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Foreign relations of Brazil

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Nations with which Brazil has diplomatic relations.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for managing the foreign relations of Brazil. Brazil is a significant political and economic power in Latin America and a key player on the world stage.[1] Brazil's foreign policy reflects its role as a regional power and a potential world power and is designed to help protect the country's national interests, national security, ideological goals, and economic prosperity.

Between World War II and 1990, both democratic and military governments sought to expand Brazil's influence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and an independent foreign policy. Brazilian foreign policy has recently aimed to strengthen ties with other South American countries, engage in multilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and the Organization of American States, and act at times as a countervailing force to U.S. political and economic influence in Latin America.

Overview

Brazil's international relations are based on article 4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations.[2] According to the Constitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while Congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.[3]

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, also known as Itamaraty, is the government department responsible for advising the President and conducting Brazil's foreign relations with other countries and international bodies. Itamaraty's scope includes political, commercial, economic, financial, cultural and consular relations, areas in which it performs the classical tasks of diplomacy: represent, inform and negotiate. Foreign policy priorities are established by the President.

Foreign policy

Brazilian diplomacy under formerly left-wing governments (left) and currently right-wing government (right).

Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's unique position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.[4] Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs of other countries.[5] Brazil engages in multilateral diplomacy through the Organization of American States and the United Nations, and has increased ties with developing countries in Africa and Asia. Brazil is currently commanding a multinational U.N. stabilization force in Haiti, the MINUSTAH. Instead of pursuing unilateral prerogatives, Brazilian foreign policy has tended to emphasize regional integration, first through the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosul) and now the Union of South American Nations. Brazil is also committed to cooperation with other Portuguese-speaking nations[6] through joint-collaborations with the rest of the Portuguese-speaking world, in several domains which include military cooperation, financial aid, and cultural exchange. This is done in the framework of CPLP,[7] for instance. Lula da Silva visit to Africa in 2003 included State visits to three Portuguese-speaking African nations (Angola, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Mozambique).[8] Finally, Brazil is also strongly committed in the development and restoration of peace in East Timor, where it has a very powerful influence.[9][10]

Brazil's political, business, and military ventures are complemented by the country's trade policy. In Brazil, the Ministry of Foreign Relations continues to dominate trade policy, causing the country's commercial interests to be (at times) subsumed by a larger foreign policy goal, namely, enhancing Brazil's influence in Latin America and the world.[11][12] For example, while concluding meaningful trade agreements with developed countries (such as the United States and the European Union) would probably be beneficial to Brazil's long-term economic self-interest, the Brazilian government has instead prioritized its leadership role within Mercosul and expanded trade ties with countries in Africa, Asia and the Middle East.

Brazil's soft power diplomacy involves institutional strategies such as the formation of diplomatic coalitions to constrain the power of the established great powers.[13] In recent years, it has given high priority in establishing political dialogue with other strategic actors such as India, Russia, China and South Africa through participation in international groupings such as BASIC, IBSA and BRICS. The BRICS states have been amongst the most powerful drivers of incremental change in world diplomacy and they benefit most from the connected global power shifts.[13]

Workers Party administration: 2003-2018

See also: List of presidential trips made by Dilma Rousseff

The Brazilian foreign policy under the Lula da Silva administration (2003-2010) focused on the following directives: to contribute toward the search for greater equilibrium and attenuate unilateralism; to strengthen bilateral and multilateral relations in order to increase the country's weight in political and economic negotiations on an international level; to deepen relations so as to benefit from greater economical, financial, technological and cultural interchange; to avoid agreements that could jeopardize development in the long term.[14]

These directives implied precise emphasis on: the search for political coordination with emerging and developing countries, namely India, South Africa, Russia and China; creation of the Union of South American Nations and its derivative bodies, such as the South American Security Council; strengthening of Mercosul; projection at the Doha Round and WTO; maintenance of relations with developed countries, including the United States; undertaking and narrowing of relations with African countries; campaign for the reform of the United Nations Security Council and for a permanent seat for Brazil; and defense of social objectives allowing for a greater equilibrium between the States and populations.[14]

