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European Union
Motto: [In varietate concordia] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)  (Latin)
"United in diversity"
Anthem: Ode to Joy  (orchestral)
Political centresBrussels
Strasbourg
Luxembourg
Official languages
23
Member states
27
GovernmentSui generis supranationalism
José Manuel Barroso (EPP)
Hans-Gert Pöttering (EPP)
• Council
Portugal
José Sócrates
Formation
25 March 1957
7 February 1992
• Water (%)
3,08
Population
• 2007 estimate
494,070,000 (3rd1)
GDP (PPP)2007 (IMF) estimate
• Total
$14,518 billion (1st1)
• Per capita
$28,213 (14th1)
GDP (nominal)2007 (IMF) estimate
• Total
$15,849 billion (1st1)
• Per capita
$29,476 (13th1)
Currency
15
Time zoneUTC0 to +2
• Summer (DST)
UTC+1 to +3
Internet TLD.eu
  1. If considered as a single entity.[1]

The European Union (EU) is a unique supranational union comprising twenty-seven member states, primarily located in Europe. It was first established as the European Economic Community in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome including six members. Since its foundation new accessions have raised the number of member states, and powers have expanded. In 1993 the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union, with the Community as its primary pillar, which formalised co-operation in home and foreign affairs.

With over 492 million citizens the Union's economies create an estimated nominal GDP of €11.6 ($15.7) trillion in 2007.[1] The Union has a single market between member states with a common trade policy,[2] a Common Agricultural/Fisheries Policy, and a regional development policy.[3] It introduced a common currency, the euro, which has been adopted by thirteen member states. Since 1993, the Union has developed a limited Common Foreign and Security Policy, and co-operation in police and judicial matters.

Important institutions of the Union include the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central Bank. EU citizens are allowed to elect the Parliament directly every five years and with restrictions on new member states are enabled to invest, live, travel, and work in all member states [4]. Passport control and customs checks between most member states were abolished in the Schengen Agreement.[5]

History

Main article: History of the European Union

After the end of the Second World War the political climate favoured the unification of Europe. It was seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism which had devastated the continent.[6] One such attempt to unite Europeans was the European Coal and Steel Community which while having the modest aim of centralised control of the previously national coal and steel industries of the its member states was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe".[7] The founding members of the Community were Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands and West Germany.[8]

File:Rometreaty.jpg
The founding nations signing the Treaty of Rome in 1957.

Two additional communities were created by the Treaties of Rome in 1957; the European Economic Community (EEC), establishing a Customs Union and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) for cooperation in nuclear energy.[8] The ECSC and Euratom were merged into the EEC in 1967 with the signing of the Merger Treaty. They had a single membership with a combined set of treaties and institutions, and the collective was referred to as the European Communities (now, the European Community, within the Union).[9]

In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.[10] In 1979 the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.[11]

Enlargement, 1957 to 2007.
  European Communities
  European Union

Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s.[12] In 1985 the Schengen Agreement was developed among European states to allow for the abolition of systematic border controls between the participating countries.[13] In the same year Jacques Delors became President of the European Commission. In 1986 the European flag was adopted and leaders signed the Single European Act. After the fall of the iron curtain, East Germany joined the enlarged Germany in 1990 (and therefore the European Community).[14] With enlargement toward eastern Europe on the agenda, the Copenhagen Criteria were agreed.

The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force on 1 November 1993 and in 1995 Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the newly established Union. The Amsterdam Treaty was signed in 1997, shortly after the resignation of the Santer Commission. In 2002 euro notes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. In 2004 of ten new countries (eight of which were formerly communist countries) joined the Union.[15]

Later in 2004, the European Constitution was signed in Rome, though it was never fully ratified after rejection by French and Dutch voters in referendums. In 2007, it was agreed to replace that proposal with a new Reform Treaty that would amend rather than replace the existing treaties. At the start of that year Romania and Bulgaria joined the Union and the euro was adopted by Slovenia.[15]

Member states

Main articles: European Union member state and Enlargement of the European Union
The member states of the European Union (European Communities pre-1993), animated in order of accession. Only territories in and around Europe are shown.
This box:

The European Union currently has 27 member states: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Republic Of Ireland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.[16] There are currently three official candidate countries, Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Turkey. In addition the western Balkan countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates.[17]

To join the Union, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These require a stable democracy respecting human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the Union and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including Union laws. Evaluation of a country's fulfillment of the criteria rests with the European Council.[18]

A number of other western European countries who have chosen not to join are partly integrated into the Union's economy. Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway are a part of the Union's market through the European Economic Area while Switzerland has similar ties through bilateral treaties. The microstates' relationships include use of the euro and other cooperation.[19][20][21]

Geography

Main article: Geography of the European Union

The territory of the Union consists of the combined territories of its 27 member states with significant exceptions outlined below. The territory of the Union is not the same as that of Europe, as significant parts of the continent, such as Switzerland, Norway and European Russia, are outside the Union, and some overseas territories are part of the Union while not being geographically part of Europe. The Union's member states cover a combined area of 4,422,773 square kilometres (1,707,642 sq mi).[22] The total territory of the Union is the seventh largest territory in the world by area. The landscape, climate and economy of the Union are heavily influenced by its long coastline, which is 65,992.9 kilometres (41,006 mi) long. It is the second longest coastline, after Canada. The combined member states of the Union's share land borders with 21 Union non-member states which total 12,440.8 kilometres (7,730 mi), the fifth longest border in the world.[23][24][25]

