Stereotype

For other uses, see Stereotype (disambiguation).

A stereotype is a simplified and/or standardized conception or image with specific meaning, often held in common by people about another group. A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image, based on the assumption that there are attributes that members of the other group hold in common. Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous illusory correlation, a false association between two variables that are loosely if at all correlated. Stereotypes may be positive or negative in tone.

Causes

Sociologist Charles E. Hurst of the College of Wooster states that, “One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals” . Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists focus on how experience with groups, patterns of communication about the groups, and intergroup conflict. Sociologists focus on the relations among groups and position of different groups in a social structure. Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that stereotypes, by definition, the representations are not accurate, but a projection of one to another.

Stereotypes are not accurate representations of groups, rather they arise as a means of explaining and justifying differences between groups, or system justification. Social status or group position determines stereotype content, not the actual personal characteristics of group members. Groups which enjoy fewer social and economic advantages will be stereotyped in a way which helps explain disparities, such as lower employment rates. Although disadvantaged group members may have greater difficulty finding a job due to in-group favoritism, racism, and related social forces, the disadvantaged group member is unjustifiably characterized as 'unmotivated' (he could find a job if he looked hard enough), 'unintelligent' (he's not smart enough to have that job), and 'lazy' (he would rather take hand-outs than work).

Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences. This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American citizen is a more salient categorization than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African. Yet within American culture, Black and White Americans are often seen as completely different groups.

For as long as there has been a human species, individuals have been different from one another. Persons have gravitated to groups of other persons like themselves. People create and develop categories of qualities by which to classify the groups; some were based on ancestry. Many of these groupings have become the key factors in determining which groups have political, social, and economic power in the world.

Automatic stereotype activation can be totally involuntary, and is described as the activation of categorically associated "nodes", according to Leopold and Brown from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Psychology

Categorization and Association Categorization and Association are two fundamental concepts involved in stereotyping. Categorization- we tend to group people on the basis of easily identifiable characteristics such as age, race, and gender. This can happen outside of our awareness (Devine, 1989). Association- When we stereotype, we usually have sets of traits that go together, that is, are associated with groups of people.

The representative-ness heuristic: Our categorizations are based on the extent to which someone’s behavior represents a category we have of various social groups. Example: Is someone who is White, wealthy, and tough on crime a Republican or a Democrat?

The availability heuristic: We attempt to bring to mind examples of behaviors of people, and the easier we can imagine such examples, the more likely we will think those behaviors will occur. Example: If the only African American people who are portrayed in the media are criminals, then those who have little contact may vastly overestimate the number of African American criminals in the general population.

Effects, accuracy, terminology

For individual people there can be both positive and negative effects of a stereotype which is seen to apply to them. The overall effects of stereotyping are seen by many to always be negative.

Some people believe that stereotypes are generally based on actual differences. Others believe that they are always false generalizations (by definition).

For some individual people the effects of this might be positive or negative - a separate issue to whether they are positive or negative for society.

Stereotypes can be self-fulfilling to at least some extent (e.g. group 1 treats group 2 in a more hostile way because they are afraid of the dangerous nature they are supposed to display; people from group 2 accordingly react more aggressively, thus confirming the stereotype) .

Stereotypes can be deeply embedded in a culture. The term 'stereotype' is more often used once those perceived truths are put into arguments.

There are some complicating factors which arise when the accuracy of stereotypes is discussed. One of these is that a factor leading to stereotyping can be the existence of a group of people who do share a characteristic. For instance, there might be a reasonably significant number of men working in sales roles, and showing little integrity and honesty ('significant' in this context does not imply a majority). This can lead to the creation of a stereotype of a 'salesman' figure. In this limited sense it might be seen that the stereotype is based on a real group of people (i.e. salesmen who behave with little integrity).

Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are:

• Justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance
• Unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior towards stereotyped group
• Preventing some people of stereotyped groups from succeeding in activities or fields

Often the terms ‘’stereotype’’ and ‘’prejudice’’ are confused. Stereotypes are ‘’standardized’’ and ‘’simplified’’ conceptions of groups, based on some prior assumptions. Stereotypes are created based on some idea of abstract familiarity. Prejudices are more specific - they are predispositions to differential behavior patterns.