The foreign policy of the Rousseff administration (2011-2016) sought to deepen Brazil's regional commercial dominance and diplomacy, expand Brazil's presence in Africa, and play a major role in the G20 on global warming and in other multilateral settings.[15] At the United Nations, Brazil continues to oppose Economic sanctions and foreign military intervention, while seeking to garner support for a permanent seat at the Security Council.[16] Cooperation with other emerging powers remain a top priority in Brazil's global diplomatic strategy. On the recent airstrike resolution supporting military action in Libya, Brazil joined fellow BRICS in the Council and abstained. On the draft resolution condemning violence in Syria, Brazil worked with India and South Africa to try to bridge the Western powers' divide with Russia and China.[17]

Bolsonaro administration, 2019-present

See also: List of international presidential trips made by Jair Bolsonaro

After Rousseff's impeachment, Brazil started reconnecting with its western allies. In 2019 Jair Bolsonaro succeeded Michel Temer. The new foreign policy focused on a reapprochement with major governments especially the United States and Colombia in the Americas; Israel, Japan and South Korea in Asia; United Kingdom, Italy and Greece in Europe. The Brazil–Portugal relations were also strengthened, and despite disagreements over the crisis in Venezuela, Brazil remained close to the BRICS countries.[18][19]

Bolsonaro with United States President Donald Trump at the White House, 19 March 2019
Bolsonaro with United Kingdom Prime Minister Boris Johnson, 20 September 2021

During the 2018 presidential campaign, Bolsonaro said he would make considerable changes to Brazil's foreign relations, saying that the "Itamaraty needs to be in service of the values that were always associated with the Brazilian people". He also said that the country should stop "praising dictators" and attacking democracies, such as the United States, Israel and Italy.[20] In early 2018, he affirmed that his "trip to the five democratic countries the United States, Israel, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan showed who we will be and we would like to join good people". Bolsonaro has shown distrust towards China throughout the presidential campaign claiming they "[want to] buy Brazil",[21][22] although Brazil recorded a US$20 billion trade surplus with China in 2018, and China is only the 13th largest source of foreign direct investment into Brazil.[23] Bolsonaro said he wishes to continue to have business with the Chinese but he also said that Brazil should "make better [economic] deals" with other countries, with no "ideological agenda" behind it.[24] His stance towards China has also been interpreted as an attempt to curry favor from the Trump administration to garner concessions from the US.[23] However, Bolsonaro has mostly changed his position on China after he took office, saying that the two countries were "born to walk together" during his visit to Beijing in October 2019.[25][26] He has also said that Brazil will stay out of the ongoing China-U.S. trade war.[25]

Bolsonaro said that his first international trip as president would be to Israel.[27] Bolsonaro also said that the State of Palestine "is not a country, so there should be no embassy here", adding that "you don't negotiate with terrorists."[27] The announcement was warmly received by the prime minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu, who welcomed Bolsonaro to Israel in March 2019 during the final weeks of a re-election campaign,[28] but was met with condemnation from the Arab League, which warned Bolsonaro it could damage diplomatic ties.[29] "I love Israel," Bolsonaro said in Hebrew at a welcoming ceremony, with Netanyahu at his side, at Tel Aviv's Ben-Gurion airport.[30]

Bolsonaro with Chinese President Xi Jinping in October 2019

Bolsonaro also praised U.S. President Donald Trump and his foreign policy,[20] and has been called "the tropical Trump".[31] His son Eduardo has indicated that Brazil should distance itself from Iran, sever ties with Nicolás Maduro's government in Venezuela and relocate Brazil's embassy in Israel to Jerusalem.[32] Bolsonaro is widely considered the most pro-American candidate in Brazil since the 1980s. PSL members said that if elected, he would dramatically improve relations between the United States and Brazil.[33] During an October 2017 campaign rally in Miami, he saluted the American flag and led chants of "USA! USA!" to a large crowd.[34] U.S. National Security Advisor John Bolton praised Bolsonaro as a "like-minded" partner and said his victory was a "positive sign" for Latin America.[35]