The 66,000 km of coastline, such as this in Greece, influences 22 states

Some parts of member countries are not part of the Union, although they are part of the European continent. Examples include the Channel Islands and Faroe Islands. Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the Union (such as Greenland, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles and all the non-European territories associated with the United Kingdom). On the other hand, some overseas territories are formally part of the Union even if they are not geographically part of Europe, such as the Azores, the Canary Islands, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Madeira, Martinique and Réunion.[26][27][28]

Including overseas territories of member states, the Union includes most types of climate from Arctic to tropical, rendering meaningless meteorological averages for the Union as a whole. The majority of the population lives either in areas with a Mediterranean climate (southern Europe), a temperate maritime climate (Western Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (in eastern member states).[29]

Governance

Main article: Institutions of the European Union
File:Institutions europeennes IMG 4307.jpg
The Parliament in Strasbourg is a legislative chamber of the EU.

The Union is governed by a number of institutions, primarily the Commission, Council and Parliament. The European Commission acts as the executive branch. It is currently composed of 27 commissioners, one from each member state. The commission is responsible for drafting all proposed rules in order to co-ordinate European Law. It also controls some agencies and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the Union. The president of the commission is nominated by the European Council, and confirmed by the Parliament.[30] The statistical arm of the European Commission is the Eurostat. Eurostat's key role is to supply statistics to the European Commission, other Union institutions and bodies to help define, implement and analyse the Union's policies.

The Council of the European Union (also known as the Council of Ministers) forms one half of the Union's legislative branch, the other being the Parliament. It is composed of the national ministers responsible for the area of Union law being addressed. For example, European legislation regarding agriculture would be treated by a Council composed of the national ministers for agriculture. The body's presidency rotates between the member states every six months. To increase stability the current president member state co-operates with both the previous and the next president member state.[31] It should not be confused with the European Council, which is not an official institution (although the European Council is an important body and shares its presidency with that of the Council of the Union). It is composed of the heads of government and the President of the European Commission. The European Council meets four times a year.[32]

Brussels hosts many institutions, such as the Council and Commission.

The other half of the legislative branch is the European Parliament, which is the only directly elected institution. The 785 Members of the European Parliament are directly elected by European citizens every five years (last full election was in 2004). Although the elections are in national constituencies, the members sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. The institution has near-equal legislative powers with the Council in community matters and has the power to reject or censure the Commission. The speaker of the Parliament (its president) is elected by its members every half-term.[33]

The Parliament is the only institution to have its official seat in the city of Strasbourg, with other institutions are located elsewhere. Brussels plays host to the Commission, Council, European Council and some meetings of the Parliament. Hence Brussels is often considered the de facto capital of the Union. However the Courts, and some meetings and departments of the other institutions, are in Luxembourg and other bodies are located in further cities.[34][35]

Further information: Law of the European Union, European Court of Justice, and Treaties of the European Union
File:EUCoJ.jpg
The Court of Justice in Luxembourg is the highest authority in the EU.

The basis of the European Union is the series of treaties which first established both the European Community and the European Union and then made amendments to those founding treaties.[36] These are power giving treaties which establish institutions and give them legal powers to carry out their assigned functions.[37] These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation[38] which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.[39] National courts are required to give force to these treaties and to the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore their national law and constitution.[40]

Union legislation (other than the treaties themselves) comes in two forms: directives and regulations. Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them free to choose how to achieve that result. One of the main advantages being that policy choices can be made at a European leaving while leaving the details of their implementation to national governments.[41] Regulations are legislative acts which on their entry into force become law in all member states instantaneously without the requirement for any implementing measures to have been taken.[42] The contents of a regulation can then be said to be the law of every member state which on its coming into force overrides conflicting domestic provisions.[38]

One of the complicating features of the Union's legal system is the multiplicity of legislative procedures used to enact directives and regulation. The treaties micro-manage the Union's powers, indicating different ways of adopting legislation for different policy areas and for different areas within the same policy areas.[43] The two most common procedures are codecision, under which the European Parliament can veto proposed legislation, and consultation, under which Parliament is only permitted an opinion which can subsequently ignores by European leaders. A common strand in all legislative procedures, however, is the requirement that almost all legislation must be proposed by the Commission, rather than member states or European parliamentarians.[44]

The judicial branch of the Union consists of the European Court of Justice and the Court of First Instance. Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of the Union.[45] Decisions from the Court of First Instance can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.[46] The Court of First Instance mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the Union's courts. While the Court of Justice deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions and cases referred to the Union's courts by the courts of member states.[47]

Politics

Main article: Politics of the European Union
The Commission President José Manuel Barroso