Role in art and culture

English prejudice in 1796 was fundamental

Stereotype is often used as a form of dramatic shorthand for "stock character". Stereotypes change with time. The unwitting use of some stereotypes appears awkward to a present-day audience which refuses to tolerate a representation of individuals based on that stereotype. Many other stereotypes pass unnoticed, sometimes even by those being stereotyped. Examples of active use are found in the work of Brecht and other dramatic styles which allow the actor to demonstrate a character's level of role distance, thus showing the active use. Retrospectively these stock characters have been illuminated by the work of Brecht, Dario Fo and Jacques Lecoq, despite their original reference to local Italian stereotypes in their early genesis. Importantly in drama the actor does not create a stereotype; rather their characterisation may be simple in that they represent an uncritical reflection of the stereotype, and it is this simplicity which aggravates a present-day audience. A subtle and detailed characterisation, especially of the commedia Dell'arte stock characters, results in a unique and immediate performance that will be enjoyed by an audience due to the clear active use of the characters by the actor.

In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations, in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as Shakespeare's Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype per se by its unique characterisation. Thus while Shylock remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical Jew, the subject of prejudicial derision in Shakespeare's era, his many other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because a feature of a character can be categorized as being typical does not make the entire character a stereotype.

Despite their proximity in etymological roots, cliché and stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. For example a cliché is a high criticism in narratology where genre and categorization automatically associates a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as typical suggests it is fitting for its genre or category. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on cliché is to pejoratively observe a simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize Ian Fleming for a stereotypically unlikely escape for James Bond would be understood by the reader or listener, but it would be more appropriately criticized as a cliché in that it is overused and reproduced. Narrative genre relies heavily on typical features to remain recognizable and generate meaning in the reader/viewer.

The instantly recognisable nature of stereotypes mean that they are very useful in producing effective advertising and situation comedy. Media stereotypes change and evolve over time - for instance, we now instantly recognize only a few of the stereotyped characters shown to us in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. The teen sitcom, Saved By The Bell features a typical group of high school stereotypes such as a class clown (Zack Morris), a jock (A.C. Slater), a nerd (Samuel "Screech" Powers), a cheerleader (Kelly Kapowski), a feminist (Jessie Spano), and a superficial fashion plate (Lisa Turtle). Some observed the sitcom, like many teen sitcoms of that time, in addition to stereotyping people, stereotyping an institution itself, that of high school. TV stereotypes of high schools have often promoted a "typical American school" as football games, fashion styles, skirt chasing, and not much devotion to academics or studying.

In movies and TV the halo effect is often used. This is when, for example, attractive men and women are assumed to be happier, stronger, nicer people, explained by Greenwald and Banaji from Psychological Review.

Racial and ethnic stereotyping

Black stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of blacks

Early stereotypes

Early minstrel shows lampooned the supposed stupidity of Blacks. Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843

The movie Portuguese Runner questioned whether or not Black people were fit to run for governmental offices or vote. Secretary of State John C. Calhoun arguing for the extension of slavery in 1844 said "Here (scientific confirmation) is proof of the necessity of slavery. The African is incapable of self-care and sinks into lunacy under the burden of freedom. It is a mercy to give him the guardianship and protection from mental death."

Even after slavery ended the intellectual capacity of Black people was still frequently questioned. Lewis Terman wrote in The measurement of intelligence in 1916

"(Black and other ethnic minority children) are uneducable beyond the nearest rudiments of training. No amount of school instruction will ever make them intelligent voters or capable citizens in the sense of the world…their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stock from which they come…Children of this group should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical. They cannot master abstractions, but they can be made efficient workers…There is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusual prolific breeding."

Modern stereotypes

See also: Acting white

Some regard Jar Jar as a thinly veiled version of the type of portrayals used in minstrelsy to lampoon the supposed stupidity of Black people.

