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Malagasy cuisine

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Ravimbomanga sy patsamena, a traditional Malagasy laoka made of potato leaves stewed with beef and dried shrimp

The cuisine of Madagascar, reflects the influences of successive waves of Southeast Asian, African, Indian, Chinese and European migrants that have settled on the island since its initial population by seafarers from Borneo between the first and fifth centuries CE. Rice, the cornerstone of the Malagasy diet, was cultivated alongside tubers and other Southeast Asian staples by these earliest settlers, later complemented by the introduction of beef in the form of zebu by East African migrants around 1,000 CE. Trade with Arab and Indian merchants and European trans-Atlantic traders further enriched the island's culinary traditions by introducing a wealth of new fruits, vegetables and seasonings that combined to produce the cuisine currently enjoyed in Madagascar.

Throughout nearly the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar consists of a base of rice (Malagasy: vary, pronounced [ˈvarʲ]) with some form of accompaniment (laoka [ˈlokə̥]). Laoka may be vegetarian or include animal proteins typically cooked in a sauce often flavored with ginger, onion, garlic, vanilla, curry or occasionally other spices. In parts of the arid south, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, cassava and curds made from fermented zebu milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters and other street foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits. Locally-produced beverages include fruit juices, coffee, herbal and black teas and alcoholic drinks such as rum, wine and beer.

Meals eaten on Madagascar today range from the simple preparations of the earliest settlers and the refined dishes prepared for the island's great monarchs to more recent favorites introduced over the past century by Chinese and Indian immigrants to Malagasy shores, reflecting the historic and contemporary diversity of this Indian Ocean island nation.

History of Malagasy Cuisine

Patterns of food consumption on Madagascar have shifted over time as a result of successive waves of migrants to the island. The types of foods as well as preparation techniques reflect these diverse influences.

Early period: Prior to 1650

Old growth forest in Madagascar

Malayo-Polynesian seafarers are believed to have been the first humans to settle on the island between 100 and 500 CE.[1] In their outrigger canoes, they carried food staples from home, including rice, plantains, taro, and water yam. Sugarcane, ginger, sweet potatoes, pigs and chickens were also probably brought to Madagascar by these first settlers, along with coconut and banana.[2] The early presence of cinnamon, nutmeg, sandalwood and other spices of Southeast Asian origin on Madagascar suggest some of these, too, may have been imported at an early stage.[3]

The first concentrated population of human settlers emerged along the southeastern coast of the island,[4] although the first landfall may have been made on the northern coast.[1] Upon arrival, early settlers practiced tavy (swidden, "slash-and-burn" agriculture) to clear the virgin coastal rainforests for the cultivation of their crops. They also gathered honey, fruits, crocodile eggs, mushrooms, edible seeds and roots,[2] and trapped or hunted small game in the forests, including frogs, snakes, lizards, hedgehogs and tenrecs, tortoises, wild boars, small lemurs, insects and larvae.[5]

Early settlers practiced swidden agriculture.

Alcoholic beverages were brewed from honey and sugar cane juice.[6] As more virgin forest was lost to tavy, communities increasingly planted and cultivated permanent plots of land.[7] By 600 CE groups of these early settlers had moved inland and began clearing the forests of the central Highlands.

Rice was originally dry planted or cultivated in marshy lowland areas, producing low yields. Irrigated rice paddies were adopted in the Highlands around 1600, first in Betsileo country in the southern Highlands, then later in the northern Highlands of Imerina.[4] By the time that terraced paddies emerged in central Madagascar over the next century,[4] the original forest cover there had largely vanished, having given way to scattered villages ringed with rice paddies nearby and planted crop fields a day's walk away, surrounded by the vast plains of sterile grasses beyond.[1]

Zebu, a form of humped cattle, was introduced to the island around 1000 CE by settlers from eastern Africa, along with sorghum, goats, possibly Bambara groundnut, and other food sources. Because these cattle represented a form of wealth in east African and consequently Malagasy culture, they were only rarely eaten, typically after their ritual sacrifice at events of spiritual import such as funerals.[1] Instead, fresh zebu milk and curds constituted a major part of the pastoralists' diet.[8]

Terraced, irrigated rice paddies emerged in the central Highlands around 1600 CE.

