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The keffiyeh or kufiyyeh or cheffiyeh (Arabic: كُوفِيَّة, romanized: kūfiyya, lit. 'coif'),^[1] also known in Arabic as a ghutrah (غُترَة), shemagh (شُمَاغ, šumāḡ), or ḥaṭṭah (حَطَّة), is a traditional headdress worn by men from parts of the Middle East. It is fashioned from a square scarf, and is usually made of cotton.^[2] The keffiyeh is commonly found in arid regions, as it provides protection from sunburn, dust, and sand. An agal is often used by Arabs to keep it in place.

Origin

The keffiyeh originated amongst Bedouins as a practical and protective covering for the head and face, especially in the arid desert climate in which they have traditionally lived.^[3]^[4] The term itself is a loan from Italian (cuffia) and shares its etymology with English "coif".^[1]

It is uncertain when the ghutra and agal became respectable headwear. Early Persian miniatures always portray Arabs as wearing turbans. The ghutra and agal are reported in the northern Arabian desert from at least the early 18th century. The earliest reliable picture (1834) of such depicts the final imam of the Emirate of Diriyah, Abdullah bin Saud.^[5]

Varieties and variations

Middle Eastern Arabs, Kurds, and Yazidis wear this headpiece.^[6] Iraqi Turkmen wear it and call it Jamadani ^[7] while Omanis call it a mussar. No matter its name it is available in multiple colours and styles with many different methods of tying it, depending on regional origin and the nature of occasion. Omanis do not use the agal, instead tying it over the kuma for formal occasions.

During his sojourn with the Marsh Arabs of Iraq, Gavin Young noted that the local sayyids—"venerated men accepted [...] as descendants of the Prophet Muhammad and Ali ibn Abi Talib"—wore dark green keffiyeh (cheffiyeh) in contrast to the black-and-white checkered examples typical of the area's inhabitants.^[8]

Yazidi men wearing keffiyehs
Iranian children wearing keffiyehs during a religious gathering in Iran

Palestinian national symbol

Prior to the 1930s, Arab villagers and peasants wore the white keffiyeh and agal (rope) while city residents and the educated elite wore the Ottoman tarbush (fez).^[9] During the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, Arab rebel commanders ordered all Arabs to don the keffiyeh. In 1938, British Mandatory High Commissioner in Palestine, Harold MacMichael, reported to the Foreign Office: "This ‘order’ has been obeyed with surprising docility and it is not an exaggeration to say that in a month eight out of every ten tarbushes in the country had been replaced by the [keffiyeh and] ‘agal’."^[10] Following the end of the revolt, most residents either reverted to wearing the tarbush or elected to go hatless.^[11]

The black and white chequered keffiyeh dates to the 1950s when Glubb Pasha, a British officer, wanted to distinguish his Palestinian soldiers (black and white keffiyeh) from his Jordanian forces (red and white keffiyeh).^[12] The black and white keffiyeh’s prominence increased during the 1960s with the beginning of the Palestinian resistance movement and its adoption by Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat.^[13]

The black-and-white fishnet pattern keffiyeh would later become Arafat's iconic symbol, and he would rarely be seen without it; only occasionally would he wear a military cap, or, in colder climates, a Russian-style ushanka hat. Arafat would wear his keffiyeh in a semi-traditional way, wrapped around his head via an agal. He also wore a similarly patterned piece of cloth in the neckline of his military fatigues. Early on, he had made it his personal trademark to drape the scarf over his right shoulder only, arranging it in the rough shape of a triangle. This way of wearing the keffiyeh became a symbol of Arafat as a person and political leader, and it has not been imitated by other Palestinian leaders.

Another Palestinian figure associated with the keffiyeh is Leila Khaled, a female member of the armed wing of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. Several photographs of Khaled circulated in the Western newspapers after the hijacking of TWA Flight 840 and the Dawson's Field hijackings. These photos often included Khaled wearing a keffiyeh in the style of a Muslim woman's hijab, wrapped around the head and shoulders. This was unusual, as the keffiyeh is associated with Arab masculinity, and many believe this to be something of a fashion statement by Khaled, denoting her equality with men in the Palestinian armed struggle.