At the regional level, Bolsonaro praised Argentine President Mauricio Macri for ending the 12-year rule of Néstor and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, which he saw as similar to Lula and Rousseff. Although he does not have plans to leave the Mercosur, he criticized it for prioritizing ideological issues over economic ones.[36] A staunch anti-communist, Bolsonaro has condemned Cuba's former leader Fidel Castro and the current regime in that island.[37][38]

Bolsonaro praised British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, saying that he had learned from Churchill: "Patriotism, love for your fatherland, respect for your flag – something that has been lost over the last few years here in Brazil ... and governing through example, especially at that difficult moment of the Second World War."[37] Bolsonaro said he's open to the possibility of hosting a U.S. military base in Brazil to counter Russian influence in the region.[39] With the intention to persuade Trump to make Brazil a NATO member in March 2019, Bolsonaro said: "the discussions with the United States will begin in the coming months".[40][41][42][43]

Bolsonaro with Russian President Vladimir Putin in November 2019

With formal U.S. support for Brazil's entry to OECD in May 2019, Bolsonaro said, "currently, all 36 members of the organization support the entry of the country, fruit of confidence in the new Brazil being built, more free, open and fair".[44][45][46] In October 2019, on a state visit to China, he announced the end of the need for visas for Chinese and Indian entry into Brazil. Brazil had already removed the need for visas for people from the U.S., Canada, Japan, and Australia.[47]

Regional policy

Mercosur, a regional trade bloc between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela.

Over the past decade, Brazil has firmly established itself as a regional power.[48] It has traditionally, if controversially,[49] been a leader in the inter-American community and played an important role in collective security efforts, as well as in economic cooperation in the Western Hemisphere.[50] Brazilian foreign policy supports economic and political integration efforts in order to reinforce long-standing relationships with its neighbors.[48] It is a founding member of the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty).[50] It has given high priority to expanding relations with its South American neighbors and strengthening regional bodies such as the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) and Mercosur.[50] Although integration is the primary purpose of these organizations, they also serve as forums in which Brazil can exercise its leadership and develop consensus around its positions on regional and global issues.[48] Most scholars agree that by promoting integration through organizations like Mercosur and UNASUR, Brazil has been able to solidify its role as a regional power.[48] In addition to consolidating its power within South America, Brazil has sought to expand its influence in the broader region by increasing its engagement in the Caribbean and Central America.,[48] although some think this is still a fragile, ongoing process, that can be thwarted by secondary regional powers in South America.[1]

In April 2019 Brazil left Union of South American Nations (Unasur) to become a member of Forum for the Progress and Development of South America (Prosur).[51] In January 2020, Brazil suspended its participation in the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, (Celac).[52]

Brazil regularly extends export credits and university scholarships to its Latin American neighbors.[53] In recent years, the Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES) has provided US$5 billion worth of loans to countries in the region.[54] Brazil has also increasingly provided Latin American nations with financial aid and technical assistance.[48] Between 2005 and 2009, Cuba, Haiti, and Honduras were the top three recipients of Brazilian assistance, receiving over $50 million annually.[48][55]

In November 2019, Brazil made a historic move to break with the rest of Latin America on the U.S. embargo of Cuba, becoming the first Latin American country in twenty-six years to vote against condemning the U.S.-led embargo of Cuba at the United Nations General Assembly.[56]

Diplomatic relations

Further information: List of diplomatic missions of Brazil
Diplomatic missions of Brazil
  Brazil
  Nations hosting a diplomatic mission of Brazil
  Nations with a non-resident mission of Brazil