Zebu were kept in large herds in the south and west, but as individual herd members escaped and reproduced, a sizable population of wild zebu established itself in the Highlands. Merina oral history tells that Highland people were unaware that zebu were edible prior to the reign of King Ralambo (ruled 1575–1612), who is credited with the discovery, although archaeological evidence suggests that zebu were occasionally hunted and consumed in the Highlands prior to Ralambo's time. It is more likely that these wild herds were first domesticated and put into pens during this period, which corresponds with the emergence of complex, structured polities in the Highlands.[2]

Foods were commonly prepared by boiling in water (first using green bamboo as a vessel, and later clay or iron pots),[8] roasting over a fire, or grilling over hot stones or coals.[5] Fermentation was also used to create curds from milk, ferment certain dried or fresh tubers or produce alcoholic beverages from honey, sugar cane juice or other local plants.[6] The techniques of sun curing (drying), smoking and salt-packing were used to preserve various foods for transport, trade or future consumption. Many of these, such as kitoza (smoked dried beef) and masikita (grilled beef), are still eaten in a similar form in Madagascar to this day.[9]

Zafimaniry woman drying rice in the sun

By the 16th century, centralized kingdoms had emerged on the west coast among the Sakalava and in the central highlands among the Merina. The Merina sovereigns celebrated the new year with an ancient Merina ceremony called the Royal Bath (fandroana). For this ceremony, a special dish called jaka was prepared by placing beef in a decorative clay jar and sealing it with suet, then conserving it in an underground pit for a year. The jaka would be shared with friends at the following year's festival. As a dessert, revelers would eat rice boiled in milk and drizzled with honey, a preparation known as tatao. According to oral history, King Ralambo was the originator of these culinary traditions in Imerina.[10] Ralambo's father, King Andriamanelo, is credited with introducing the marriage tradition of the vodiondry ("rump of the sheep") wherein the most favored cut of meat – the hindquarters – was offered by the groom to the parents of the bride-to-be at an engagement ceremony. Today, the terminology persists but families are more likely to offer a symbolic coin in place of an offering of food.[11]

Slave trade period: 1650–1800

The launch of the trans-Atlantic slave trade produced increased maritime trade at ports of call in Madagascar, leading to exchange of food products into and out of Madagascar. In 1698, a trading vessel en route to the American colonies stopped first at Madagascar, where it obtained a stock of local Malagasy rice. The ship brought the rice to Charleston (South Carolina), where this Malagasy grain – one of 11 varieties of rice reportedly grown on the island by the late 18th century – soon became the chief export crop of the American South.[12]

A young zebu herder burns the thorns off raketa cladodes before feeding them to his cattle.

Numerous food items were likewise imported into Madagascar from overseas. Trading ships brought new world crops such as sweet potato, tomato, maize, peanuts, tobacco and Lima beans to Madagascar in the 16th and 17th centuries.[1] Manioc was brought after 1735 from a French colony at nearby Reunion Island.[13] These products were first cultivated in coastal areas nearest to their ports of arrival but soon spread throughout the island and were grown in the central Highlands within 100 years of their introduction along the coast.[4] Similarly, citrus fruits such as lemons, limes, oranges and pineapple consumed by sailors to ward off scurvy on long cross-Atlantic trips were introduced at coastal Malagasy ports and soon afterward cultivated on Malagasy soil.[4]