The colors of the stitching in a keffiyeh are also vaguely associated with Palestinians' political sympathies. Traditional black and white keffiyehs became associated with Fatah. Later, red and white keffiyehs were adopted by Palestinian Marxists, such as the PFLP.^[14] Because of its association with Fatah, in April 2021, Hamas arrested students and staff at Al-Azhar University for wearing the keffiyeh.^[15]

Symbol of Palestinian solidarity

The black and white chequered keffiyeh has become a symbol of Palestinian nationalism, beginning with the plain white keffiyeh's use during the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine and followed by the chequered pattern's use in the 1950s (see above). Outside of the Middle East and North Africa, the keffiyeh has gained popularity among activists supporting the Palestinians in the conflict with Israel.^[16]^[17]^[18]

During the 2023 Israel–Hamas war, pro-Palestinian protests around the world saw demonstrators wearing keffiyeh.^[19] As part of restrictions on pro-Palestinian protests in Germany, schools in Berlin banned the wearing of keffiyeh^[20] and an individual said that he had been "forbidden to walk inside the city for 24 hours because [he] was wearing a keffiyeh".^[20] Similar bans on pro-Palestinian protests across France^[21] saw a demonstrator fined €135 for wearing keffiyeh.^[21] Likewise, legal observers at protests in London described "targeting by riot police of people wearing a Palestinian keffiyeh" and threats of arrest for doing so.^[22]^[23]^[24] Protesters in Canada,^[25] Lebanon,^[19] Malaysia,^[26] Morocco,^[27] Pakistan,^[19] the Netherlands,^[28] and the United States^[29]^[30] were also seen wearing keffiyeh, and Lidia Thorpe wore keffiyeh while speaking in the Australian Senate to condemn Australian support for "an oppressive occupation" and liken the Palestinian struggle with that of Indigenous Australians".^[31]

Production

Today, the keffiyeh as a symbol of Palestinian identity is largely imported from China. With the scarf's growing popularity in the 2000s, Chinese manufacturers entered the market, driving Palestinians out of the business.^[32] Mother Jones wrote, "Ironically, global support for Palestinian-statehood-as-fashion-accessory has put yet another nail in the coffin of the Occupied Territories' beleaguered economy."^[32]

In 2008, Yasser Hirbawi, who for five decades had been the only Palestinian manufacturer of keffiyehs, was struggling with sales and has reported that sales had fallen "from 150,000 units per year in 1993 to a mere 10,000 units in 2010",^[33] before transitioning from local to global online sales.^[33] In the wake of the 2023 Israel–Hamas war, Hirbawi announced that the company, run by Yasser's sons since his death in 2018,^[33] would donate profits from keffiyeh sold in October 2023 to the Palestine American Medical Association,^[34] selling over 20,000 that month.^[34]

Other cultural symbolisms

Early Jewish migrants to Mandatory Palestine adopted the Keffiyeh because they saw it as part of the authentic local lifestyle.^[35] Up until the 2000s, Turkey banned the keffiyeh because it was considered a symbol of solidarity with the PKK.^[36]

Westerners in keffiyeh

T. E. Lawrence at Rabegh, north of Jeddah, in 1917

British Colonel T. E. Lawrence (better known as Lawrence of Arabia) was probably the best-known Western wearer of the keffiyeh and agal during his involvement in the Arab Revolt in World War I. This image of Lawrence was later popularized by the film epic about him, Lawrence of Arabia, in which he was portrayed by Peter O'Toole.

Many of the Jewish Zionist immigrants to Ottoman Palestine and British Mandatory Palestine wore the keffiyeh in emulation of the Arab population out of the desire for closeness and a sense of belonging to the place.^{[citation needed]} These included youth group members, political notables, and militiamen, including Hashomer. Other Jewish residents of Palestine wore the keffiyeh for studio photograph sessions as Orientalist dress.^{[citation needed]} After the 1929 Palestine riots and the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, "the popularity of the keffiyeh began to decline and Jewish attempts to emulate the Arabs became less common, but throughout the 1940s and 1950s, the keffiyeh could still spotted in Israel," including on politicians and soldiers. As the keffiyeh became a key component of Yasser Arafat's signature look, it definitively lost popularity among Israelis and was associated exclusively with the Palestinian nationalist movement.^[37]

The 1920s' silent-film era of American cinema saw studios take to Orientalist themes of the exotic Middle East, possibly due to the view of Arabs as part of the Allies of World War I, and keffiyehs became a standard part of the theatrical wardrobe. These films and their male leads typically had Western actors in the role of an Arab, often wearing the keffiyeh with the agal (as with The Sheik and The Son of the Sheik, starring actor Rudolph Valentino).