The political decision process of the Union is divided into three "pillars"; identified by the Treaty of Maastricht. Most activities are placed in the first pillar, the authority of the European Community, which is economically orientated and is based on supranational principles. It is in this pillar that the Commission and Parliament are the most important institutes. The second pillar is the Common Foreign and Security Policy which is primarily under the authority of the intergovernmental European council. Where a common policy is agreed, the Union can speak as a block in international affairs. The third, and most intergovernmental, is centred on "Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters".[48]

The political leadership in the Union is derived from the European Council, consisting of the leaders of each of the two countries. The council is currently headed by a rotating presidency, in person the leader of the president country.[31]. Another important leader is the president of the commission; in which country appoints one of the 27 commissioners. Citizens are represented directly through the Parliament, through elections every five years. In the Parliament each country has a set number of seats, that is taken up by representatives of the parties that entered in the election in that country. Some parties (most actively the Greens) are forming European parties.[33]

The President-in-Office of the European Council, José Sócrates (Prime Minister of Portugal), helps guide the direction of the EU

Major internal political areas of the Union are the processes of European integration and enlargement. The two processes of integration and enlargement are seen by many as parallel processes, both are important for the Union.[49] Enlargement, the accession of new states to the Union, is a highly politicised issue. Supporters argue it aids democracy in new members as well as the European economy as a whole. Opponents fear the Union is expanding beyond its current political capabilities, and/or cultural boundaries. Public opinion, and hence political party viewpoint, has been in increased opposition since the simultaneous accession of 10 members in 2004. This is most acute in relation to the candidacy of Turkey.[50][51][52] Integration is another political issues, where national interest in the public view often collides with Union interest. This is caused by the increasing harmonisation between states requiring powers to be transferred to European level. This is criticised by eurosceptics whi fear the loss of national sovereignty.[53] In 2004 the European Constitution was signed but rejected by voters in two states. A new proposal is the similar Reform Treaty. The treaty would introduce more majority voting in the Council and give more powers to the Parliament. Foreign policy would also be strengthened with the abolition of the pillar system.[54][55]

Foreign relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of the European Union and Common Foreign and Security Policy

The foreign relations of the Union are primarily dealt with through the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The CFSP has its origins in the formation of European Political Cooperation in 1970.[56] Although cooperation in international trade negotiations, under the Common Commercial Policy, dates back to the establishment of the Community in 1957.[57] European Political Cooperation was an informal consultation process between member states on foreign policy matters, with the aim of forming common policies. It was formally introduced into the then European Community by the Single European Act and subsequently renamed as the "Common Foreign and Security Policy" by the Maastricht Treaty.[56]

The High Representative, Javier Solana, is the EU's spokesperson on foreign policy.

The Maastricht Treaty gives the following aims for the Common Foreign and Security Policy:

  • to safeguard the common values, fundamental interests, independence and integrity of the Union in conformity with the principles of the United Nations Charter,
  • to strengthen the security of the Union in all ways,
  • to preserve peace and strengthen international security, in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter, as well as the principles of the Helsinki Final Act and the objectives of the Paris Charter, including those on external borders,
  • to promote international cooperation,
  • to develop and consolidate democracy and the rule of law, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.[58]

The Amsterdam Treaty created the office of the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (currently held by Javier Solana) to coordinate the EU's foreign policy.[59] The High Representative, in conjunction with the current Presidency, speaks on behalf of the Union in foreign policy matters and can sometimes have the difficult task of articulating ambiguous policy positions created by disagreements among member states. The Common Foreign and Security Policy requires unanimity among the now 27 member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular policy and disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq,[60] are not uncommon.

Besides emerging international policy, the international effect of the EU is felt through enlargement. The potential benefits of becoming a member are considered a major factor contributing to the reform and stabilisation of the former Communist countries in Eastern Europe.[51] These factors influencing other countries are generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[61] Finnish Prime Minister, Matti Vanhanen, cited the common foreign policy as a factor as to why Finland is no longer a neutral country – despite what it may be considered. It is not known if this view is shared by the leaders of the other neutral countries in the Union.[62]

Along side its foreign and security policy, the Commission is gaining greater representation in international bodies such as the UN, where it has influence over areas such as aid due to its large contributions in that field (see below),[63] and the G8, in which the Commission and Council Presidents have non-voting representation.[64] Generic representation is primarily through the European Commissioner for External Relations, who works along side the High Representative. However in the World Trade Organization (WTO), where all 27 member states are represented, the Union as a body is represented by Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson.[65]

Humanitarian aid

Further information: ECHO (European Commission)
The EU is the largest contributor of aid in the world.