The prickly pear cactus (raketa), also known in southern Madagascar as sakafon-drano ("water food"), was brought from the New World to the French settlement at Fort Dauphin in 1769 by a Frenchman named Count Dolisie de Maudave. The plant spread throughout the southern part of the island, where it became a fundamental food crop for Mahafaly and Bara pastoralists. Consuming six or so of the fruits of this plant preempted the need to drink water, and once the spines had been removed, the cladodes of the plant would nourish and hydrate the zebu cattle they tended. The introduction of this plant enabled the southern pastoralists to become more sedentary and efficient herders, boosting population density and cattle count in the region.[14]

Early 19th century voyagers reported eating dishes prepared with curry powder (including a spiced rice resembling biryani) and drinking coffee and tea on the northern coast and rice cakes (mofo gasy, mokary and menakely) in coastal and interior parts of the island,[15][16] suggesting these preparations emerged during this period or even earlier.

Kingdom of Madagascar: 1800–1896

Zebu market in Ambalavao, Madagascar

The 18th century in the central Highlands was characterized by increasing population density and consequent famines aggravated by warring among the principalities of Imerina. King Andrianampoinimerina successfully united these fractious groups under his rule, then used slaves and forced labor (exacted in lieu of taxes for those without means to offer material payment) to systematically work the irrigated rice fields around Antananarivo, ensuring regular grain surpluses enough to feed the entire population consistently and export products for trade with other regions of the island.[4] Smoked and dried seafood and meats, fruits, dried maize and cassava, salt and other products were exchanged between regions at designated marketplaces.

Women grading vanilla beans in Sambava

During the imperial era, numerous plantations were established for the production of export crops sold to partners in England, France and elsewhere. Cloves were imported and planted in 1803 and coconuts – which had been relatively sparse on the island – were cultivated on plantations for the production of oil. Similarly, coffee had been grown on family plots of four to five trees until the early 19th century when more intensive cultivation for export began.[17]

Vanilla, later to become one of Madagascar's premiere export crops, was introduced by French entrepreneurs in 1840 and planted in eastern coastal rain forests. The technique of hand-pollination critical to higher vanilla yields was introduced some 30 years later, but vanilla remained a marginal crop through the end of the imperial era.[18]

During Merina royal festivals, the hanim-pito loha were eaten. These were seven dishes said to be the most desirable in the realm. They included voanjobory (Bambara groundnut), amalona (eel), vorivorinkena (beef tripe), ravitoto (grated cassava leaves) and vorontsiloza (turkey), each cooked with pork and usually ginger, garlic, onion and tomato; romazava (a stew of beef and greens) and varanga (shredded roast beef) completed the list.[19] Colonization of Madagascar by the French beginning in 1896 meant the end of the Malagasy monarchy and its elaborate feasts, but the traditions of this elegant cuisine were preserved in the home, where these dishes are eaten regularly. They are also served in many restaurants throughout the island.[19]

Colonial and post-colonial periods: 1896–present

French colonization introduced a number of innovations to local cuisines. Baguettes were popularized among cosmopolitan urbanites, as were a variety of French pastries and desserts such as cream horns, mille feuilles, croissants and chocolat chaud (hot chocolate). The French established plantations for the cultivation of a variety of cash crops, including not only those already exploited in the 19th century, but new foreign fruits, vegetables and livestock, to varying levels of success. Tea, coffee, vanilla, coconut oil and spices became successful exports.[17] Coconut became a regular ingredient in coastal cuisine, and vanilla began to be used in sauces for poultry and seafood dishes.[19]

File:Baguettes and THB at a shop in Madagascar.JPG
French baguettes for sale at a shop in Toliara

Although a handful of Chinese settlers had arrived in Madagascar near the end of the reign of Queen Ranavalona III, the first major influx of Chinese migrants followed an announcement by General Joseph Gallieni, first governor general of the colony of Madagascar, requesting 3,000 Chinese laborers to construct a northern rail line between Antananarivo and Toamasina.[20] Chinese migrants introduced a number of dishes that have become part of urban popular cuisine in regions with large Chinese communities (namely Antananarivo and Toamasina), including soupe chinoise (Chinese noodle soup), misao (fried noodles), pao (hum bao) and especially nems (fried egg rolls).[19]