During the 2001 Iraq and Afghanistan wars, members of the United States Armed Forces began wearing keffiyeh for practical reasons. While the scarves were never issued by the American armed forces directly, many private tactical equipment retailers marketed and sold them to service personnel in the Marines and Army. The scarves were usually dyed into color schemes that closely matched the service uniforms, and bore symbols that appealed to Western consumers (e.g., skull and cross bones, Gadsden snakes, and Spartan helmets). Black and coyote-brown keffiyeh are still commonly worn by military veterans without any implied support for Arab nationalism or similar causes, and at times can carry the opposite message.^{[citation needed]}

Fashion trend

As with other articles of clothing worn in wartime, such as the T-shirt, fatigues and khaki pants, the keffiyeh has been seen as chic among non-Arabs in the West. Keffiyehs became popular in the UK in the 1970s and then in the United States in the late 1980s at the start of the First Intifada, when bohemian girls and punks wore keffiyehs as scarves around their necks.^[38]^[39] In the early 2000s keffiyehs were very popular among youths in Tokyo, who often wore them with camouflage clothing.^[38] The trend recurred in the mid-2000s in the United States,^[38]^[39] Europe,^[39] Canada and Australia,^[40]^[41] when the keffiyeh became popular as a fashion accessory, usually worn as a scarf around the neck in hipster circles.^[38]^[39] Stores such as Urban Outfitters and TopShop stocked the item. However, after some controversy over the retailer's decision to label the items "anti-war scarves", Urban Outfitters pulled it.^[39] In spring 2008, keffiyehs in colors such as purple and mauve were given away in issues of fashion magazines in Spain and France. In the UAE, males are inclining towards more Western headgear while women are developing preferences for dupatta—the traditional head cover of South Asia.^[42] The appropriation of the keffiyeh as a fashion statement by non-Arab wearers separate from its political and historical meaning has been the subject of controversy in recent years.^[43] While it is often worn as a symbol of solidarity with the Palestinian struggle, the fashion industry has disregarded its significance by using its pattern and style in day-to-day clothing design. For example in 2016 Topshop released a romper suit with the Keffiyeh print, calling it a "scarf playsuit". This led to accusations of cultural appropriation and Topshop eventually pulled the item from their website.^[44]

References

^ ^a ^b Brill, E. J. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. Ṭāʻif - Zūrkhāna. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09794-0.
^ J. R. Bartlett (19 July 1973). The First and Second Books of the Maccabees. CUP Archive. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-521-09749-9. Retrieved 17 April 2013. traditional Jewish head-dress was either something like the Arab's Keffiyeh (a cotton square folded and wound around a head) or like a turban or stocking cap
^ Donica, Joseph (10 November 2020), "Head Coverings, Arab Identity, and New Materialism", All Things Arabia, Brill, pp. 163–176, ISBN 978-90-04-43592-6, retrieved 18 October 2023
^ "Ghutrah — who designed it?". Arab News. 7 August 2013. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
^ Lindisfarne-Tapper, Nancy (14 July 1997). Languages of Dress in the Middle East. Routledge. p. 45.
^ "Learn About Kurdish Dress".
^ Salman, Mofak. "Altunköprü the ancient name of Türkmen Township" (PDF). They also wear a scarf which is known among the public as Jamadani
^ Young, Gavin (1978) [First published by William Collins & Sons in 1977]. Return to the Marshes. Photography by Nik Wheeler. Great Britain: Futura Publications. pp. 15–16. ISBN 0-7088-1354-2. There was a difference here for nearly all of them wore dark green kefiyahs (or cheffiyeh) (headcloths) instead of the customary black and white check ones. By that sign we could tell that they were sayyids, like the sallow-faced man at Falih's.
^ Swedenburg, Ted (1995). Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-1-557-28763-2.
^ Report on the situation in Palestine, Part 1, CO 935/21. Confidential Print: Middle East, 1839–1969 (Report). p. 47 – via Adam Matthew Digital.
^ Swedenburg, Ted (1995). Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past. University of Minnesota Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-557-28763-2.
^ Swedenburg, Ted (1995). Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past. University of Minnesota Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-557-28763-2.
^ Torstrick, Rebecca (2004). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-313-32091-0.
^ Binur, Yoram (1990). My Enemy, My Self. Penguin. p. xv.
^ Mahmoud, Amany (28 September 2021). "Hamas-Fatah dispute over wearing keffiyeh spills over to Gaza university". Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East. Retrieved 6 May 2024.
^ Tipton, Frank B. (2003). A History of Modern Germany Since 1815. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 598. ISBN 0-8264-4910-7.
^ Mudde, Cas (2005). Racist Extremism in Central and Eastern Europe. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 0-415-35594-X.
^ Cook, Erin (20 December 2017). "Indonesia shows its solidarity for the Palestinian cause". Asia Times. Retrieved 21 September 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Thousands continue to march in support of Gaza in multiple cities worldwide". Al Jazeera English. 29 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ ^a ^b Sharma, Gouri (26 October 2023). "'Complete censorship': Germany's Palestinian diaspora fights crackdown". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ ^a ^b Mawad, Dalal; Eve Brennan (12 October 2023). "France bans all pro-Palestinian protests". CNN. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ "Palestine solidarity: growing state intolerance towards the right to protest". The Network for Police Monitoring. 17 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Lanchin, Jude (20 October 2023). "Suella Braverman and the Government continue to come down hard on the right to protest and freedom of expression". Bindmans. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Hunter, Benny (16 October 2023). "The UK establishment is using war to attack protest at home". openDemocracy. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ "Hundreds show up for pro-Palestinian rally in Vancouver". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 9 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Azmi, Hadi; Joseph Sipalan (20 October 2023). "Israel–Gaza war: Malaysia's pro-Palestinian protesters call for US to take responsibility for enabling Israel". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Kasraoui, Safaa (20 October 2023). "Police Deny Preventing Woman From Carrying Keffiyeh in Wydad AC Match". Morocco World News. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Holleman, Wouter (30 October 2023). "Support for Palestine during teach-in in Sanders Building". Erasmus Magazine. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Bobby Caina Calvan; Jake Bleiberg (9 October 2023). "Demonstrators rally across the U.S. in response to violent conflict between Israel and Hamas". PBS. Associated Press. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Karam, Esha; Sarah Huddleston; Sabrina Ticer-Wurr (2 November 2023). "'We're the ones being targeted': Pro-Palestinian affiliates report harassment, threats". Columbia Daily Spectator. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Thompson, Angus (16 October 2023). "Lidia Thorpe dons keffiyeh in Senate to speak on Palestine". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ ^a ^b Sonja Sharp (22 June 2009). "Your Intifada: Now Made in China!". Mother Jones.
^ ^a ^b ^c "About Us". Hirbawi. 25 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ ^a ^b "Save the Children of Gaza, Hirbawi Donating Profits". Hirbawi. 23 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Langer, Armin (5 December 2023). "How the keffiyeh – a practical garment used for protection against the desert sun – became a symbol of Palestinian identity". University of Florida. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024.
^ Uche, Onyebadi (14 February 2017). Music as a Platform for Political Communication. IGI Global. p. 214. ISBN 9781522519874.
^ Bram, Shir Aharon (18 May 2022). "Jews in Keffiyehs? – The Headdress That Became a Symbol". National Library of Israel, The Librarians blog.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Lalli, Nina (15 February 2005). "Checkered Past: Arafat's trademark scarf is now military chic". The Village Voice. New York, New York. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Kim, Kibum (11 February 2007). "Where Some See Fashion, Others See Politics". The New York Times. New York, New York.
^ Ramachandran, Arjun (30 May 2008). "Keffiyeh kerfuffle hits Bondi bottleshop". The Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Archived from the original on 29 August 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
^ Ramachandran, Arjun (29 May 2008). "Celebrity chef under fire for 'jihadi chic'". The Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Archived from the original on 21 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
^ "What do Arabs wear on their heads". UAE Style Magazine. 24 August 2013.
^ Swedenburg, Ted (2021). "The Kufiya". In Bayat, Asef (ed.). Global Middle East: Into the Twenty-First Century. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 162–173. ISBN 978-0-520-96812-7. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
^ "Topshop pulls 'keffiyeh playsuit' after row over cultural theft". middleeasteye.net. Retrieved 1 September 2017.

