carry anti-hepatitis E virus [[antibodies]] and thus these animals probably contribute to human hepatitis E burden as well.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li Y, Qu C, Spee B, Zhang R, Penning LC, de Man RA, Peppelenbosch MP, Fieten H, Pan Q | display-authors = 6 | title = Hepatitis E virus seroprevalence in pets in the Netherlands and the permissiveness of canine liver cells to the infection | journal = Irish Veterinary Journal | volume = 73 | page = 6 | year = 2020 | pmid = 32266057 | pmc = 7119158 | doi = 10.1186/s13620-020-00158-y | doi-access = free }}</ref> For non-vulnerable populations (e.g., people who are not immunocompromised) the associated disease burden is, however, small.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hepatitis E |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-e |access-date=2023-10-26 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=April 2024|reason=The cited source does not describe the burden of hepatitis E in "nonvulnerable populations".}} Furthermore, the trade of non domestic animals such as wild animals as pets can also increase the risk of zoonosis spread.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=D'Cruze |first1=Neil |last2=Green |first2=Jennah |last3=Elwin |first3=Angie |last4=Schmidt-Burbach |first4=Jan |date=December 2020 |title=Trading Tactics: Time to Rethink the Global Trade in Wildlife |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=10 |issue=12 |page=2456 |doi=10.3390/ani10122456 |doi-access=free |pmid=33371486 |pmc=7767496 |issn=2076-2615}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aguirre |first1=A. Alonso |last2=Catherina |first2=Richard |last3=Frye |first3=Hailey |last4=Shelley |first4=Louise |date=September 2020 |title=Illicit Wildlife Trade, Wet Markets, and COVID-19: Preventing Future Pandemics |journal=World Medical & Health Policy |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=256–265 |doi=10.1002/wmh3.348 |issn=1948-4682 |pmc=7362142 |pmid=32837772}}</ref>
 === Exhibition ===
@@ Line 66: / Line 66: @@
 [[Hunting]] involves humans tracking, chasing, and capturing wild animals, primarily for food or materials like fur. However, other reasons like pest control or managing wildlife populations can also exist. Transmission of zoonotic diseases, those leaping from animals to humans, can occur through various routes: direct physical contact, airborne droplets or particles, bites or vector transport by insects, oral ingestion, or even contact with contaminated environments.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Murray |first1=Kris A. |title=Emerging Viral Zoonoses from Wildlife Associated with Animal-Based Food Systems: Risks and Opportunities |date=2016 |work=Food Safety Risks from Wildlife: Challenges in Agriculture, Conservation, and Public Health |pages=31–57 |editor-last=Jay-Russell |editor-first=Michele |series=Food Microbiology and Food Safety |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-24442-6_2 |isbn=978-3-319-24442-6 |last2=Allen |first2=Toph |last3=Loh |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Machalaba |first4=Catherine |last5=Daszak |first5=Peter |editor2-last=Doyle |editor2-first=Michael P.}}</ref> Wildlife activities like hunting and trade bring humans closer to dangerous zoonotic pathogens, threatening global health.<ref name="Problematic Wildlife">{{Cite book |last1=Kurpiers |first1=Laura A. |last2=Schulte-Herbrüggen |first2=Björn |last3=Ejotre |first3=Imran |last4=Reeder |first4=DeeAnn M. |chapter=Bushmeat and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Lessons from Africa |date=2015-09-21 |title=Problematic Wildlife |pages=507–551 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-22246-2_24 |pmc=7123567|isbn=978-3-319-22245-5 }}</ref>
-According to the Center for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) hunting and consuming wild animal meat ("bushmeat") in regions like Africa can expose people to infectious diseases due to the types of animals involved, like bats and primates. Unfortunately, common preservation methods like smoking or drying aren't enough to eliminate these risks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-21 |title=Bushmeat Importation Policies {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/importation/bushmeat.html |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> Although bushmeat provides protein and income for many, the practice is intricately linked to numerous emerging infectious diseases like Ebola, HIV, and SARS, raising critical public health concerns.<ref name="Problematic Wildlife"/>
+According to the Center for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) hunting and consuming wild animal meat ("bushmeat") in regions like Africa can expose people to infectious diseases due to the types of animals involved, like bats and primates. Unfortunately, common preservation methods like smoking or drying aren't enough to eliminate these risks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-21 |title=Bushmeat Importation Policies {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/importation/bushmeat.html |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> Although bushmeat provides protein and income for many, the practice is intricately linked to numerous emerging infectious diseases like Ebola, HIV, and [[SARS]], raising critical public health concerns.<ref name="Problematic Wildlife"/>