While French innovations enriched the cuisine in many ways, not every innovation was favorable. The raketa (prickly pear cactus) introduced by the French in the 18th century had proven highly valuable to southern pastoralists who used the plant for feed and water for their zebu as well as fruit and water for themselves during the dry season from July to December. However, in 1925, a French colonist wishing to eradicate the raketa growing on his property in the southwestern town of Toliara introduced the cochineal, an insect known to be a parasite of the raketa. Within five years, nearly all the raketa of southern Madagascar had been completely wiped out, sparking a massive famine from 1930–1931.[21] Although these ethnic groups have since adapted in various ways, the famine period is commonly remembered as the time when their traditional lifestyle was ended by the arrival of foreigners on their land.[21]

Contemporary Malagasy cuisine

Malagasy cuisine today reflects Madagascar's diverse cultures and historic influences. Throughout the island, rice is considered the preeminent food and constitutes the main staple of the Malagasy diet in all but the most arid regions of the south and west.[22] The diverse dishes, foods and beverages prepared and consumed on the island make use of fresh ingredients that are minimally processed to bring out their natural flavors.[23]

Rice (vary)

Rice (vary) is the cornerstone of the Malagasy diet and is typically consumed at every meal.[24] The verb "to eat" in the Malagasy language is mihinam-bary – literally, to eat rice.[23] Rice may be prepared with varying amounts of water to produce a soupy rice (vary sosoa, [ˌvarʲ suˈsuə̥]), eaten with dry laoka, or dry rice (vary maina, [ˌvarʲ ˈmajnə̥]) eaten with a laoka in sauce [19] Drinks called ranon'ampango [ˌranʷnamˈpaŋɡʷ] and ranovola [ranʷˈvulə̥] are made by adding boiling water to the toasted rice left sticking to the interior of its cooking pot, and are served at meals as a sanitary and tasty alternative to water.[25] Vary amin'anana [ˈvarʲ ˌjamʲˈnananə̥] is a popular traditional stew made with rice, meat and chopped greens.[19] Rice is typically eaten for breakfast and may be accompanied with sliced fruit or eaten with such laoka as fried egg, sausage or kitoza [kiˈtuzə̥] made of smoked strips of zebu, the local cattle. In urban areas, rice may occasionally be replaced by French bread spread with butter.[23]

Accompaniment (laoka)

Voanjobory sy henakisoa is a common laoka made of bambara groundnut cooked with pork.

The accompaniment served with rice is called laoka in the Highlands dialect, the official version of the Malagasy language. Laoka are most often served in some kind of sauce: in the Highlands, this sauce is generally tomato-based, while in coastal areas coconut milk is often added during cooking.[26] In the arid southern and western interior where herding zebu is traditional, fresh or curdled zebu milk is often incorporated into vegetable dishes.[22] Laoka are diverse and may include such ingredients as Bambara peas (voanjobory [vwandzʷˈburʲ]) with pork, beef or fish; various types of freshwater fish (trondro gasy, [ˌtʂundʐʷ ˈɡasʲ]); shredded cassava leaves (ravitoto [ravʲˈtut]) with peanuts, voanjobory, beef or pork; beef (henan'omby [henˈnumbʲ]) or chicken (akoho [aˈkuː]) sauteed with ginger or simmered in its own juices (a preparation called ritra [ˈritʂə̥]); beef stewed with mixed greens, ginger, tomato and onion (a dish called romazava, [ˌrumaˈzavə̥]); various types of seafood, which are more readily available along the coasts or in large urban centers; and many more.[27] In the arid south and west, such as among the Bara or Tandroy peoples, staples include sweet potato, yams, taro root and especially cassava, millet and corn, generally boiled in water and occasionally served in whole milk or flavored with crushed peanuts.[22]