External links

"The Keffiyeh and the Arab Heartland" Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine from About.com
"Saudi Aramco World: The dye that binds" by Caroline Stone
More references about a sudra on page 962 from Jastrow Dictionary Online
Modern Chronology of the Keffiyah Kraze from Arab American blog Kabobfest
Che Couture Gives way to Kurds' Puşi Chic by Işıl Eğrikavuk, Hurriyet
Palestinian Keffiyeh outgrows Mideast conflict
Last factory in Palestine produces Kuffiyeh
Hirbawi: The Only Original Kufiya Made in Palestine

[:0-1] Brill, E. J. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. Ṭāʻif - Zūrkhāna. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09794-0.

[Bartlett1973-2] J. R. Bartlett (19 July 1973). The First and Second Books of the Maccabees. CUP Archive. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-521-09749-9. Retrieved 17 April 2013. traditional Jewish head-dress was either something like the Arab's Keffiyeh (a cotton square folded and wound around a head) or like a turban or stocking cap

[3] Donica, Joseph (10 November 2020), "Head Coverings, Arab Identity, and New Materialism", All Things Arabia, Brill, pp. 163–176, ISBN 978-90-04-43592-6, retrieved 18 October 2023

[4] "Ghutrah — who designed it?". Arab News. 7 August 2013. Retrieved 18 October 2023.

[:1-5] Lindisfarne-Tapper, Nancy (14 July 1997). Languages of Dress in the Middle East. Routledge. p. 45.

[6] "Learn About Kurdish Dress".