Patricia J. Williams, writer for The Nation, said this of Jar Jar Binks, a character from the 1999 and 2002 Star Wars films The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones, respectively: "...intentionally or not, Jar Jar's pratfalls and high jinks borrow heavily from the genre of minstrelsy. Despite the amphibian get-up, his manchild-like idiocy is imported directly from the days of Amos 'n' Andy." Many aspects of Jar Jar's character are believed to be highly reminiscent of the archetypes portrayed in blackface minstrelsy.

According to Robert M. Entman and Andrew Rojecki, authors of the The Black Image in the White Mind, in television and film Black characters are less likely to be "the intellectual drivers of its problem solving." In one example, a study of the portrayal of race, ethnicity and nationality in televised sporting events by journalist Derrick Jackson in 1989 showed that blacks were more likely than whites to be described in demeaning intellectual terms. Political activist and one-time presidential candidate Rev. Jesse Jackson said in 1985 that the news media portray blacks as less intelligent than we are. Film director Spike Lee explains that these images have negative impacts. "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people," said Lee.

Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race, John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities. In a 1997 study on racial stereotypes in sports, participants were shown a photograph of a white or a black basketball player. They then listened to a recorded radio broadcast of a basketball game. White photographs were rated as exhibiting significantly more intelligence in the way they played the game, even though the radio broadcast and target player represented by the photograph were the same throughout the trial. Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights 'natural black athleticism' has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.

History of ethnic stereotypes in the United States

The stratification and separation of groups, especially racial minorities, in the United States began in the nation’s earliest years of colonization. With the colonists’ first contact with the Native Americans, the stereotype of “the savage” was born. The idea of a “savage” was the framework the colonists used to judge and interpret the Native Americans . As colonization continued in the US, groups were separated into categories like “Christians” and “heathens” and “civilized” and “savage” . It took merely decades for these attitudes and ideas to firmly plant themselves with the minds of Americans; today’s stereotypes of Native Americans are rooted in the colonists’ initial thoughts. The media perpetuates these stereotypes by portraying Native Americans in a negative light, such as savage and hostile . Many Whites view Native Americans as devoid of self control and unable to handle responsibility. Malcolm D. Holmes and Judith A. Antell hypothesize that such ideas about Native Americans form the ideology that is used today to justify the disparity between Whites and Native Americans .

The early Anglo-Saxon colonists had a very different relationship with the first African Americans in the United States than they did with the Native Americans. Their initial thoughts were shaped by popular “English views of Blacks as evil, animalistic, uncivilized, and un-Christian” . White colonists commonly believed that the Blacks were inferior to Whites; these thoughts helped justify slavery and the institution of many laws that continually condoned inhumane treatment and perpetuated the keeping of Blacks in a lower socioeconomic position . The first American settlers’ thoughts on African Americans were shaped by those of the English; and many of their same initial thoughts still permeate the thoughts and stereotypes of African Americans today. Like it does with the stereotypes of Native Americans, the media continues to perpetuate the stereotypes of African Americans. Not only are African Americans present less frequently in the media than Whites, they are often portrayed negatively. In the past African Americans have been depicted as subservient, lazy, violent, and maybe “slow;” it is clear that such negative stereotypes like these would grow out of the thoughts of slaveholders.

The most clear historical basis for today’s stereotypes is seen in those stereotypes used for viewing Native Americans and Blacks; however, other minority groups are also subject to stereotypes that are based in history. Mexican Americans and Asian Americans are typically seen within a very fixed, rigid framework. Since Mexican Americans, like other Hispanics, have traditionally been immigrants to the United States for the purpose of doing agricultural work, they were often seen as inferior and dispensable . Even now, the stereotypes of Mexican Americans revolve around this idea of desperate laborers, many of whom struggle with speaking English, flocking to the United States illegally to work. Groups of Asian Americans have also experienced stereotyping and unequal treatment, especially when the events of Pearl Harbor were piled on top of years of negative thoughts about Asian laborers. Today, problems are still being faced but not as equally as before..