Garlic, onions, ginger, tomatoes, mild curry, and salt are the most common ingredients used to flavor dishes, and in coastal areas other ingredients such as coconut milk, vanilla, cloves or turmeric may also be used.[28] A spicy condiment made from red or green chili pepper (sakay [saˈkaj]) is served on the side rather than mixing the chilies directly into the food as it is being cooked.[25] Indian-style condiments made of pickled mango, lemon, and other fruits (known as achards, French: [aˈʃaʁ]), are a specialty of the northwestern coast; other variations on the achard are found throughout Southeast Asia where they are known as acar.[26] An achard-like salad of green beans, cabbage, carrots and onion in a vinaigrette sauce (called lasary [laˈsarʲ] in Malagasy) is also popular as a side dish – or as the filling of a baguette sandwich – in the Highlands.[19]

Street foods

Kaka pizon is a popular snack in Madagascar.

A variety of sweets like cakes and fritters (collectively known as mofo – [ˈmuf] – or bread) are available from kiosks in towns and cities across Madagascar.[19] The most common is "Malagasy bread" (mofo gasy [ˌmuf ˈɡasʲ]), made from a batter of sweetened rice flour that is poured into greased circular molds and cooked over charcoals. Mofo gasy is a popular breakfast food and is often eaten with coffee, also sold at kiosks.[23] Other sweet mofo include mofo gasy flavored with shredded coconut (mokary [muˈkarʲ]), a deep-fried doughnut called mofo baolina [ˌmuf ˈbolʲ], and fruit fritters (pineapple and bananas being among the most common fruits used).[26] Savory mofo include a mofo gasy salted and fried in lard (ramanonaka, [ˌramaˈnunakə̥]), and a fritter flavored with chopped greens, onions, tomatoes and chilis called "spicy bread" (mofo sakay [ˌmuf saˈkaj].[27]

Koba akondro [kubaˈkundʐʷ] is a sweet that is commonly sold at rest stops or gas stations and is made by wrapping a batter of ground peanuts, mashed bananas, honey and corn flour in banana leaves and steaming or boiling the small cakes until the batter has set.[23] Peanut brittle, dried bananas, balls of tamarind paste rolled in colored sugar, bonbon coco (coconut balls), a snack of deep-fried wonton-type dough called "pigeon droppings" also eaten in Reunion Island (Creole kaka pizon [kaka pizõ]) and potato chips are all commonly sold on the street, as is home-made yogurt. In rural areas, steamed cassava or sweet potatoes are eaten, often with milk.[19]

Beverages

Three Horses Beer, a Malagasy pilsner

Ranonampango and ranovola are the most common and traditional beverages in Madagascar. In addition, a variety of other drinks are produced locally.[19] Coffee is grown in the eastern part of the island and has become a standard breakfast drink, served black or with sweetened condensed milk at street-side kiosks. Black tea, occasionally flavored with vanilla, and herbal teas – particularly lemongrass and lemon bush (ravin'oliva [ˌravʲnoˈlivə̥] – are popular. Juices are made from guava, passion fruit, pineapple, tamarind, baobab and other fruit. In some urban areas, a hot beverage is made from powdered sweetened soy and consumed at breakfast. Fresh milk, however, is a luxury, and locally produced yogurts, ice creams or sweetened condensed milk mixed with hot water are the most common dairy sources of calcium.[23]

A variety of alcoholic beverages are also produced for local consumption and limited export.[23] The local pilsner, Three Horses Beer, is popular and ubiquitous. Wine is produced in the southern Highlands around Fianarantsoa, and rum (toaka gasy [ˌtokə̥ ˈɡasʲ]) is widely produced and drunk neat, flavored with exotic fruits and spices to produce rhum arrangé, or blended with coconut milk to make a punch coco cocktail.[19] The most traditional form of rum, called betsabetsa [ˌbetsəˈbetsə̥], is made from fermented sugarcane juice. Cola and orange soft drinks are popular, as is bonbon anglais, a local sweet lemon soda.[23]