The European Community humanitarian aid office, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the Union to third world countries. In 2006 its aid budget amounted to 671 million euro, 48% of which went to the ACP countries.[66] Together with the aid given by member states individually, the Union is the largest aid donor in the world.[67]

The current commissioner for aid, Louis Michel, has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly, to greater effect and on humanitarian principles.[67] The Union's aid has previously been criticised by the think tank Open Europe for being inefficient, mis-targeted and linked to economic objectives.[68] Further more, some charities have claimed European governments have inflated the amount they have spent on aid by incorrectly including money spent on debt relief, foreign students and refugees. Under the de-inflated figures, the Union did not reach its internal aid target in 2006[69] while under official figures, the Union would not reach the accepted international target of 0.7% of GNP until 2015. However only a few countries have reached that target and in 2005, Union aid was 0.34% of GNP which was higher than the United States and Japan.[70]

Security and defence

Main articles: European Security and Defence Policy and Military of the European Union

The Union itself has limited military capability of its own. Member states are responsible for their own territorial defence, alongside NATO which provides common military capabilities and assurances. However the membership of NATO and the Union are not identical. Furthermore, the Western European Union (WEU) is a separate European security organisation related to the Union. In 1992, the WEU's relationship to the Union was defined, with the Union giving it the "Petersberg tasks" (humanitarian missions such as peacekeeping and crisis management). The tasks were later transferred from the WEU to the EU by the Amsterdam Treaty; they formed part of the new CFSP and the European Security and Defence Policy. Elements of the WEU are currently being merged into the Union's CFSP; the President of the WEU is currently CFSP High Representative.[71][72]

File:Eufor222.jpg
EU forces are peacekeeping in areas such as the Balkans.

Following the Kosovo war in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO." To that end, a number of independent forces have been created, answerable to the European Council rather than NATO or member states. These include a 60,000-strong European Rapid Reaction Force and EU Battlegroups of 15,000 men.[73] Forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the middle east.[74] These are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff.[75]

Justice, freedom and security

Main articles: Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters and European Commissioner for Justice, Freedom & Security
Schengen opened borders between its members (blue) prompting cross border police cooperation.

The Union's competence in the justice and home affairs area originates from the signing of the Schengen Agreement in 1985 on the gradual abolition of border controls between six of the then ten European Community member states. In order to implement the Schengen Agreement, the signatory states included measures designed to balance the lowering of border controls with compensating measures in the areas of asylum, immigration and criminal justice.[76] The Maastricht Treaty transferred many of these measures (although not those on the abolition of border controls) into the European Union,[77] along with new competencies to facilitate the freedom of movement of people by adopting common rules in civil matters, such as contract and family law.[77]

Changes to the treaties by the Treaty of Amsterdam added a new aim of the Union as the creation of an "area of Justice, Freedom and Security".[78] That treaty also made it easier to pass laws in the area and more difficult for member states to veto them. It also increased the powers of the European Parliament in relation to Justice and Home affairs' measures.[79] Recent legislation include the European Arrest Warrant[80] and directives on family law.[81]

The Union has established agencies to coordinate its actions in the area: Europol for cooperation of police forces,[82] Eurojust for cooperation between prosecutors[83] and Frontex for cooperation between border control agencies.[84] The Union also operates the Schengen Information System[5] which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities.

The Union has also developed a role in human rights protection. Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.[85] The Amsterdam Treaty supplemented these, by adding further competence to legislate against forms of discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age and sexual orientation.[86] Using these powers the Union has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination and racial discrimination.[87] In 2000 the Union organised a convention which drew up a Charter of Fundamental Rights.[88] Although the charter has not been given the force of law,[88] it was proposed to do so in the now defunct Constitutional treaty and in the current draft of the Reform Treaty.[89]

Economy

Main article: Economy of the European Union
The euro has been adopted by 13 EU states.

The Union was created first and foremost as an economic union. The first, oldest and largest pillar, the European Community, was founded as the European Economic Community. Creating and maintaining the EU's single market has been a prominent goal of the Community, ensuring free movement of people, goods, services and capital.[90] Four freedoms which are extended to the non-member states of Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway via the European Economic Area.[19]

Considered as a single economy the Union is the largest in the world with a nominal gross domestic product of €11.6 (US$15.7) trillion in 2007.[1] The Union is also the largest exporter in the world,[91] and the second largest importer.[92] It is the biggest trading partner to many countries, such as China[93] and India.[94]

Thirteen members of the Union have adopted a common currency, the euro. Collectively the territories of these countries are called the eurozone. The currency is also used by a number of other countries outside of the Union.[21] The euro is governed by the European Central Bank which sets the eurozone's monetary policy.[95]

The Union also operates a competition policy aimed at furthering its aim of ensuring undistorted competition within the single market.[96] Under the Competition policy the Competition Commissioner exercises the power to block mergers between companies or allow under conditions. The Commissioner can also take action against companies for abusing a dominant position in the marketplace.[97]

Regional development

Main article: Regional policy of the European Union
File:RondoGenMaczka2005.jpg
EU funds finance infrastructure such as this motorway in Katowice.

There are substantial economic disparities across the Union, reflecting the different economies of its member states. Even corrected for purchasing power, the difference between the richest and poorest regions (NUTS-2 & 3) is about a factor of ten – Frankfurt has €68,751 PPP per capita, Paris €67,980,[98] and Inner London €65,138, while Romania's Nord-Est has €5,070 PPP per capita and Bulgaria's Severozapaden has €5,502 PPP per capita.[99] By comparison, United States GDP per capita is 35% higher than the European average and the Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher.[100]

To tackle this, there are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds aimed at promoting the development of the poorer regions of the Union. These regions are primarily located in the new member states of eastern Europe.[101] The Union sponsors research through its Framework Programmes, to deal with research and technological development to work towards a European Research Area.[102] Other funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the Union's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the commonwealth of independent states (TACIS).