[7] Salman, Mofak. "Altunköprü the ancient name of Türkmen Township" (PDF). They also wear a scarf which is known among the public as Jamadani

[8] Young, Gavin (1978) [First published by William Collins & Sons in 1977]. Return to the Marshes. Photography by Nik Wheeler. Great Britain: Futura Publications. pp. 15–16. ISBN 0-7088-1354-2. There was a difference here for nearly all of them wore dark green kefiyahs (or cheffiyeh) (headcloths) instead of the customary black and white check ones. By that sign we could tell that they were sayyids, like the sallow-faced man at Falih's.

[9] Swedenburg, Ted (1995). Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-1-557-28763-2.

[10] Report on the situation in Palestine, Part 1, CO 935/21. Confidential Print: Middle East, 1839–1969 (Report). p. 47 – via Adam Matthew Digital.

[11] Swedenburg, Ted (1995). Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past. University of Minnesota Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-557-28763-2.

[12] Swedenburg, Ted (1995). Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past. University of Minnesota Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-557-28763-2.

[13] Torstrick, Rebecca (2004). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-313-32091-0.

[14] Binur, Yoram (1990). My Enemy, My Self. Penguin. p. xv.

[15] Mahmoud, Amany (28 September 2021). "Hamas-Fatah dispute over wearing keffiyeh spills over to Gaza university". Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East. Retrieved 6 May 2024.

[16] Tipton, Frank B. (2003). A History of Modern Germany Since 1815. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 598. ISBN 0-8264-4910-7.

[17] Mudde, Cas (2005). Racist Extremism in Central and Eastern Europe. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 0-415-35594-X.

[18] Cook, Erin (20 December 2017). "Indonesia shows its solidarity for the Palestinian cause". Asia Times. Retrieved 21 September 2019.

[Al_Jazeera_2023-10-29-19] "Thousands continue to march in support of Gaza in multiple cities worldwide". Al Jazeera English. 29 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[Al_Jazeera_2023-10-26-20] Sharma, Gouri (26 October 2023). "'Complete censorship': Germany's Palestinian diaspora fights crackdown". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[CNN_2023-10-12-21] Mawad, Dalal; Eve Brennan (12 October 2023). "France bans all pro-Palestinian protests". CNN. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[NetPol_2023-10-17-22] "Palestine solidarity: growing state intolerance towards the right to protest". The Network for Police Monitoring. 17 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[Bindmans_2023-10-20-23] Lanchin, Jude (20 October 2023). "Suella Braverman and the Government continue to come down hard on the right to protest and freedom of expression". Bindmans. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[Open_Democracy_2023-10-16-24] Hunter, Benny (16 October 2023). "The UK establishment is using war to attack protest at home". openDemocracy. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[CBC_2023-10-09-25] "Hundreds show up for pro-Palestinian rally in Vancouver". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 9 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[SCMP_2023-10-20-26] Azmi, Hadi; Joseph Sipalan (20 October 2023). "Israel–Gaza war: Malaysia's pro-Palestinian protesters call for US to take responsibility for enabling Israel". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[Morocco_World_News_2023-10-23-27] Kasraoui, Safaa (20 October 2023). "Police Deny Preventing Woman From Carrying Keffiyeh in Wydad AC Match". Morocco World News. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[Erasmus_2023-10-30-28] Holleman, Wouter (30 October 2023). "Support for Palestine during teach-in in Sanders Building". Erasmus Magazine. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[PBS_2023-10-09-29] Bobby Caina Calvan; Jake Bleiberg (9 October 2023). "Demonstrators rally across the U.S. in response to violent conflict between Israel and Hamas". PBS. Associated Press. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[Columbia_Spec_2023-11-02-30] Karam, Esha; Sarah Huddleston; Sabrina Ticer-Wurr (2 November 2023). "'We're the ones being targeted': Pro-Palestinian affiliates report harassment, threats". Columbia Daily Spectator. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[SMH_2023-10-16-31] Thompson, Angus (16 October 2023). "Lidia Thorpe dons keffiyeh in Senate to speak on Palestine". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[China-32] Sonja Sharp (22 June 2009). "Your Intifada: Now Made in China!". Mother Jones.

[Hirbawi:_About-33] "About Us". Hirbawi. 25 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[Hirbawi_2023-10-23-34] "Save the Children of Gaza, Hirbawi Donating Profits". Hirbawi. 23 October 2023. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[35] Langer, Armin (5 December 2023). "How the keffiyeh – a practical garment used for protection against the desert sun – became a symbol of Palestinian identity". University of Florida. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024.

[36] Uche, Onyebadi (14 February 2017). Music as a Platform for Political Communication. IGI Global. p. 214. ISBN 9781522519874.

[37] Bram, Shir Aharon (18 May 2022). "Jews in Keffiyehs? – The Headdress That Became a Symbol". National Library of Israel, The Librarians blog.