Desserts

A slice of koba

Traditionally, fresh fruit may be eaten after a meal as a dessert.[25] Fresh sugarcane may also be chewed as a treat.[23] A great variety of temperate and tropical fruits are grown locally and may be enjoyed fresh or sprinkled with sugar. Temperate fruits found in Madagascar include but are not limited to apples, lemons, pumpkins, watermelon, oranges, cherries and strawberries. Among the many tropical fruits commonly eaten in Madagascar are coconut, tamarind, mango, pineapple, avocado, passion fruit, loquats (bibasy) and guava, as well as longans, lychees, "pok-pok" (voanantsindrana, similar to a physalis), persimmon, and the fruit of the baobab tree, which is only available during a brief period near the end of the rainy season (typically March).[6]

Madagascar is known for its high-quality cocoa[29][30] and vanilla,[31] much of which are exported. In the coastal areas of Madagascar or in upscale inland restaurants, as in several other former French island colonies such as Tahiti and Reunion, vanilla may be used to prepare savory sauces for poultry and fish.[19]

Koban-dravina [ˌkubanˈdʐavʲnə̥], or koba [ˈkubə̥], is a Malagasy specialty made by grinding together peanuts and brown sugar, then enveloping the mixture in a sweetened rice flour paste to produce a cylindrical bundle. The bundle is wrapped in banana leaves and boiled for 24–48 hours or longer until the sugar caramelizes and the peanuts have softened. The resulting cake is served in thin slices. A firm, cake-like coconut milk pudding known as godro-godro is a popular dessert also found in Comoros.[27] French pastries and cakes are also very popular across the island and may be purchased at the many patisseries found in towns and cities throughout Madagascar.[23]

Imports

Chinese settlers introduced misao to Madagascar.

Several foreign dishes have been widely popularized in Madagascar and are commonly prepared at home and in restaurants.[19][26] Chinese immigrants introduced such favorites as riz cantonais (Chinese fried rice), soupe chinoise (Chinese-style soup with noodles), fried noodles (mi-sao) and egg rolls (nems).[19]

The French popularized a dish sold in Highland hotelys (simple roadside restaurants) as composé: a cold macaroni salad mixed with blanched vegetables based on the French macédoine de légumes.[19]

Indian influence is most evident along the northwest coast, where curries and biryanis are popular. Khimo (based on the Indian khiman) is a specialty of the northwestern port town of Mahajanga, where Indian traders have historically had a strong presence. Indian samosas (sambos) are a popular street food in most parts of Madagascar, where they may also be known by the name tsaky telozoro ("three-cornered snack").[26]

Bol renversé, a type of fried rice from neighboring Mauritius, has been recently popularized in upscale urban restaurants.[19]