Agriculture

Main article: Common Agricultural Policy

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one the oldest policies of the European Community and was once, one of its central planks.[103]The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets and insuring reasonable prices for consumers (article 33 of the Treaty of Rome).[27] It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention, and up until the 1990s accounted for over half of the then European Communities' annual budget, and still accounts for around forty percent of the EU's budget.[103]

EU farms are supported by the CAP, the largest budgetary expenditure (Burgas, Bulgaria).

The policy's price controls and market interventions led to a great deal of overproduction resulting in the so-called wine lakes and beef mountains. These were intervention stores which were built up from produce bought by the Community to insure minimum price levels. In order to reduce the levels of these stores, agricultural produce was often sold on the world market at prices considerably below what was paid for it, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to export their produce outside the Community. This is often criticised on the grounds that the subsidised produce under-cuts farmers in the developing world.[104] The overproduction has also been criticised on environmental grounds in that it encourages environmentally unfriendly intensive farming methods.[104] Supports of CAP say that the economic support it provides farmers to a reasonable standard of living in what would otherwise be an economically unviable way of life. Although currently the EU's small farmers only receive 8% of CAP's available subsidies.[104]

Since the beginning of the 1990s CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially these reforms included, amongst other things, the introduction of milk quotes (by the McSharry reforms in 1992)[103] and, more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004),[103] with the aim of reducing oversupply while maintaining income levels. The most recent reform entailed to abolition of the EU's sugar regime which previously involved the carving up of the sugar market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU.[105]

Energy

Main article: Energy policy of the European Union
Pipelines from Russia to the EU.

The Union has been a legislative power in the area of energy policy for many years. This involvement evolved from of the European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005 and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.[106]

The Union currently imports 82% of its oil and 57% of its gas, making it the world's leading importer of these fuels.[107] In 2007, member states legally bound the Union to use 20% renewable energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions by at least 20% from 1990 levels, by 2020.[108] In 2020, one-tenth of all cars and trucks in EU 27 are agreed to be running on biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves by large industrialised regions to fight global warming.[109]

Despite this, there are still concerns that the Union is largely dependent upon Russia for its energy. This concern has grown particularly acute following a series of clashes between Russia and its neighbours as Russia increased the price of its exports. As a result the Union is attempting to diversify its energy supply.[110]

Infrastructure

Further information: European Commissioner for Transport and European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry

The Union is working to improve cross-border infrastructure, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, TGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Oresund bridge and the Brenner Base Tunnel. In 2001 it was estimated that by 2010 the network would cover: 75,200 km of roads; 78,000 km of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.[111][112]

Infrastructure, such as the Oresund bridge between Denmark and Sweden, is a priority to increase trade and mobility.

In developing European transport policy, there are environmental pressures on proposals to increase the transport network. With enlargement, a problem policy has had to tackle is the differences between the older and newer member states. In the EU 15, there is a major problem with congestion and pollution, while in the states that joined since 2004, the problem is accessibility.[113] The Polish road network in particular was in poor condition. From accession, 4,600 roads needed to be upgraded to Union standards with an approximate expenditure of 17 billion euro.[114]

Another project is the Galileo positioning system. Galileo is a proposed Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). Galileo was launched to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System. Galileo extends its cooperation to other nations outside the EU and is to be operational by 2010.[115] It has been criticised by some due to costs, delays, and a perception of it being redundant due to the existing GPS system.[116]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the European Union
File:European Union Population Density.png
With 114 people per km² the EU is one of the most densely populated regions in the world.

The combined population of all 27 member countries was approximately 492.9 million in 2006.[117] Between 2004 and 2025 the population of the EU 25 is expected increase by approximately 13 million. This increase be will primarily be due to net immigration, which is present in most European countries.

The Union's population is 7.3% of the world total, yet the Union covers just 3% of the earth's land. That is a population density of 114/km² making the EU one of the most densely populated regions of the world. Eighty percent live in an urban area and a third live in cities of over a million people.[118] The EU is home to more global cities than any other region in the world[119] and 16 cities with populations of over one million (using city proper figures). The three largest cities are London, Madrid and Paris.


City Population
within
city limits 		Population
density
within city limits
per km² 		Urban area
population
(2005) 		LUZ
population
(2001)
Berlin 3,405,000 3,815 3,761,000 4,935,524
London 7,512,400 4,761 9,332,000 11,624,807
Madrid 3,128,600 1,985 4,858,000 5,372,433
Paris 2,153,600 24,672 9,928,000 10,952,011
Rome 2,705,603 5,198 2,867,000 3,700,424

Densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cites and are now encompassing large metropolitan areas are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 10.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine Main Area approx. 4 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.) and the Upper Silesian Industry Area approx. 3.5 million. (Katowice, Sosnowiec et al.).[120]