Arabic, North African and Middle Eastern stereotypes

They are often depicted as fanatical muslims who are often out on the kill and shout out or chant gibberish with many "ch-"sounds. Their noses, moustaches and beards are often exaggarated in caricature. Popular images are the muslim flying on a carpet, climbing on an erect rope, riding a camel, drawing out daggers or sabres or sitting in a tent smoking a water pipe. Arabic people are often depicted as rich oil sheiks with sun glasses and a turban (often mocked by comedians as being a towel or a diaper) on their head. Women are dressed in burka's and often carry a vase on their head. Since the 1970s and especially since the September 11, 2001 attacks the negative depiction of Arabic people as terrorists has increased throughout the world. In many Western countries they are seen as uneducated, aggressive, criminal, antisemitic, misogynistic and dangerous people who don't work but live on government funding, slaughter sheep in their kitchens, have many children and plot to take over the world. Many far right parties and organisations use this stereotypical image for propaganda uses. Just like Indian or Pakistani people Arabic people are often depicted as shop keepers or managers of supermarkets. A famous Arabic stereotype is Borat.

Indian and Hindu stereotypes

They are often depicted as being shop keepers, supermarket store clerks, guru's, snake charmers,...They ride on elephants, worship cows and eat a lot of hot spices and curry. Women are dressed in sari. They also have an obsession with Bollywood films. Another popular image is the near-naked fakir, hypnotist or illusionist who can stick knives in his body, fly on a carpet, climb on an erect rope, walk efortlessly barefoot on burning coals, refuses all food, levitates, meditates, remains underground with his head or body or sit or sleep on a bed of nails. A famous example of a Indian stereotype is Apu Nahasapeemapetilon.However computer skills and workoholic nature has changing the image of Indians as group with high IT skills and academic knowledge.

East Asian stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of East and Southeast Asians in the United States

Asians have generally been portrayed in the media as intelligent, but unsociable. They have also been portrayed as having small reproductive organs, no peripheral vision (which attributes to poor motor skills such as "bad driving"), asexual, martial artists, geeks, exotic women, and foreigners. In westerns they are usually depicted as proprietors of laundries. Chinese people have often been portrayed in the media as rice eating, idiotically grinning people who have long queues, carry cymbal-like plates on their heads and walk around with their hands hidden in long robes. They usually mutter gibberish with many words that rhyme on "-ng"-sounds. In more modern media this image has changed and was replaced by the image of the Asian as a martial art expert. Japanese people are often represented as extremely polite and obedient. They bow extensively and are very good business people. Their stop words are: "honourable", "regrettable" and "please". Chinese and Japanese people are often depicted as removing the letters "-l" and "-r" with each other. Old Chinese or Japanese people are often depicted as extremely wise, bearded men who speak in aphorisms and are forever trying to calm down their young, enthusiastic students (an example of this stereotype is the martial master in Karate Kid).

White stereotypes

See also: Stereotypes of White people

File:Irish-stereotypes.jpg

The cartoon above (New Physiognomy, New York, 1866), contrasts Florence Nightingale, the Crimean War nurse, with "Bridget McBruiser", the stereotypical Irish woman.

Scientific Racism from an American magazine, Harper’s Weekly, says that the Irish are similar to 'Negroes' and wonders why both groups are not extinct.

The social definition of "White" has changed over the years, and several White groups have at times been portrayed by the media as unintelligent. This includes ethnic groups such as the British, Irish, and Slavs.