[vv-38] Lalli, Nina (15 February 2005). "Checkered Past: Arafat's trademark scarf is now military chic". The Village Voice. New York, New York. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008.

[nytstyle-39] Kim, Kibum (11 February 2007). "Where Some See Fashion, Others See Politics". The New York Times. New York, New York.

[40] Ramachandran, Arjun (30 May 2008). "Keffiyeh kerfuffle hits Bondi bottleshop". The Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Archived from the original on 29 August 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2013.

[41] Ramachandran, Arjun (29 May 2008). "Celebrity chef under fire for 'jihadi chic'". The Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Archived from the original on 21 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2013.

[42] "What do Arabs wear on their heads". UAE Style Magazine. 24 August 2013.

[Swedenburg2021-43] Swedenburg, Ted (2021). "The Kufiya". In Bayat, Asef (ed.). Global Middle East: Into the Twenty-First Century. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 162–173. ISBN 978-0-520-96812-7. Retrieved 13 May 2021.

[44] "Topshop pulls 'keffiyeh playsuit' after row over cultural theft". middleeasteye.net. Retrieved 1 September 2017.

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@@ Line 22: / Line 22: @@
 File:Muharram in cities and villages of Iran-342 16 (155).jpg|Iranian children wearing keffiyehs during a religious gathering in Iran
 </gallery>
+== Palestinian national symbol ==
+{{Main|Palestinian keffiyeh}}
+{{duplicates|section=y|dupe=Palestinian keffiyeh|discuss=Talk:Palestinian_keffiyeh#Duplication|date=December 2023}}
+[[File:ArafatEconomicForum (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Yasser Arafat]] wearing his iconic fishnet pattern keffiyeh in 2001]]
+Prior to the 1930s, Arab villagers and peasants wore the white keffiyeh and [[Agal (accessory)|agal (rope)]] while city residents and the educated elite wore the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[fez (hat)|tarbush (fez)]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Swedenburg |first=Ted |title=Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-557-28763-2 |pages=30–31 }}</ref> During the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]], Arab rebel commanders ordered all Arabs to don the keffiyeh. In 1938, [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandatory]] [[High commissioner (Commonwealth)|High Commissioner]] in Palestine, [[Harold MacMichael]], reported to the Foreign Office: "This ‘order’ has been obeyed with surprising docility and it is not an exaggeration to say that in a month eight out of every ten [[Fez_(hat)|tarbushes]] in the country had been replaced by the [keffiyeh and] ‘agal’."<ref>{{cite report |title=Report on the situation in Palestine, Part 1, CO 935/21 |page=47 |work=Confidential Print: Middle East, 1839–1969 |via=Adam Matthew Digital }}</ref> Following the end of the revolt, most residents either reverted to wearing the tarbush or elected to go hatless.<ref>{{cite book |last=Swedenburg |first=Ted |title=Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-557-28763-2 |page=34 }}</ref>
+The black and white chequered keffiyeh dates to the 1950s when [[John Bagot Glubb|Glubb Pasha]], a British officer, wanted to distinguish his Palestinian soldiers (black and white keffiyeh) from his Jordanian forces (red and white keffiyeh).<ref>{{cite book |last=Swedenburg |first=Ted |title=Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-557-28763-2 |page=35 }}</ref> The black and white keffiyeh’s prominence increased during the 1960s with the beginning of the Palestinian resistance movement and its adoption by Palestinian leader [[Yasser Arafat]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Torstrick |first=Rebecca |title=Culture and Customs of Israel |publisher=Greenwood |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32091-0 |page=117 }}</ref>
+The black-and-white fishnet pattern keffiyeh would later become Arafat's iconic symbol, and he would rarely be seen without it; only occasionally would he wear a military cap, or, in colder climates, a Russian-style [[ushanka]] hat. Arafat would wear his keffiyeh in a semi-traditional way, wrapped around his head via an [[agal (accessory)|agal]]. He also wore a similarly patterned piece of cloth in the [[neckline]] of his [[Battledress|military fatigues]]. <!-----TO HERE----->Early on, he had made it his personal trademark to drape the scarf over his right shoulder only, arranging it in the rough shape of a [[triangle]]. This way of wearing the keffiyeh became a symbol of Arafat as a person and political leader, and it has not been imitated by other Palestinian leaders.
+Another Palestinian figure associated with the keffiyeh is [[Leila Khaled]], a female member of the armed wing of the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. Several photographs of Khaled circulated in the Western newspapers after the hijacking of [[TWA Flight 840 (1969)|TWA Flight 840]] and the [[Dawson's Field hijackings]]. These photos often included Khaled wearing a keffiyeh in the style of a Muslim woman's [[hijab]], wrapped around the head and shoulders. This was unusual, as the keffiyeh is associated with Arab masculinity, and many believe this to be something of a [[fashion statement]] by Khaled, denoting her equality with men in the Palestinian armed struggle.