Brazil has a large global network of diplomatic missions, and maintains diplomatic relations with every United Nations member state, in addition to United Nations General Assembly observers Holy See, Palestine and Order of Malta,[57] as well as the Cook Islands[58] and Niue.[59] As of 2019, Brazil's diplomatic network consisted of 194 overseas posts.[60]

Relations with non-UN members or observers:

United Nations politics

Main article: Brazil and the United Nations

Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations and participates in all of its specialized agencies. It has participated in 33 United Nations peacekeeping missions and contributed with over 27,000 soldiers.[63] Brazil has been a member of the United Nations Security Council ten times, most recently 2010–2011.[64] Along with Japan, Brazil has been elected more times to the Security Council than any other U.N. member state.[63]

Brazil is currently seeking a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.[65] It is a member of the G4, an alliance among Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan for the purpose of supporting each other's bids for permanent seats on the Security Council.[65] They propose the Security Council be expanded beyond the current 15 members to include 25 members. The G4 countries argue that a reform would render the body "more representative, legitimate, effective and responsive" to the realities of the international community in the 21st century.[65]

Outstanding international issues

Foreign aid

Overseas aid has become an increasingly important tool for Brazil's foreign policy.[69] Brazil provides aid through the Brazilian Agency of Cooperation (Abbreviation: ABC; Portuguese: Agência Brasileira de Cooperação), in addition to offering scientific, economical, and technical support. More than half of Brazilian aid is provided to Africa, whereas Latin America receives around 20% of Brazilian aid. The share of aid allocated to the Asian continent is small.[70] Within Africa, more than 80% of Brazilian aid is received by Portuguese-speaking countries.[71] Brazil concentrates its aid for Portuguese-speaking countries in the education sector, specially in secondary and post-secondary education, but it is more committed to agricultural development in other countries.[72] Estimated to be around $1 billion annually, Brazil is on par with China and India and ahead of many more traditional donor countries.[69] The aid tends to consist of technical aid and expertise, alongside a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to development results.[69] Brazil's aid demonstrates a developing pattern of South-South aid, which has been heralded as a 'global model in waiting'.[73] Some studies have suggested that, by giving aid, Brazil could be trying to get access to mineral and energy resources.[74]

Participation in international organizations

ACS(Observer) • ACTO • AfDB • ALECSO(Observer) • BIS • CAF-BDLA(Associate) • Cairns Group • CAN(Associate) • CDB • CPLP • FAO • G4 • BASIC countries • G8+5 • G15 • G20 • G20+ • G24 • G77 • IADB • IDB • IAEA • IBRD • IBSA •ICAO • ICC • ICRM • IDA • IFAD • IFC • IFRCS • IHO • ILO • IMF • IMO • Inmarsat •INSARAG • Intelsat • Interpol • IOC • IOM • ISO • ITU • LAES • LAIA • Mercosul • MINUSTAH • NAM(Observer) • NSG • OAS • OEI • OPANAL • OPCW • PCA • Rio Group • Rio Treaty • UN • UNASUR • UNCTAD • UNESCO • UNHCR • UNIDO • UNITAR • UNMIL • UNMIS • UNMOVIC • UNOCI • UNTAET • UNWTO • UPU • WCO • WHO • WIPO • WMO • WTO • ZPCAS

Bilateral relations

Africa

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Algeria 1962 See Algeria–Brazil relations
  • Algeria has an embassy in Brasilia.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Algiers.
 Angola 1975 See Angola–Brazil relations
  • Angola has an embassy in Brasilia and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Luanda.
 Benin
  • Benin has an embassy in Brasília.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Cotonou.
 Botswana
  • Botswana has an embassy in Brasília.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Gaborone.
 Burkina Faso
  • Brazil has an embassy in Ouagadougou.
  • Burkina Faso has an embassy in Brasília.
 Cameroon 1960
  • Brazil has an embassy in Yaoundé.
  • Cameroon has an embassy in Brasília.
 Cape Verde 1975 See Brazil–Cape Verde relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Praia.
  • Cape Verde has an embassy in Brasilia.
 Central African Republic 2010