English stereotypes

The English people are stereotyped as inordinately proper, prudish, phlegmatic, stiff, polite and sophisticated. In many countries, especially on the European continent, they are seen as incredibly awful cooks, something that has been spoofed in Asterix in Britain (see also English cuisine). In the US British people are often depicted as having bad teeth (like for instance in the Simpsons episode Last Exit to Springfield and the Family Guy episode One If by Clam, Two If by Sea). In Eastern Europe, the English are stereotyped as being ugly and pale. A popular British stereotype is the upper class man dressed in bowler hat, black suit who always carries an umbrella, believes in tradition and the monarchy and interrupts everything for the sake of having his tea time. British stereotypes are often depicted as stiff business men, nannies (for instance: Mary Poppins), pilots, marineers, military commanders and gardeneers. Typical expressions are: "I say!", "What?", "Old chap", "Hello governor!", "Isn't it?",...Characters in historical movies often have English accents even when the setting has nothing to do with England. Upper-class characters are also often given English accents. In more recent times, many movie villains, including Benedict from Last Action Hero movie, Scar from The Lion King, and Hannibal Lecter from The Silence of the Lambs, have all been portrayed by British actors or given English accents. They are usually represented as intellectual, eloquent, snobistic geniuses, who in the end are humiliated by someone who is less elitarian than them. Colonials and military commanders are sometimes depicted as stiff, pompous British people (examples are Colonel Hathi in Disney's Jungle Book).

Notably, in Disney films from the 1990s onward, English accents are generally employed to serve one of two purposes: slapstick comedy or evil genius. Examples include The Lion King (Zazu and Scar, respectively), The Hunchback of Notre Dame (Victor the Gargoyle and Frollo, respectively), and Pocahontas (Wiggins and Ratcliffe, respectively, both of whom happen to be played by the same actor, American David Ogden Stiers).

White American stereotypes

Especially in European countries, Americans are stereotyped as brash, ignorant, self-important, unintelligent, decadent, prudish on sexual matters and obese. The image of the obese American could be due to perception of the American diet, such as the popularity and global spread of American fast food franchises such as McDonald's and Burger King, which has fueled America's obesity crisis. Another popular American stereotype is the cowboy. After World War II, when the US were promoted as the sole winners of the war and many Europeans viewed them as their saviors, Americans had a very positive image. Their mass culture and products spread across the world and communist-fearing people around the world saw the US as "the good side". This image changed drastically during the 1960s and 1970s at the height of the Vietnam War. Since then Americans are seen globally in a more negative light as arrogant, ruthless,imperialistic, capitalistic war mongers and destroyers of authentic international cultures and the environment. This negative stereotypical image has remained intact over the years, also due to negative foreign news reports who often show Americans who are either racist, obese, supporters of wars in foreign countries, gun crazy, obsessed with God and Jesus or reacting against sex or nudity in the media. This is however an example of forming a stereotype based on negative news events, while ignoring more positive events.

There are many examples throughout the media, but a classic example is Homer Simpson, the obese, lazy and dim-witted middle American from the cartoon, The Simpsons. The show itself parodies many aspects of American life, culture and society.

In the US itself white people from the Southern states are frequently used as comic characters. They are depicted as angry and/or dimwitted rednecks and/or yokels who are ultraconservative, devoutly religious, Ku Klux Klan members, grab their guns when encountering strangers and speak in a typical drawl. Sometimes incest relations between them and their siblings are suggested. Examples of these stereotypes are Cletus Spuckler, The Beverly Hillbillies, the films Deliverance and O Brother, Where Art Thou? and the Family Guy episode To Love and Die in Dixie.

Scottish people

Scots are often depicted as misers, grouchy red bearded people who are dressed in kilts and play bagpipes. They drink scotch or whiskey and eat haggis. Sometimes they are depicted playing golf or Highland Games. Invariably they have names starting with "Mac...". Stereotypical words used are "ay", "laddie", "wee" and a strong emphasis on the letter "r". Examples of stereotypical Scottish people are Groundskeeper Willie and Fat Bastard.

Irish stereotypes

See also: Irish jokes

Although the Irish, Germans, French, etc are considered ethnic groups today, the common term in the 19th century was "race". Much was made of Celtic versus Anglo-Saxon racial characteristics, regarding historic identity and behavior patterns. An analysis of nineteenth-century British attitudes by Mary J. Hickman and Bronwen Walter wrote that the 'Irish Catholic' was one viewed as an "other," or a different race in the construction of the British nationalist myth [of course this view no longer exists in any way, the Irish are now seen as fellow inhabitants of the British Isles]. Likewise the Irish considered the English "other" and fought hard to break away and create their own homeland, which they finally did in the 1920s.