 A review published in 2022 found evidence that zoonotic spillover linked to wildmeat consumption has been reported across all continents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Milbank |first1=Charlotte |last2=Vira |first2=Bhaskar |date=May 2022 |title=Wildmeat consumption and zoonotic spillover: contextualising disease emergence and policy responses |journal=The Lancet. Planetary Health |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=e439–e448 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00064-X |issn=2542-5196 |pmc=9084621 |pmid=35550083}}</ref>
@@ Line 72: / Line 72: @@
 ===Deforestation, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation===
 {{Main|Deforestation| Biodiversity loss|Environmental degradation}}
-[[Kate Jones (scientist)|Kate Jones]], Chair of Ecology and Biodiversity at [[University College London]], says zoonotic diseases are increasingly linked to environmental change and human behaviour. The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanisation and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. The resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans, she says, is now "a hidden cost of human economic development".<ref>{{cite news| vauthors = Vidal J |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/18/tip-of-the-iceberg-is-our-destruction-of-nature-responsible-for-covid-19-aoe|title='Tip of the iceberg': is our destruction of nature responsible for Covid-19?|date=18 March 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=18 March 2020|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=20 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320095435/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/18/tip-of-the-iceberg-is-our-destruction-of-nature-responsible-for-covid-19-aoe|url-status=live}}</ref> In a guest article, published by [[IPBES]], President of the [[EcoHealth Alliance]] and zoologist [[Peter Daszak]], along with three co-chairs of the 2019 ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'', Josef Settele, [[Sandra Díaz (ecologist)|Sandra Díaz]], and Eduardo Brondizio, wrote that "rampant deforestation, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture, [[intensive farming]], mining and infrastructure development, as well as the exploitation of wild species have created a 'perfect storm' for the spillover of diseases from wildlife to people."<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Carrington D |date=27 April 2020 |title=Halt destruction of nature or suffer even worse pandemics, say world's top scientists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/27/halt-destruction-nature-worse-pandemics-top-scientists |work=The Guardian |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515015940/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/27/halt-destruction-nature-worse-pandemics-top-scientists |url-status=live }}</ref>
+[[Kate Jones (scientist)|Kate Jones]], Chair of Ecology and Biodiversity at [[University College London]], says zoonotic diseases are increasingly linked to environmental change and human behavior. The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanization, and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. The resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans, she says, is now "a hidden cost of human economic development".<ref>{{cite news| vauthors = Vidal J |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/18/tip-of-the-iceberg-is-our-destruction-of-nature-responsible-for-covid-19-aoe|title='Tip of the iceberg': is our destruction of nature responsible for Covid-19?|date=18 March 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=18 March 2020|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=20 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320095435/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/18/tip-of-the-iceberg-is-our-destruction-of-nature-responsible-for-covid-19-aoe|url-status=live}}</ref> In a guest article, published by [[IPBES]], President of the [[EcoHealth Alliance]] and zoologist [[Peter Daszak]], along with three co-chairs of the 2019 ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'', Josef Settele, [[Sandra Díaz (ecologist)|Sandra Díaz]], and Eduardo Brondizio, wrote that "rampant deforestation, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture, [[intensive farming]], mining and infrastructure development, as well as the exploitation of wild species have created a 'perfect storm' for the spillover of diseases from wildlife to people."<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Carrington D |date=27 April 2020 |title=Halt destruction of nature or suffer even worse pandemics, say world's top scientists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/27/halt-destruction-nature-worse-pandemics-top-scientists |work=The Guardian |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515015940/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/27/halt-destruction-nature-worse-pandemics-top-scientists |url-status=live }}</ref>