+The colors of the stitching in a keffiyeh are also vaguely associated with Palestinians' political sympathies. Traditional black and white keffiyehs became associated with [[Fatah]]. Later, red and white keffiyehs were adopted by Palestinian [[Marxism|Marxists]], such as the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine|PFLP]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Binur |first=Yoram |title=My Enemy, My Self |publisher=Penguin |year=1990 |page=xv }}</ref> Because of its association with [[Fatah]], in April 2021, [[Hamas]] arrested students and staff at [[Al-Azhar University – Gaza|Al-Azhar University]] for wearing the keffiyeh.<ref>{{cite web | last=Mahmoud | first=Amany | title=Hamas-Fatah dispute over wearing keffiyeh spills over to Gaza university | website=Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East | date=2021-09-28 | url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2021/09/hamas-fatah-dispute-over-wearing-keffiyeh-spills-over-gaza-university | access-date=2024-05-06}}</ref>
+=== Symbol of Palestinian solidarity ===
+The black and white chequered keffiyeh has become a symbol of [[Palestinian nationalism]], beginning with the plain white keffiyeh's use during the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]] and followed by the chequered pattern's use in the 1950s (see above). Outside of the Middle East and North Africa, the keffiyeh has gained popularity among activists supporting the Palestinians in the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|conflict with Israel]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Modern Germany Since 1815 |last=Tipton |first=Frank B. |year=2003 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=598 |isbn=0-8264-4910-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Racist Extremism in Central and Eastern Europe |last=Mudde |first=Cas |year=2005 |publisher=Routledge |page=34 |isbn=0-415-35594-X }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cook |first=Erin |date=20 December 2017 |title=Indonesia shows its solidarity for the Palestinian cause |url=https://www.asiatimes.com/2017/12/article/indonesia-shows-solidarity-palestinian-cause/ |access-date=21 September 2019 |work=[[Asia Times]] |language=en}}</ref>
+During the 2023 [[Israel–Hamas war]], pro-Palestinian protests around the world saw demonstrators wearing keffiyeh.<ref name="Al Jazeera 2023-10-29">{{cite news |date=29 October 2023 |title=Thousands continue to march in support of Gaza in multiple cities worldwide |work=[[Al Jazeera English]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2023/10/29/people-march-in-support-for-gaza-as-death-toll-surpasses-8000 |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref> As part of restrictions on pro-Palestinian protests in Germany, schools in Berlin banned the wearing of keffiyeh<ref name="Al Jazeera 2023-10-26">{{cite news |last=Sharma |first=Gouri |date=26 October 2023 |title='Complete censorship': Germany's Palestinian diaspora fights crackdown |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2023/10/26/complete-censorship-germanys-palestinian-diaspora-fights-crackdown |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref> and an individual said that he had been "forbidden to walk inside the city for 24 hours because [he] was wearing a keffiyeh".<ref name="Al Jazeera 2023-10-26" /> Similar bans on pro-Palestinian protests across France<ref name="CNN 2023-10-12">{{cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/10/12/europe/france-ban-pro-palestinian-intl/index.html |title=France bans all pro-Palestinian protests |first1=Dalal |last1=Mawad |author2=Eve Brennan |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=12 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> saw a demonstrator fined €135 for wearing keffiyeh.<ref name="CNN 2023-10-12" /> Likewise, legal observers at protests in London described "targeting by riot police of people wearing a Palestinian keffiyeh" and threats of arrest for doing so.<ref name="NetPol 2023-10-17">{{cite web |url=https://netpol.org/2023/10/17/palestine-solidarity-growing-state-intolerance-towards-the-right-to-protest/ |title=Palestine solidarity: growing state intolerance towards the right to protest |publisher=The Network for Police Monitoring |date=17 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Bindmans 2023-10-20">{{cite web |url=https://www.bindmans.com/knowledge-hub/blogs/suella-braverman-and-the-government-continue-to-come-down-hard-on-the-right-to-protest-and-freedom-of-expression/ |title=Suella Braverman and the Government continue to come down hard on the right to protest and freedom of expression |first=Jude |last=Lanchin |publisher=[[Bindmans]] |date=20 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Open Democracy 2023-10-16">{{cite news |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/israel-palestine-hamas-uk-suella-braverman-protest-rights/ |title=The UK establishment is using war to attack protest at home |first=Benny |last=Hunter |publisher=[[openDemocracy]] |date=16 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> Protesters in Canada,<ref