One 19th century British cartoonist even depicted Irish immigrants as ape-like and as racially different. One American doctor in the 1850s James Redfield, argued that "facial angle" was a sign of intelligence and character. He likened the facial characteristics of the human races to animals. Thus Irishmen resembled dogs, Yankees were like bears, Germans like lions, Negroes like elephants, Englishmen like bulls, Turks like turkeys, Persians like peacocks, Greeks like sheep, Hindus like swans, Jews like goats, and Frenchmen like frogs. In the 20th century physical stereotypes survived in the comic books until the 1950s, with Irish characters like Mutt and Jeff, and Jiggs and Maggie appearing daily in hundreds of newspapers.

Nowadays Irish people are often represented as drunk, melancholic characters who dress in green, smoke a pipe and usually begin their sentences with: "Ayy, 't is true...". Irish people are almost without exception stereotypically represented as alcoholics or drunks. Gnomes and leprechauns sometimes speak with dubious Irish accents, probably due to the popular Irish folkloric image of gnomes and dwarves.

Australian stereotypes

A lot of these stereotypes are based on Crocodile Dundee and Monty Python's Bruces sketch. Australian stereotypical characters always use expressions like "Crikey!", "Gid'day, mate" en "Put another shrimp on the barbie." They are often represented as optimistic nature lovers obsessed with beer and surfing , dressing like jungle explorers, carrying boomarangs and being in the presence of kangaroos.

Jewish stereotypes

See also: Racial antisemitism

Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century theories—now mostly considered as pseudo-scientific—that said that the Semitic peoples, including the Jews, are entirely different from the Aryan, or Indo-European, populations, and that they can never be amalgamated with them. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their religion, but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic racial characteristics including: greed, a special aptitude for money-making and low cunning. Their noses, lips and beards are often exaggarated in caricature.

In early films such as Cohen's Advertising Scheme (1904, silent) stereotyped Jews as "scheming merchants"

To this day Jewish people are sometimes stereotyped in media as being intellectually gifted,, nit-picky, and focused on money.

French stereotypes

French people are often depicted as dirty, unshaven, curly moustached people wearing berets, striped shirts and carrying baguettes under the arm. They are often depicted as being arrogant, dirty, rude to foreigners, lazy and always speaking English like Maurice Chevalier. Often, in reference to World War II, they are depicted as being cowards who surrender immediately when confronted with sudden danger. They will frequently be seemingly addicted to croissants or tarts, or, in a more positive image, are depicted as excellent cooks (Examples are Louis in The Little Mermaid and the cooks in Ratatouille). French stereotypes are used quite a lot in comedies or animated cartoons where these characters always talk in the same way: "the" and "this" are pronounced "zee" and "zis", the words "mais oui", "ami" or "mon chéri" are used non stop and the "w" is pronounced "ooweee". Examples are Inspector Clouseau, Lumière in Beauty and The Beast and Pepe Le Pew. Sometimes, like in the movie Shrek, people are depicted as being French for no apparent reason other than evoking laughs while using the accent.

German stereotypes

German people are often depicted as being very serious, lacking a sense of humour, organized, bureaucratic, mechanical, goose stepping fat people who drink beer and eat sausages and sauerkraut. They're usually wearing lederhosen and partying in Oberbayern-type festivals. Sometimes they wear a pickelhaube. In reference to World War I and World War II they are frequently depicted as evil by nature, militaristic war mongers, Nazi's or as racists (It's notable that other countries who also had Nazi collaborators or were part of the Axis of Evil (for example Japan, Italy, Austria,...) are seldom associated with World War II, compared with Germany). The "w" is pronounced as "vee" and the "r" is very sharp. They're often depicted shouting extremely loud, in the manner of a drill sergeant. A more gentle depiction- but still a stereotype- is the use of mock German when a character is a (mad) scientist. This depiction is presumably based on real scientists, professors, psychiatrists or inventors like Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud who spoke in a similar manner. Another German stereotype is the big breasted blonde with plaits or a hairstyle like Princess Leia, often dressed like the female warrior character Brynhildr (horned helmet, shield, spear and singing extremely high) from Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen.