-Joshua Moon, Clare Wenham and Sophie Harman said that there is evidence that decreased biodiversity has an effect on the diversity of hosts and frequency of human-animal interactions with potential for pathogenic spillover.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Moon J, Wenham C, Harman S | title = SAGO has a politics problem, and WHO is ignoring it | journal = BMJ | volume = 375 | pages = n2786 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34772656 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.n2786 | s2cid = 244041854 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+Joshua Moon, Clare Wenham, and Sophie Harman said that there is evidence that decreased biodiversity has an effect on the diversity of hosts and frequency of human-animal interactions with potential for pathogenic spillover.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Moon J, Wenham C, Harman S | title = SAGO has a politics problem, and WHO is ignoring it | journal = BMJ | volume = 375 | pages = n2786 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34772656 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.n2786 | s2cid = 244041854 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
-An April 2020 study, published in the ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society]]''{{'s}} [[Proceedings of the Royal Society#Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|Part B]] journal, found that increased virus spillover events from animals to humans can be linked to [[biodiversity loss]] and [[environmental degradation]], as humans further encroach on wildlands to engage in agriculture, hunting and resource extraction they become exposed to pathogens which normally would remain in these areas. Such spillover events have been tripling every decade since 1980.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Shield C |title=Coronavirus Pandemic Linked to Destruction of Wildlife and World's Ecosystems |url=https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-pandemic-linked-to-destruction-of-wildlife-and-worlds-ecosystems/a-53078480 |access-date=16 April 2020 |agency=[[Deutsche Welle]] |date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416034115/https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-pandemic-linked-to-destruction-of-wildlife-and-worlds-ecosystems/a-53078480 |url-status=live }}</ref> An August 2020 study, published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', concludes that the [[Anthropogenic effect|anthropogenic]] destruction of ecosystems for the purpose of expanding agriculture and human settlements reduces biodiversity and allows for smaller animals such as bats and rats, who are more adaptable to human pressures and also carry the most zoonotic diseases, to proliferate. This in turn can result in more pandemics.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Carrington D |date=5 August 2020 |title=Deadly diseases from wildlife thrive when nature is destroyed, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/aug/05/deadly-diseases-from-wildlife-thrive-when-nature-is-destroyed-study-finds |work=The Guardian |access-date=7 August 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806223417/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/aug/05/deadly-diseases-from-wildlife-thrive-when-nature-is-destroyed-study-finds |url-status=live }}</ref>
+An April 2020 study, published in the ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society]]''{{'s}} [[Proceedings of the Royal Society#Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|Part B]] journal, found that increased virus spillover events from animals to humans can be linked to [[biodiversity loss]] and [[environmental degradation]], as humans further encroach on wildlands to engage in agriculture, hunting, and resource extraction they become exposed to pathogens which normally would remain in these areas. Such spillover events have been tripling every decade since 1980.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Shield C |title=Coronavirus Pandemic Linked to Destruction of Wildlife and World's Ecosystems |url=https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-pandemic-linked-to-destruction-of-wildlife-and-worlds-ecosystems/a-53078480 |access-date=16 April 2020 |agency=[[Deutsche Welle]] |date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416034115/https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-pandemic-linked-to-destruction-of-wildlife-and-worlds-ecosystems/a-53078480 |url-status=live }}</ref> An August 2020 study, published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', concludes that the [[Anthropogenic effect|anthropogenic]] destruction of ecosystems for the purpose of expanding agriculture and human settlements reduces biodiversity and allows for smaller animals such as bats and rats, which are more adaptable to human pressures and also carry the most zoonotic diseases, to proliferate. This in turn can result in more pandemics.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Carrington D |date=5 August 2020 |title=Deadly diseases from wildlife thrive when nature is destroyed, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/aug/05/deadly-diseases-from-wildlife-thrive-when-nature-is-destroyed-study-finds |work=The Guardian |access-date=7 August 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806223417/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/aug/05/deadly-diseases-from-wildlife-thrive-when-nature-is-destroyed-study-finds |url-status=live }}</ref>