name="CBC 2023-10-09">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/pro-palestinian-rally-vancouver-1.6991125 |title=Hundreds show up for pro-Palestinian rally in Vancouver |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=9 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> Lebanon,<ref name="Al Jazeera 2023-10-29" /> Malaysia,<ref name="SCMP 2023-10-20">{{cite news |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3238654/israel-gaza-war-malaysias-pro-palestinian-protesters-call-us-take-responsibility-enabling-israel |title=Israel–Gaza war: Malaysia's pro-Palestinian protesters call for US to take responsibility for enabling Israel |first1=Hadi |last1=Azmi |author2=Joseph Sipalan |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |date=20 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> Morocco,<ref name="Morocco World News 2023-10-23">{{cite news |url=https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2023/10/358635/police-deny-preventing-woman-from-carrying-keffiyeh-in-wydad-ac-match |title=Police Deny Preventing Woman From Carrying Keffiyeh in Wydad AC Match |first1=Safaa |last1=Kasraoui |work=Morocco World News |date=20 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> Pakistan,<ref name="Al Jazeera 2023-10-29" /> the Netherlands,<ref name="Erasmus 2023-10-30">{{cite news |url=https://www.erasmusmagazine.nl/en/2023/10/30/support-for-palestine-during-teach-in-in-sanders-building/ |title=Support for Palestine during teach-in in Sanders Building |first1=Wouter |last1=Holleman |work=Erasmus Magazine |date=30 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> and the United States<ref name="PBS 2023-10-09">{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/demonstrators-rally-across-the-u-s-in-response-to-conflict-between-israel-and-hamas |title=Demonstrators rally across the U.S. in response to violent conflict between Israel and Hamas |author1=Bobby Caina Calvan |author2=Jake Bleiberg |publisher=[[PBS]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=9 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Columbia Spec 2023-11-02">{{cite news |url=https://www.columbiaspectator.com/news/2023/11/02/were-the-ones-being-targeted-pro-palestinian-affiliates-report-harrassment-threats/ |title='We're the ones being targeted': Pro-Palestinian affiliates report harassment, threats |first1=Esha |last1=Karam |author2=Sarah Huddleston |author3=Sabrina Ticer-Wurr |work=[[Columbia Daily Spectator]] |date=2 November 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> were also seen wearing keffiyeh, and [[Lidia Thorpe]] wore keffiyeh while speaking in the [[Australian Senate]] to condemn Australian support for "an oppressive occupation" and liken the Palestinian struggle with that of [[Indigenous Australians]]".<ref name="SMH 2023-10-16">{{cite news |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/australia-news-live-voice-campaign-fails-in-australia-economist-warns-population-surge-could-keep-rates-high-20231016-p5ecgh.html?post=p55bon#p55bon |title=Lidia Thorpe dons keffiyeh in Senate to speak on Palestine |first=Angus |last=Thompson |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=16 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref>
+=== Production ===
+[[File:Palestinian keffiyeh loom.jpg|thumb|A loom at work making a traditional Palestinian keffiyeh in the Hirbawi factory, [[Hebron]], West Bank]]
+Today, the keffiyeh as a symbol of Palestinian identity is largely imported from China. With the scarf's growing popularity in the 2000s, Chinese manufacturers entered the market, driving Palestinians out of the business.<ref name="China">{{cite news |title=Your Intifada: Now Made in China! |author=Sonja Sharp |newspaper=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |date=22 June 2009 |url=http://motherjones.com/riff/2009/06/your-intifada-made-china }}</ref> ''[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]'' wrote, "Ironically, global support for Palestinian-statehood-as-fashion-accessory has put yet another nail in the coffin of the [[Palestinian territories|Occupied Territories]]' beleaguered economy."<ref name="China" />
+In 2008, Yasser Hirbawi, who for five decades had been the only Palestinian manufacturer of keffiyehs, was struggling with sales and has reported that sales had fallen "from 150,000 units per year in 1993 to a mere 10,000 units in 2010",<ref name="Hirbawi: About">{{cite web |url=https://www.kufiya.org/our-mission/ |title=About Us |publisher=Hirbawi |date=25 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> before transitioning from local to global online sales.<ref name="Hirbawi: About"/> In the wake of the [[2023 Israel–Hamas war]], Hirbawi announced that the company, run by Yasser's sons since his death in 2018,<ref name="Hirbawi: About"/> would donate profits from keffiyeh sold in October 2023 to the Palestine American Medical Association,<ref name="Hirbawi 2023-10-23">{{cite web |url=https://www.kufiya.org/save-the-children-of-gaza-hirbawi-donating-profits/ |title=Save the Children of Gaza, Hirbawi Donating Profits |publisher=Hirbawi |date=23 October 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> selling over 20,000 that month.<ref name="Hirbawi 2023-10-23"/>
 ==Other cultural symbolisms==