Italian stereotypes

Italian people are often depicted as singers, involved with the mafia and cooking pasta and tomato type foods. They all crave for their mothers, gesticulate heavily and are easily offended. Sometimes they sell fruit or ice cream. When they talk they often add "a"'s behind verbs, for example: "I do not-a want-a talk with you.". Examples of stereotypical Italian accents are for instance Chico Marx. Another Italian stereotype is the gorgeously built Italian sex bomb with a beautiful body (examples: Sophia Loren, Anita Ekberg, Gina Lollobrigida and La Cicciolina). And similar : the handsome young macho who walks around with his shirt open and usually has notable chest hair. Or the more mysterious handsome Italian man who is always dressed in fine suits and drives around in classy, expensive automobiles or Vespa motorcycles. (examples of this image are Marcello Mastroianni and Andy Garcia (who is of Hispanic descent)'s portrayal of Vincent in The Godfather III). Both Italian macho stereotypes are always depicted as fantastic lovers, but generally unfaithful to and uninterested in the needs and wishes of their female partners. In romantic stories aimed at a heterosexual female audience Italian macho lovers often play an important role.

Swedish Stereotypes

Swedish people are often depicted as seen being sex mad, fun loving with long blonde hair, blue eyed with very pale white skin. Another Swedish stereotype is the gorgeously built Swedish sex bomb with a beautiful body (examples: Victoria Silvstedt, Ulrika Jonsson, Britt Ekland, Agnetha Fältskog). Swedes are often parodied by their high sounds and native melodic accent, with the Muppet's Swedish Chef being one of the major example. They seen living in a colourful wooden houses completely furnished by IKEA, surrounded by huge pine forests, living in a cradle to grave welfare state paid for by being taxed to the hills.

Spanish, Hispanic, Latino, Middle- and South-American stereotypes

They are often depicted as hot blooded, proud, lazy people who prefer to take siesta's (sometimes against a cactus)instead of working. Typical activities are playing guitar in group (often songs like La Cucaracha) or alone, while bringing a serenade to their loved one. Other activities are bull fighting, cooking olives or extremely hot food and drinking strong liquor. Typical expressions are shouting "Olé!" or "Ayayayayayayay" when they are excited about something. Everybody is called "señor" or "señorita". The men always have long black moustaches. Mexican men are sometimes depicted having a few golden teeth and a 3-day-beard. Generally they are always dressed in sombrero's and poncho's. Mexican women are often depicted as middle aged, fat and carry children, oranges or pineapples in a bag on their back. Often husband and wife travel by donkey, while frequently the woman, who is carrying heavy things, walks on foot, while the empty handed man rides the donkey. Presidents in Latin American settings are depicted having short reigns and are deposed by "una revolución". Afterwards they are shot by firing squads. South Americans are frequently cast as drug dealers, dictators, soccer fanatics or cigar smoking guerrillero's. South American women are usually loosely dressed and promiscuous, big breasted, long haired beauties. In recent popular culture Latino's are often depicted as illegal immigrants. Examples or these Hispanic stereotypes are: Bumblebee Man, Fez in That 70s Show, Speedy Gonzales, Puss in Boots (as depicted in Shrek 2) and the characters in Asterix in Spain and Tintin and the Broken Ear.

Eastern European and Russian stereotypes

They are usually depicted as harsh, primitive, miserable, poor peasants or workers. Sometimes they cook soup, stew, goulash or eat yoghurt, paprika or salami. Men always have moustaches/beards and carry bearskin hats and women babushka's. When they have finished drinking a glass with strong liquor, they throw the glass over their shoulder while it crashes against the wall or the ground. The population is often involved in espionage or spied upon by the secret police. Many of these stereotypes still date back to the Cold War era and Dracula movies, who are often set in Romania. Men often shout with an angry, booming voice. Women are sometimes depicted as being more masculine than feminine. Gypsies are also often associated with Eastern Europe. More positive stereotypical depictions of Eastern Europeans and Russians are the excellent ballet dancer(s) and violinists. Their speech often puts a strong emphasis on the letter "r" and "g"-sounds are put in front of words beginning with the letter "h". Other popular cliché expressions are "njet" ("no") and "da!" ("yes").