-In October 2020, the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] published its report on the 'era of pandemics' by 22 experts in a variety of fields, and concluded that anthropogenic destruction of [[biodiversity]] is paving the way to the pandemic era, and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals – in particular birds and mammals – to humans. The increased pressure on ecosystems is being driven by the "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, [[palm oil]], and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and by a [[Population growth|growing human population]]. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic, or of any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive [[climate change and biodiversity loss]] also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment."<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Woolaston K, Fisher JL |date=29 October 2020 |title=UN report says up to 850,000 animal viruses could be caught by humans, unless we protect nature |url=https://theconversation.com/un-report-says-up-to-850-000-animal-viruses-could-be-caught-by-humans-unless-we-protect-nature-148911 |work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-date=1 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101051450/https://theconversation.com/un-report-says-up-to-850-000-animal-viruses-could-be-caught-by-humans-unless-we-protect-nature-148911 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Carrington D |date=29 October 2020 |title=Protecting nature is vital to escape 'era of pandemics' – report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/29/protecting-nature-vital-pandemics-report-outbreaks-wild |work=The Guardian |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029144031/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/29/protecting-nature-vital-pandemics-report-outbreaks-wild |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=29 October 2020 |title=Escaping the 'Era of Pandemics': experts warn worse crises to come; offer options to reduce risk |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-10/tca-et102820.php |work=EurekAlert! |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117010851/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-10/tca-et102820.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
+In October 2020, the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] published its report on the 'era of pandemics' by 22 experts in a variety of fields and concluded that anthropogenic destruction of [[biodiversity]] is paving the way to the pandemic era and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals – in particular birds and mammals – to humans. The increased pressure on ecosystems is being driven by the "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, [[palm oil]], and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and by a [[Population growth|growing human population]]. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic, or of any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive [[climate change and biodiversity loss]] also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment."<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Woolaston K, Fisher JL |date=29 October 2020 |title=UN report says up to 850,000 animal viruses could be caught by humans, unless we protect nature |url=https://theconversation.com/un-report-says-up-to-850-000-animal-viruses-could-be-caught-by-humans-unless-we-protect-nature-148911 |work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-date=1 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101051450/https://theconversation.com/un-report-says-up-to-850-000-animal-viruses-could-be-caught-by-humans-unless-we-protect-nature-148911 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Carrington D |date=29 October 2020 |title=Protecting nature is vital to escape 'era of pandemics' – report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/29/protecting-nature-vital-pandemics-report-outbreaks-wild |work=The Guardian |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029144031/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/29/protecting-nature-vital-pandemics-report-outbreaks-wild |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=29 October 2020 |title=Escaping the 'Era of Pandemics': experts warn worse crises to come; offer options to reduce risk |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-10/tca-et102820.php |work=EurekAlert! |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117010851/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-10/tca-et102820.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
 === Climate change ===
 {{Further|Climate change and infectious diseases}}
-According to a report from the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and [[International Livestock Research Institute]], entitled "Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission", climate change is one of the 7 human-related causes of the increase in the number of zoonotic diseases.<ref name="bbc.com" /><ref name="United Nations" /> The University of Sydney issued a study, in March 2021, that examines factors increasing the likelihood of [[epidemic]]s and pandemics like the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. The researchers found that "pressure on ecosystems, climate change and economic development are key factors" in doing so. More zoonotic diseases were found in [[High-income country|high-income countries]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Factors that may predict next pandemic |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210330092524.htm |website=ScienceDaily |publisher=University of Sydney |access-date=19 May 2021 |archive-date=19 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519091224/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210330092524.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