Languages

Main article: Languages of the European Union

The Union has 23 official and working languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish.[121] Translation of important documents, such as legislation, takes place in every official language, however some institutions choose only a handful of languages as internal working languages. The European Parliament however provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary sessions.[122] Language policy is the responsibility of member states, but Union institutions promote the learning of other languages.[123][124]

Languages (2006)[125]
First Language Language Total
English 13% 51%
German 18% 32%
French 12% 26%
Italian 13% 16%
Spanish 9% 15%
Polish 9% 10%
Dutch 5% 6%
Greek 3% 3%
Swedish 2% 3%
Czech 2% 3%
Portuguese 2% 2%
Hungarian 2% 2%
Other EU Languages ~6%
Minority Languages ~16%

German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (about 88.7 million people as of 2006), followed by English, Italian and French. English is by far the most spoken foreign language, while German and French follow. 56% of European citizens are able to hold a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.[125] Most official languages of the Union belong to the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is a Semitic language. EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written in Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.[126]

There are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.[126] Of these, only the Spanish regional languages: Catalan, Galician, and Basque can be used in the communication of the citizens with the Council of the European Union, the Commission, the Economic and Social Committee, the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman, as well as in the workings of the Committee of the Regions.[127] Though regional and minority languages can benefit from EU programmes, protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states. A wide variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by immigrant communities in the Member States. Turkish, Maghreb Arabic, Russian, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Tamil, Ukrainian, and Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are bilingual in the local language and in that of their community. Migrant languages are not given formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries, although since 2007 they have been eligible for support from the language teaching section of the EU's Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013[126]

Religion

Further information: Religion in the European Union
Percentage of Europeans in each state who believe in a god.

The Union is a secular body, with no formal connections to any religion and no mention of religion in any current or proposed treaty.[27] Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Reform Treaty have included proposals to mention Christianity and/or God in the preamble of the text. However this idea has faced opposition and has thus been dropped.[128] The desire for a reference stems from Christianity being the dominant religion in Europe. European Christianity can be roughly divided into Roman Catholicism, a wide range of Protestant churches (especially in northern Europe) and Eastern Orthodoxy (in south eastern Europe).[129] Other religions such as Judaism and Islam are also present. In 2002 the Union had an estimated Jewish population of roughly over a million[130] and a Muslim population in 2006 of 16 million people.[131]

Despite the majority of citizens having some form of belief system only 21% see it as important.[132] There is increasing atheism or agnosticism among the general population in Europe, with falling attendance and membership in many countries.[132][133] In 2005, a survey of the Union's members at that time found that of the European citizens, 52% believe in a god, 27% in some sort of spirit or life force and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%).[134] In such countries, even those who have a faith can be disdainful of organized religion.[135] The most religious societies are those in Malta with 95% (predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in a god. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education, those leaning towards right-wing politics, and those reflecting more upon philosophical and ethical issues.[134]

Society

Education and research

Main articles: Education in the European Union and Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development
File:Windkraftanlagen Dänemark.jpg
Renewable energy is one priority in transnational research activities such as the (FP7).

Education and science are areas where the Union's role is limited in its support. In education, policy mainly developed in the 1980s with programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the ERASMUS programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and become a symbol of Europe and student life.[136] There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013. They are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields.[137]

Scientific support is offered through the Union's Framework Programmes, the first of which was in 1984. The aims of Union policy in this area are to coordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.[138] Since January 2000 the European Commission has set its sights on a wider objective, known as the European Research Area. This has the support of all member states, and extends the existing financing structure of the frameworks. It aims to focus on coordination, sharing knowledge, ensuring mobility of researchers around Europe, improving conditions for researchers and encouraging links with business and industry as well as removing any legal and administrative barriers.[139]

Culture

Further information: Culture of Europe and Cultural policies of the European Union

The Union has no specific culture or cultural history, other than those of its member states, so EU culture is intertwined with the culture of Europe. Within the Union, supporters of European integration often appeal to a shared European historical/cultural heritage, typically including Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, the feudalism of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, 19th century Liberalism and (sometimes) negative elements such as the World Wars. European values are assumed to be grounded in this shared heritage.[140] This heritage can often be invoked to encourage a sense of shared heritage and pride in it: in March 2007, for the 50th anniversary of the Treaties of Rome, a piece of art from each state was sent to Rome for a special exhibition. Such art varied from historical pieces such as Auguste Rodin's The Thinker to modern works such as Per Kirkeby's Prophecy on Venice.[141] Displays of such artwork can also be seen on euro coins, where countries choose to depict a symbol of national pride such as a building or artist, for example France Prešeren or the Vitruvian Man.[142]

File:800px-Sb-kl-ring.jpg
Sibiu is one of the two European Capitals of Culture for 2007.

There is some cultural cooperation in the Union. Cultural cooperation between member states has become a community competency since its inclusion in 1992 in the Maastricht Treaty.[143] Actions taken in the cultural area by the Union include the Culture 2000 7-year programme,[143] the European Cultural Month event,[144] the Media Plus programme,[145] orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra[146] and the European Capital of Culture programme – where one or more cities in the Union are selected for one year to assist the cultural development of the city.[147] In addition, the Union gives grants to cultural projects (totalling 233 in 2004) and has launched a Web portal dedicated to Europe and culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states "promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means."[148]

Sports

Main article: Sport policies of the European Union
File:Oldtraffordpitch.jpg
Old Trafford stadium saw a European team compete in football, a popular sport across the EU.