Both countries established diplomatic relations in 2010.[75]

 Chad 1996
  • Brazil is accredited to Chad from its embassy in Yaoundé, Cameroon.
  • Chad is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., USA.
 Côte d'Ivoire
  • Brazil has an embassy in Abidjan.
  • Côte d'Ivoire has an embassy in Brasília.
 Democratic Republic of the Congo 1968 See Brazil–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Kinshasa.
  • DR Congo has an embassy in Brasília.
 Egypt 1924 See Brazil–Egypt relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Cairo.
  • Egypt has an embassy in Brasília.
 Equatorial Guinea
  • Brazil has an embassy in Malabo.
  • Equatorial Guinea has an embassy in Brasília.
 Ethiopia 1951 See Brazil–Ethiopia relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Brasília.
 Gabon
  • Brazil has an embassy in Libreville.
  • Gabon has an embassy in Brasília.
 Ghana 1960
  • Ghana and Brazil share a historically close relationship.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Accra.
  • Ghana has an embassy in Brasília.
 Guinea
  • Brazil has an embassy in Conakry.
  • Guinea has an embassy in Brasília.
 Guinea-Bissau 1974 See Brazil–Guinea-Bissau relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Bissau.
  • Guinea-Bissau has an embassy in Brasília..
 Kenya 1964 See Brazil–Kenya relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Nairobi.
  • Kenya has an embassy in Brasília.
 Libya 1 December 1955

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 1955

 Madagascar
  • Brazil is accredited to Madagascar from its embassy in Maputo, Mozambique.
  • Madagascar is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
 Mali
  • Brazil has an embassy in Bamako.
  • Mali has an embassy in Brasília.
 Mauritania
  • Brazil has an embassy in Nouakchott.
  • Mauritania has an embassy in Brasília.
 Morocco 1906
  • Brazil has an embassy in Rabat.
  • Morocco has an embassy in Brasília.
 Mozambique 15 November 1975 See Brazil–Mozambique relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Maputo.
  • Mozambique has an embassy in Brasília.

Mozambique is the country that receives the highest amount of Brazilian aid in Africa. Almost 50% of Brazilian aid allocated to the African continent between 1998 and 2010 was allocated to Mozambique.[71]

 Namibia 1990 See Brazil–Namibia relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Windhoek.
  • Namibia has an embassy in Brasília.
 Nigeria 1961 See Brazil–Nigeria relations

Bilateral relations between Nigeria and Brazil focus primarily upon trade and culture. The largest country in Latin America by size, and the largest country in Africa by population are remotely bordered across from one another by the Atlantic Ocean. Brazil and Nigeria for centuries, have enjoyed a warmly, friendly, and strong relationship on the basis of culture (many Afro-Brazilians trace their ancestry to Nigeria) and commercial trade.

  • Brazil has an embassy in Abuja and a consulate-general in Lagos.
  • Nigeria has an embassy in Brasília.
 São Tomé and Príncipe 1975 See Brazil–São Tomé and Príncipe relations
 Senegal 1960
  • Brazil has an embassy in Dakar.
  • Senegal has an embassy in Brasília.
 South Africa 1948 See Brazil–South Africa relations

Brazil-South Africa relations have traditionally been close. Brazil has provided military assistance to South Africa in the form of warfare training and logistics. Bilateral relations between the countries have recently increased, as a result of Brazil's new South-South foreign policy aimed to strengthen integration between the major powers of the developing world. South Africa is part of the IBSA Dialogue Forum, alongside Brazil and India.

  • Brazil has an embassy in Pretoria and a consulate-general in Cape Town.
  • South Africa has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Sudan
  • Brazil has an embassy in Khartoum.
  • Sudan has an embassy in Brasília.
 Tanzania 1970 See Brazil–Tanzania relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Dar es Salaam.
  • Tanzania has an embassy in Brasília.
 Togo
  • Brazil has an embassy in Lomé.
  • Togo has an embassy in Brasília.
 Tunisia
  • Brazil has an embassy in Tunis.
  • Tunisia has an embassy in Brasília.
 Zimbabwe 1980
  • Brazil has an embassy in Harare.
  • Zimbabwe has an embassy in Brasília.