+According to a report from the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and [[International Livestock Research Institute]], entitled "Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission", climate change is one of the 7 human-related causes of the increase in the number of zoonotic diseases.<ref name="bbc.com" /><ref name="United Nations" /> The University of Sydney issued a study, in March 2021, that examines factors increasing the likelihood of [[epidemic]]s and pandemics like the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers found that "pressure on ecosystems, climate change and economic development are key factors" in doing so. More zoonotic diseases were found in [[High-income country|high-income countries]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Factors that may predict next pandemic |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210330092524.htm |website=ScienceDaily |publisher=University of Sydney |access-date=19 May 2021 |archive-date=19 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519091224/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210330092524.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
-In 2022, a study dedicated to the link between climate change and Zoonosis was published. The study found a strong link between climate change and the epidemic emergence in the last 15 years, as it caused a massive migration of species to new areas, and consequently contact between species which do not normally come in contact with one another. Even in a scenario with weak climatic changes, there will be 15,000 spillover of viruses to new hosts in the next decades. The areas with the most possibilities for spillover are the mountainous tropical regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is especially vulnerable as it has a large number of bat species that generally do not mix, but could easily if climate change forced them to begin migrating.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yong |first1=Ed |title=We Created the 'Pandemicene' |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2022/04/how-climate-change-impacts-pandemics/629699/ |access-date=6 May 2022 |agency=The Atlantic |date=28 April 2022}}</ref>
+A 2022 study dedicated to the link between climate change and zoonosis found a strong link between climate change and the epidemic emergence in the last 15 years, as it caused a massive migration of species to new areas, and consequently contact between species which do not normally come in contact with one another. Even in a scenario with weak climatic changes, there will be 15,000 spillover of viruses to new hosts in the next decades. The areas with the most possibilities for spillover are the mountainous tropical regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is especially vulnerable as it has a large number of bat species that generally do not mix, but could easily if climate change forced them to begin migrating.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yong |first1=Ed |title=We Created the 'Pandemicene' |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2022/04/how-climate-change-impacts-pandemics/629699/ |access-date=6 May 2022 |agency=The Atlantic |date=28 April 2022}}</ref>
-A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 through bats. The authors suggest that climate-driven changes in the distribution and robustness of bat species harboring coronaviruses may have occurred in eastern Asian hotspots (southern China, Myanmar and Laos), constituting a driver behind the evolution and spread of the virus.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Beyer RM, Manica A, Mora C | title = Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 767 | page = 145413 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33558040 | pmc = 7837611 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145413 | bibcode = 2021ScTEn.767n5413B | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Bressan D |title=Climate Change Could Have Played A Role In The Covid-19 Outbreak|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2021/02/08/climate-change-could-have-played-a-role-in-the-covid-19-outbreak/|access-date=9 February 2021|website=Forbes}}</ref>
+A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 through bats. The authors suggest that climate-driven changes in the distribution and robustness of bat species harboring coronaviruses may have occurred in eastern Asian hotspots (southern China, Myanmar, and Laos), constituting a driver behind the evolution and spread of the virus.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Beyer RM, Manica A, Mora C | title = Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 767 | page = 145413 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33558040 | pmc = 7837611 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145413 | bibcode = 2021ScTEn.767n5413B | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Bressan D |title=Climate Change Could Have Played A Role In The Covid-19 Outbreak|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2021/02/08/climate-change-could-have-played-a-role-in-the-covid-19-outbreak/|access-date=9 February 2021|website=Forbes}}</ref>