Sport policy is largely the domain of the member states, with the Union mostly playing an indirect role. The role of the Union might increase in the future, if (for example) the Reform Treaty were to be ratified by all member states.[149] Recently the Union launched an anti-doping convention. Other policies of the Union have had an impact on sports, such as the freedom of employment which was at the core of the Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European nationality.[150]

Various spectator sports are popular throughout Europe, such as football. In the same manner that artistic heritage is drawn on by the Union, football has also been drawn on. On 9 February 2007, for the 50th anniversary of the Rome Treaty, a European football team was formed to take on Manchester United Football Club in a friendly match. It was also the 50th anniversary of Manchester's first participation in the UEFA cup. The "Europe XI" team coach described the importance of the game to Europe in the following terms: "Football brings people together. In a continent so proud of its cultural diversity, football offers a common language. It helps to integrate different communities. At its best, our sport conveys some of Europe’s basic values: the rule of law, respect for others, freedom of expression, teamwork and solidarity."[151] Although the combined team was a one off for that event, Commission President Romano Prodi proposed that the national teams entering the 2008 Olympics in Beijing carry the European flag in addition to their national flag as a show of unity. In the 2004 Athens Olympics, EU teams won 280 medals.[152]

Environment

Main article: European Commissioner for the Environment

The first European environmental policy was launched in 1972. Since then it has addressed issues such as acid rain, the thinning of the ozone layer, air quality, noise pollution, waste and water pollution. The Water framework directive is an example of the water policy; the aim is for rivers, lake, ground and coastal waters to be of "good quality" by 2015. Wildlife is protected through the Natura 2000 programme and covers 30,000 sites throughout Europe.[153] In 2007, the Polish government sought to build a motorway through the Rospuda valley, but the Commission has been blocking construction as the valley is a wildlife area covered by the programme.[154]

The Commission is trying to protect the Rospuda valley in Poland from motorway construction.

The REACH directive was a large piece of legislation passed in 2006 which is designed to ensure 30,000 chemicals which are in daily use are tested for their safety.[155] Earlier in 2006, an toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, from a European ship, prompted the Commission to look into legislation against toxic waste. With states such as Spain now even having a crime against shipping toxic waste, the Commission proposed to create criminal sentences for "ecological crimes". Although the Commission's right to propose criminal law was contested, it won the right in the Court of Justice.[156]

The Union was involved in the development of the Kyoto protocol and signed up to it along side its member states. One way it has sought to tackle climate change was by creating the Emissions Trading Scheme, the worlds biggest multinational environmental trading scheme. The EU is also involved in trying to secure a post-Kyoto deal.[153] In 2007, the Union agreed to an energy policy binding members to cut their carbon dioxide emissions by at least 20% from 1990 levels, by 2020. If an international deal is reached, emissions would be cut further. The use of renewable energy in the EU would also be increased to 20%.[108] It is also planned that by 2020, 10% of all automobiles would run on biofuels.[157]