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e Gade, Daniel (1996). Deforestation and its effects in Highland Madagascar. Vol. 16. pp. 101–116. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  2. ^ a b c Kent, Raymond K. Early Kingdoms in Madagascar: 1500–1700. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
  3. ^ Blench, Roger (1996). "The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-Distance Contacts Between Oceania and East Africa". The Indian Ocean in Antiquity (PDF). London: British Museum. pp. 417–438. ISBN 0710304358. Retrieved November 12, 2010.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Campbell, Gwyn (1993). The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810. Vol. 26. pp. 111–148. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  5. ^ a b Stiles, D. (1991). Tubers and Tenrecs: the Mikea of Southwestern Madagascar. Vol. 30. pp. 251–263. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  6. ^ a b c Sibree, James (1896). Madagascar before the conquest. London: T.F. Unwin. ISBN 0313334544.
  7. ^ Olson, S. (1984). The robe of the ancestors: Forests in the history of Madagascar. Vol. 28. pp. 174–186. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  8. ^ a b Linton, R. (1928). "Culture Areas in Madagascar". American Anthropologist. 30 (3): 363–390.
  9. ^ Grandidier, A. (1899). Guide de l’immigrant à Madagascar. A Colin et cie.
  10. ^ Raison-Jourde, Françoise (1983). Les Souverains de Madagascar (in French). Karthala Editions. ISBN 2865370593. Retrieved November 15, 2010.
  11. ^ Ogot, Bethwell (1992). Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century (in French). UNESCO. ISBN 923101711X. Retrieved November 15, 2010.
  12. ^ Oliver, Samuel (1886). Madagascar: An historical and descriptive account of the island and its former dependencies. Vol. 2. London: Macmillan. ISBN 1145492347.
  13. ^ Jones, William (1957). "Manioc: An example of innovation in African economies". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 5 (2): 97–117.
  14. ^ Kaufmann, J.C. (2000). "Forget the Numbers: The Case of a Madagascar Famine". History in Africa. 27: 143–157.
  15. ^ Robinson, Heaton (1831). Narrative of Voyages to Explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar. Vol. 1. New York: J & J Harper. Retrieved November 21, 2010.
  16. ^ Sibree, James (1885). The Antananarvio annual and Madagascar magazine. Vol. 3. Antananarivo: London Missionary Society Press. Retrieved November 21, 2010.
  17. ^ a b Campbell, Gwyn (2005). An economic history of Imperial Madagascar, 1750–1895: the rise and fall of an island empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521839351.
  18. ^ Karner, Julie (2006). The Biography of Vanilla. Crabtree Publishing Company. ISBN 0778724905. Retrieved November 10, 2010.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Chan Tat Chuen, William (2010). Ma Cuisine de Madagascar (in French). Paris: Jean-Paul Rocher Editeur. ISBN 2917411325.
  20. ^ Slawecki, Leon (1971). French policy towards the Chinese in Madagascar. Shoe String Press. ISBN 0208012516.
  21. ^ a b Middleton, Karen (1997). "Death and Strangers". Journal of Religion in Africa. 27 (4): 341–373.
  22. ^ a b c Faublée, Jacques (1942). "L'alimentation des Bara (Sud de Madagascar)". Journal de la Société des Africanistes (in French). 12 (12): 157–202.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bradt, Hillary; Austin, Daniel (2007). Madagascar (9th ed.). Guilford, CT: The Globe Pequot Press Inc. pp. 113–115. ISBN 1841621978.
  24. ^ Sibree, James (1915). A Naturalist in Madagascar. London: J.B. Lippincott Company. ISBN 1165990520.
  25. ^ a b c Sandler, Bea (2001). The African Cookbook. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 0806513985.
  26. ^ a b c d e Espagne-Ravo, Angéline (1997). Ma Cuisine Malgache: Karibo Sakafo (in French). Paris: Edisud. ISBN 2857449461.
  27. ^ a b c Nativel, Didier (2009). Madagascar revisitée: en voyage avec Françoise Raison-Jourde (in French). Paris: Editions Karthala. ISBN 2811101748. {{cite book}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); Unknown parameter |las2= ignored (help)
  28. ^ Jacob, Jeanne; Michael, Ashkenazi (2006). The World Cookbook for Students. Vol. 3, Iraq to Myanmar. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313334544.
  29. ^ Hubert, Diana (August 3). "Chocolate made in Madagascar: A Labor of Love (Photo Gallery)". The Epoch Times. Retrieved November 17, 2010. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
  30. ^ Motavalli, Jim (2007). "Sweet Dreams: Fair trade cocoa company Theo Chocolate". E: The Environmental Magazine. pp. 42–43. Retrieved November 13, 2010. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  31. ^ Ecott, Tim (2004). Vanilla: Travels in search of the Luscious Substance. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0718145895.

See also

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