 ===Secondary transmission===
@@ Line 93: / Line 93: @@
 == History ==
-During most of human [[prehistory]] groups of [[hunter-gatherers]] were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate [[immune response]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Early Concepts of Disease |url=https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/ep/ep713_history/ep713_history2.html |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=sphweb.bumc.bu.edu}}</ref> To persist in such a population, a pathogen either had to be a [[chronic (medicine)|chronic]] infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as [[natural reservoir|reservoir]] where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Seventer |first1=Jean Maguire |last2=Hochberg |first2=Natasha S. |date=2017 |title=Principles of Infectious Diseases:Transmission, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control |journal=International Encyclopedia of Public Health |pages=22–39 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6 |pmc=7150340|isbn=978-0-12-803708-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Health (US) |first1=National Institutes of |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20370/ |title=Understanding Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases |last2=Study |first2=Biological Sciences Curriculum |date=2007 |publisher=National Institutes of Health (US) }}</ref> In fact, for many "human" diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and a [[dead-end host]]. Examples include [[rabies]], [[anthrax disease|anthrax]], [[tularemia]] and [[West Nile virus]]. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baum |first=Stephen G. |date=2008 |title=Zoonoses-With Friends Like This, Who Needs Enemies? |journal=Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association |volume=119 |pages=39–52 |issn=0065-7778 |pmc=2394705 |pmid=18596867}}</ref>
+During most of human [[prehistory]] groups of [[hunter-gatherers]] were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate [[immune response]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Early Concepts of Disease |url=https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/ep/ep713_history/ep713_history2.html |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=sphweb.bumc.bu.edu}}</ref> To persist in such a population, a pathogen either had to be a [[chronic (medicine)|chronic]] infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as [[natural reservoir|reservoir]] where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Seventer |first1=Jean Maguire |last2=Hochberg |first2=Natasha S. |date=2017 |title=Principles of Infectious Diseases:Transmission, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control |journal=International Encyclopedia of Public Health |pages=22–39 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6 |pmc=7150340|isbn=978-0-12-803708-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Health (US) |first1=National Institutes of |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20370/ |title=Understanding Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases |last2=Study |first2=Biological Sciences Curriculum |date=2007 |publisher=National Institutes of Health (US) }}</ref> In fact, for many "human" diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and a [[dead-end host]]. Examples include rabies, anthrax, tularemia, and West Nile fever. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baum |first=Stephen G. |date=2008 |title=Zoonoses-With Friends Like This, Who Needs Enemies? |journal=Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association |volume=119 |pages=39–52 |issn=0065-7778 |pmc=2394705 |pmid=18596867}}</ref>
 [[File:Figure 3- Examples of Zoonotic Diseases and Their Affected Populations (6323431516).jpg|thumb|Possibilities for zoonotic disease transmissions]]
@@ Line 102: / Line 102: @@
 A major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD | title = Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife | journal = Acta Tropica | volume = 78 | issue = 2 | pages = 103–116 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11230820 | doi = 10.1016/S0001-706X(00)00179-0 }}</ref> This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity. An example of this is the outbreak of [[Henipavirus#Nipah virus|Nipah virus]] in peninsular Malaysia, in 1999, when [[intensive pig farming]] began within the habitat of infected fruit bats.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Looi |first1=Lai-Meng |last2=Chua |first2=Kaw-Bing |title=Lessons from the Nipah virus outbreak in Malaysia |journal=Malaysian Journal of Pathology |date=2007 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=63–67 |pmid=19108397}}</ref> The unidentified infection of these pigs amplified the force of infection, transmitting the virus to farmers, and eventually causing 105 human deaths.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Field H, Young P, Yob JM, Mills J, Hall L, Mackenzie J | title = The natural history of Hendra and Nipah viruses | journal = Microbes and Infection | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 307–314 | date = April 2001 | pmid = 11334748 | doi = 10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01384-3 }}</ref>