Before (and long after) the Russian Revolution Russians were often represented as black bearded cossacks with heavy eyebrows, who dance trepaks, ride in troika's, play violin, eat caviar or drink wodka in snowy landscapes. During the Cold War Russians and Eastern Europeans were often depicted as evil or primitive in anticommunist propaganda. Since the 1990s the depiction of Russians as part of the Russian mafia has increased.

Sex and gender stereotyping

See also: Gender roles

See also: LGBT stereotypes

Sex and gender stereotyping could be classified as a single idea. Although sex is usually defined as a person's biological traits, gender is defined as how a person identifies themselves to the world. Gender relates to those affectations that are attributed to men and those affectations that are attributed to women. It is important to understand that in this discussion it requires a social structure that tends to enforce a binary sex and gender role based on a person's biological characteristics.

Gender stereotypes are those ideas, usually imposed by society of what is expected of men and women in the social structure. In most modern Western cultures, men are expected to be assertive, risk-taking, tough, unfeeling, insensitive, combative, the owner or ruler of the home, whereas women are expected to be the nurturers, caregivers, demure, polite, the family homemaker. Younger men are often depicted as pimpish, boasting, prideful, obnoxious, promiscuous and sometimes violent. Younger women are often shown as unintelligent, willing to have promiscuous sex, ditzy, and catty.

Etymology

The word stereotype is of greek origin (στερεότυπος), literally meaning "solid-kind". It was invented by Firmin Didot in the world of printing; it was originally a duplicate impression of an original typographical element, used for printing instead of the original. American journalist Walter Lippmann coined the metaphor, calling a stereotype a "picture in our heads" saying "Whether right or wrong, ...imagination is shaped by the pictures seen... Consequently, they lead to stereotypes that are hard to shake." (Public Opinion, 1922, 95-156). In fact, cliché and stereotype were both originally printers' words, and in their literal printers' meanings were synonymous. Specifically, cliché was a French word for the printing surface for a stereotype.

The first reference to "stereotype", in its modern, English use was in 1850, in the noun, meaning "image perpetuated without change".

Specialised use in Ethology

In ethology, stereotyped behavior or fixed action pattern is an innate, pre-programed response that is repeated when an animal is exposed to an environmental innate releasing mechanism.

See also

• Archetype
• Animal stereotypes
• Counterstereotype (antonym)
• Ethnic stereotype
  • Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims
  • Stereotypes of East and Southeast Asians
  • Stereotypes of Hispanics
  • Stereotypes of Native Americans
  • Stereotypes of West and Central Asians
  • Stereotypes of blacks
  • Stereotypes of whites
• Intercultural competence
• LGBT stereotypes
• Prejudices
• Race and Inequality
• Racial profiling
• Role
• Stock character
• Stigmatization
• Stereotype threat
• Psychology:
  • Negativity effect
  • Outgroup homogeneity bias
  • Physical attractiveness stereotype
  • Trait ascription bias
• Urban legend

Bibliography

• Stuart Ewen, Elizabeth Ewen, Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York (Seven Stories Press) 2006
• Stereotype & Society A Major Resource: Constantly updated and archived
• Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
• Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links
• Are Blonds Really Dumb? An article on Stereotyping
• Are Stereotypes True?
• Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance, Margaret Shih, Todd L. Pittinsky, Nalini Ambady Research about the effects of 'positive' and negative stereotypes on encouraging/discouraging performance.
• Turner, Chris. Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation. ISBN 0-679-31318-4.

External links

• Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
• Understanding Stereotypes - Educational information about stereotypes.
• Short movie: Stereotypes in conflict - Reaction from people in shopping center on business men, weird & slutty types and goths.
• SEPARATING the GOLD from the DROSS: a guide to multicultural literature
• Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links
• Dictionary - Stereotype Online Dictionary