See also

Template:European Union-related topics Template:Supranav

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  114. ^ "Transport – How Quickly will Polish Roads Improve After Accession". Urząd Komitetu Integracji Europejskiej. 2003-05-29. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  115. ^ Barrot, Jacques. "Jacques Barrot Home Page". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  116. ^ McKie, Robin (2007-07-15). "Sat-nav rival could crash and burn". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-08-11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  117. ^ "Total population". Eurostat. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  118. ^ "A densely populated area". Telsat Guide. Retrieved 2007-07-22. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
    114/km² density figure: 494,070,000 / 4,324,782 = 114 people/km2. Population figure is from 2006, see ref: "Eurostat Population".
  119. ^ "The World According to GaWC". Loughborough University. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  120. ^ "Indicators for larger urban zones 1999 - 2003". Eurostat. Retrieved 2007-01-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  121. ^ "Council Regulation (EC) No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006". Official Journal of the European Union. 2006-12-12. Retrieved 2007-02-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  122. ^ "Europa:Languages and Europe. FAQ: Is every document generated by the EU translated into all the official languages?". Europa (web portal). 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  123. ^ "Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, Articles 149 to 150". Official Journal of the European Union. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  124. ^ "European Parliament Fact Sheets: 4.16.3. Language policy". European Parliament. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  125. ^ a b "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)" (PDF). European Commission. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
    "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summery)" (PDF). European Commission. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  126. ^ a b c "Many tongues, one family. Languages in the European Union" (PDF). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  127. ^ "Mercator Newsletter - n. 29". Mercator Central. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  128. ^ Rettman, Andrew (2006-09-12). [euobserver.com/15/24066 "Merkel gives up on God in EU treaty"]. EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  129. ^ "Chrisianity". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  130. ^ Jewish population figures may be unreliable. These estimates are taken from: Sergio DellaPergola. "World Jewish Population (2002)". American Jewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
  131. ^ "In Europa leben gegen­wärtig knapp 53 Millionen Muslime". Islam.de. 2006-02-25. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); soft hyphen character in |title= at position 22 (help)
  132. ^ a b Cline, Austin (2005-02-28). "Secularism in Europe". About.com. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  133. ^ Zuckerman, Phil (2005). "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  134. ^ a b "Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology" (PDF). Eurostat. 2005. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  135. ^ Cline, Austin (2006-02-25). "Czech Republic: Most Atheist Country in Europe?". About.com. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  136. ^ "The Erasmus programme celebrates its 20th anniversary". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21.; Jean-Sébastien, Lefebvre (2007-01-22). "Erasmus turns 20 - time to grow up?". Café Babel. Retrieved 2007-08-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  137. ^ "Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21.; "Lifelong Learning Programme". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  138. ^ "European Research Council: What is the ERC?". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  139. ^ "What is the European Research Area?". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  140. ^ For example: Hans-Gert Poettering (2007-02-13). "Priority is dialogue for partnership and tolerance". Inaugural speech by the new president of the European Parliament. European Parliament. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
  141. ^ Barber, Tony (2007-03-16). "Rome shows Europe its heart of art". Financial Times. Retrieved 2007-08-05. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  142. ^ "Euro coins". European Central Bank. Retrieved 2007-08-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  143. ^ a b Bozoki, Andras. "Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  144. ^ "European Culture Month". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  145. ^ "Media programme". philatelism.com. 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  146. ^ "An Overture to the European Union Youth Orchestra". The European Youth Orchestra. Retrieved 2007-08-12. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  147. ^ Bozoki, Andras. "European Capitals of Culture". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  148. ^ "Cultural heritage as a vehicle of cultural identity". philatelism.com. 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  149. ^ Goldirova, Renata (2007-07-11). "Brussels' first-ever move into sport area set to spark controversy". EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  150. ^ Fordyce, Tom (2007-07-11). "10 years since Bosman". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  151. ^ "EU 50th Anniversary Football Match". Europa (web portal). 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2007-08-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  152. ^ "Olympic Games 2004 - Congratulations from President Prodi". European Commission. 2004-08-30. Retrieved 2007-08-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  153. ^ a b Dimas, Stavros (2007-03-23). "Celebrating the Environmental Union". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  154. ^ Dimas, Stavros (2007-03-23). "Celebrating the Environmental Union". Financial Times. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  155. ^ "EU chemicals directive agreed". RTÉ News. 2006-12-01. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  156. ^ Ames, Paul (2007-07-31). "Poland ends stand-off with EU over road plans". Discovery Channel. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

Further reading

  • EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials, by Paul Craig and Grainne De Burca, 3rd ed., (Oxford University Press 2003) ISBN 0198765096
  • The Economist Guide to the European Union (Profile Books 2005) ISBN 978-1-86197-930-8
  • Access to European Union: law, economics, policies by Nicholas Moussis (European Study Service, 2007 — 16th ed.) ISBN 978-2-930119-43-4
  • Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 978-0-333-98734-6
  • Understanding the European Union 3rd ed by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) ISBN 978-1-4039-4451-1
  • The Institutions of the European Union edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0198700520
  • The Government and Politics of the European Union by Neill Nugent (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 978-0-333-98461-1
  • The European Union: A Very Short Introduction by John Pinder (Oxford, 2001) ISBN 978-0-19-285375-2
  • The United States of Europe: The New Superpower and the end of American Supremacy by T.R. Reid (Penguin Press, 2004) ISBN 978-1-59420-033-5
  • This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from Churchill to Blair by Hugo Young (Macmillan, 1998) ISBN 978-0-333-57992-3
  • The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3
  • The Great Deception: The Secret History of the European Union by Christopher Booker, Richard North (Continuum International Publishing Group — Academi, 2003) ISBN 978-0-8264-7105-5
  • Template:PDFlink by Hans Köchler, Singapore Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 9 (2005), Accessed January 25, 2007

Column-generating template families

The templates listed here are not interchangeable. For example, using {{col-float}} with {{col-end}} instead of {{col-float-end}} would leave a <div>...</div> open, potentially harming any subsequent formatting.

Column templates
Type Family
Handles wiki
table code?†
 Responsive/
mobile suited 		Start template Column divider End template
Float "col-float" Yes Yes {{col-float}} {{col-float-break}} {{col-float-end}}
"columns-start" Yes Yes {{columns-start}} {{column}} {{columns-end}}
Columns "div col" Yes Yes {{div col}} – {{div col end}}
"columns-list" No Yes {{columns-list}} (wraps div col) – –
Flexbox "flex columns" No Yes {{flex columns}} – –
Table "col" Yes No {{col-begin}},
{{col-begin-fixed}} or
{{col-begin-small}} 		{{col-break}} or
{{col-2}} .. {{col-5}} 		{{col-end}}

† Can template handle the basic wiki markup {| | || |- |} used to create tables? If not, special templates that produce these elements (such as {{(!}}, {{!}}, {{!!}}, {{!-}}, {{!)}})—or HTML tags (<table>...</table>, <tr>...</tr>, etc.)—need to be used instead.

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA ru-sib:Еврояклан

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