-Similarly, in recent times [[avian influenza]] and West Nile virus have [[Spillover infection|spilled over]] into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} Highly mobile animals, such as bats and birds, may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation.
+Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have [[Spillover infection|spilled over]] into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} Highly mobile animals, such as bats and birds, may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation.
 Because they depend on the human host<ref>{{cite web |last=Basu |first=Dr Muktisadhan |date=16 August 2022 |title=Zoonotic Diseases and Its Impact on Human Health |url=https://agritechconsultancyservices.com/zoonotic-diseases-and-its-impact-on-human-health/ |access-date=25 March 2023 |website=Agritech Consultancy Services}}</ref> for part of their life-cycle, diseases such as African [[schistosomiasis]], [[river blindness]], and [[Lymphatic filariasis|elephantiasis]] are ''not'' defined as zoonotic, even though they may depend on transmission by insects or other [[Vector (epidemiology)|vectors]].<ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}</ref>
 == Use in vaccines ==
-The first vaccine against smallpox by [[Edward Jenner]] in 1800 was by infection of a zoonotic bovine virus which caused a disease called [[cowpox]].<ref>{{cite web|date=21 February 2021|title=History of Smallpox {{!}} Smallpox {{!}} CDC|url=https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html|access-date=21 September 2021|website=www.cdc.gov|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614213232/https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Jenner had noticed that milkmaids were resistant to smallpox. Milkmaids contracted a milder version of the disease from infected cows that conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass vaccination against this disease ceased in 1981.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/smallpox-origin.html|title=The Spread and Eradication of Smallpox &#124; Smallpox &#124; CDC|date=19 February 2019}}</ref> There are a variety of vaccine varieties, including traditional inactivated pathogen vaccines, [[Subunit vaccine]]s, [[Attenuated vaccine|live attenuated vaccines]]. There are also new vaccine technologies such as viral vector vaccines and [[MRNA vaccine|DNA/RNA Vaccines]], which includes the [[COVID-19 vaccine|SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus vaccines]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Why vaccines matter in the fight against zoonotic diseases |url=https://www.thepigsite.com/news/2021/07/why-vaccines-matter-in-the-fight-against-zoonotic-diseases |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=www.thepigsite.com }}</ref>
+The first vaccine against smallpox by [[Edward Jenner]] in 1800 was by infection of a zoonotic bovine virus which caused a disease called [[cowpox]].<ref>{{cite web|date=21 February 2021|title=History of Smallpox {{!}} Smallpox {{!}} CDC|url=https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html|access-date=21 September 2021|website=www.cdc.gov|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614213232/https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Jenner had noticed that milkmaids were resistant to smallpox. Milkmaids contracted a milder version of the disease from infected cows that conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result of vaccination, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass inoculation against this disease ceased in 1981.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/smallpox-origin.html|title=The Spread and Eradication of Smallpox &#124; Smallpox &#124; CDC|date=19 February 2019}}</ref> There are a variety of vaccine types, including traditional inactivated pathogen vaccines, [[Subunit vaccine|subunit vaccines]], [[Attenuated vaccine|live attenuated vaccines]]. There are also new vaccine technologies such as viral vector vaccines and [[MRNA vaccine|DNA/RNA vaccines]], which include many of the [[COVID-19 vaccine|COVID-19 vaccines]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mayo Clinic Staff |date=4 November 2023 |title=Different types of COVID-19 vaccines: How they work |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/coronavirus/in-depth/different-types-of-covid-19-vaccines/art-20506465 |access-date=4 April 2024 |website=Mayo Clinic}}</ref>
 == Lists of diseases ==
@@ Line 154: / Line 154: @@
   | mosquito bite
 |-
+  | [[Avian influenza]]
-  | [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|Bird flu]]
   | [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1]]
   | wild birds, domesticated birds such as chickens<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bird-flu/symptoms-causes/syc-20368455|title=Bird flu (Avian influenza) - Symptoms and causes|website=[[Mayo Clinic]]}}</ref>
   | close contact
-  | 2003–19 [[Avian Influenza]] in Southeast Asia and [[Egypt]]
+  | 2003–present avian influenza in Southeast Asia and [[Egypt]]
 |-
   | [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]]
@@ Line 176: / Line 176: @@
   | rabbits, hares, rodents, ferrets, goats, sheep, camels
   | flea bite
-  |[[Epidemics]] like [[Black Death]] in Europe around 1347–53 during the [[Middle Ages|Late Middle Age]], [[Third Plague Pandemic]] in China-[[Qing dynasty]] and India alone
+  |epidemics like [[Black Death]] in Europe around 1347–53 during the [[Middle Ages|Late Middle Age]]; [[third plague pandemic]] in China-[[Qing dynasty]] and India alone
 |-
   | [[Capillariasis]]
@@ Line 203: / Line 203: @@
   | respiratory transmission
-  | [[COVID-19 pandemic]]; 2019–present; Ongoing [[pandemic]]
+  | 2019–present [[COVID-19 pandemic]]; ongoing [[pandemic]]
 |-
   | [[Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease|Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease]]
@@ Line 310: / Line 310: @@
   | [[HIV]]
   | ''[[Simian immunodeficiency virus|SIV]] Simian immunodeficiency virus''
-  | Non-human primates
+  | non-human primates
   | [[Blood]]
   | Immunodeficiency resembling human AIDS was reported in captive monkeys in the United States beginning in 1983.<ref name=pmid6221343>{{cite journal | vauthors = Letvin NL, Eaton KA, Aldrich WR, Sehgal PK, Blake BJ, Schlossman SF, King NW, Hunt RD | display-authors = 6 | title = Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in a colony of macaque monkeys | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 80 | issue = 9 | pages = 2718–2722 | date = May 1983 | pmid = 6221343 | pmc = 393899 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.80.9.2718 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1983PNAS...80.2718L }}</ref><ref name=pmid3159089/><ref name=pmid6316791>{{cite journal | vauthors = King NW, Hunt RD, Letvin NL | title = Histopathologic changes in macaques with an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) | journal = The American Journal of Pathology | volume = 113 | issue = 3 | pages = 382–388 | date = December 1983 | pmid = 6316791 | pmc = 1916356 }}</ref> SIV was isolated in 1985 from some of these animals, captive [[rhesus macaque]]s who had simian AIDS (SAIDS).<ref name=pmid3159089>{{cite journal | vauthors = Daniel MD, Letvin NL, King NW, Kannagi M, Sehgal PK, Hunt RD, Kanki PJ, Essex M, Desrosiers RC | display-authors = 6 | title = Isolation of T-cell tropic HTLV-III-like retrovirus from macaques | journal = Science | volume = 228 | issue = 4704 | pages = 1201–1204 | date = June 1985 | pmid = 3159089 | doi = 10.1126/science.3159089 | bibcode = 1985Sci...228.1201D }}</ref> The discovery of SIV was made shortly after HIV-1 had been isolated as the cause of AIDS and led to the discovery of HIV-2 strains in West Africa. HIV-2 was more similar to the then-known SIV strains than to HIV-1, suggesting for the first time the simian origin of HIV. Further studies indicated that HIV-2 is derived from the SIVsmm strain found in sooty mangabeys, whereas HIV-1, the predominant virus found in humans, is derived from SIV strains infecting chimpanzees (SIVcpz)
@@ Line 344: / Line 344: @@
   | rats, mice, pigs, horses, goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, opossums, raccoons, mongooses, foxes, dogs
   | direct or indirect contact with urine of infected animals
-  | 1616–20 New England infection: Present day in the United States)
+  | 1616–20 New England infection; present day in the United States
 |-
   | [[Lassa fever]]
@@ Line 377: / Line 377: @@
   |2012–present: [[Saudi Arabia]]
 |-
-  | [[Monkeypox]]
+  | [[Mpox]]
   | ''[[Monkeypox virus]]''
   | rodents, primates
@@ Line 411: / Line 411: @@
   | commonly – dogs, bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, goats, sheep, wolves, coyotes, groundhogs, horses, mongooses and cats
   | through saliva by biting, or through scratches from an infected animal
-  |Variety of places like Oceanic, South America, Europe; Year is unknown
+  |Variety of places like Oceanic, South America, Europe; year is unknown
 |-
   | [[Rat-bite fever]]
@@ Line 443: / Line 443: @@
   | bats, civets
   | close contact, respiratory droplets
-  | [[2002–04 SARS outbreak]]; started in China
+  | [[2002–04 SARS outbreak]]; began in China
 |-
   | [[Smallpox]]
@@ Line 449: / Line 449: @@
   | Possible Monkeys or horses
   | Spread to person to person quickly
-  | The last cases was in 1977; [[WHO]] certified to [[Eradication of infectious diseases|Eradicated]] (for the world) in December 1979 or 1980.
+  | The last case was in 1977; certified by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] to be [[Eradication of infectious diseases|eradicated]] (i.e., eliminated worldwide) as of 1980.
 |-
   | [[Swine influenza]]
-  | A new strain of the influenza virus endemic in pigs (excludes [[2009 flu pandemic|H1N1 swine flu]], which is a human virus).
+  | A new strain of the influenza virus endemic in pigs (excludes H1N1 swine flu, which is a human virus){{Clarify|reason=Not clear which virus this is referring to specifically.|date=April 2024}}
   | pigs
   | close contact
-  | 2009–10; [[2009 swine flu pandemic]]; The outbreak began in Mexico.
+  | 2009–10; [[2009 swine flu pandemic]]; began in Mexico.
 |-
   | ''[[Taenia crassiceps]]'' infection
@@ Line 494: / Line 494: @@
   | [[Zika fever]]
   | ''[[Zika virus]]''
-  | [[chimpanzee]]s, [[gorilla]]s, [[orangutan]]s, monkeys, baboons
+  | chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, monkeys, baboons
   | mosquito bite, sexual intercourse, blood transfusion and sometimes bites of monkeys
   |2015–16 epidemic in the Americas and Oceanic