Americas

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Antigua and Barbuda
  • Antigua and Barbuda is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
  • Brazil is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda from its embassy in Bridgetown, Barbados.
 Argentina See Argentina–Brazil relations

After democratization, a strong integration and partnership began between the two countries. In 1985 they signed the basis for the MERCOSUL, a Regional Trade Agreement. In the field of science, the two regional giants had been rivals since the 1950s when both governments launched parallel nuclear and space programs, however, several agreements were signed since then such as the creation of the Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials (ABACC) to verify both countries' pledges to use nuclear energy only for peaceful purposes. National spaces agencies CONAE and the AEB had also begun working together since the 1990s. Brazil's decision to prevent a Royal Navy ship docking in Rio de Janeiro was seen as backing Argentina over the Falklands dispute.[76] Also on the military side there has been greater rapprochement. In accordance with the friendship policy, both armies dissolved or moved major units previously located at their common border (for example, Argentine's 7th Jungle and 3rd Motorized Infantry Brigades). Brazilian soldiers are embedded in the Argentine peacekeeping contingent at UNFICYP in Cyprus and they are working together at MINUSTAH in Haiti and, as another example of collaboration, Argentine Navy aircraft routinely operate from the Brazilian Navy carrier NAe São Paulo.

  • Argentina has an embassy in Brasília and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Buenos Aires and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
 Bahamas
  • Bahamas does not have an embassy accredited to Brazil.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Nassau.
 Barbados 1971-11-26 See Barbados–Brazil relations
  • Barbados has an embassy in Brasília.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Bridgetown.
 Belize 1983-03-01

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 1983.

  • Belize does not have an embassy accredited to Brazil.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Belmopan.
 Bolivia See Bolivia–Brazil relations
  • Bolivia has an embassy in Brasilia and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
  • Brazil has an embassy in La Paz and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
 Canada See Brazil–Canada relations

Brazil-Canada relations have been cordial but relatively limited, although the relationship between the two countries has been gradually evolving over time.

  • Brazil has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver.
  • Canada has an embassy in Brasília, and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
 Chile See Brazil–Chile relations

Chile and Brazil have acted numerous times as mediators in international conflicts, such as in the 1914 diplomatic impasse between the United States and Mexico, avoiding a possible state of war between those two countries. More recently, since the 2004 Haiti rebellion, Chile and Brazil have actively participated in the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, which is led by the Brazilian Army. They are also two of the three most important economies in South America along with Argentina.

 Colombia See Brazil–Colombia relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Bogotá and a vice-consulate in Leticia.
  • Colombia has an embassy in Brasilia and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
 Costa Rica See Brazil–Costa Rica relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in San José.
  • Costa Rica has an embassy in Brasilia.
 Cuba See Brazil–Cuba relations

Brazilian-Cuban relations were classified as "excellent" in May 2008 following a meeting of foreign ministers.[77] During a January 2008 state visit to Cuba by Brazilian President Lula da Silva, the Brazilian leader expressed desire for his country to be Cuba's "number one partner".[77] Bilateral trade increased by 58% between April 2007 and April 2008.[78]

Brazilian-Cuban relations have deteriorated greatly during the presidency of Brazilian rightwing president Jair Bolsonaro since 2019 .He stopped Mais Medicos (More Doctors) programme and thousands of Cuban doctors left Brazil.[79][80] In November 2019, Brazil voted for the first time against an annual United Nations resolution condemning and calling for an end to Washington's economic embargo on Cuba.[81]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Havana.
  • Cuba has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Dominica 1986

Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1986.[82]

  • Brazil is accredited to Dominica from its embassy in Bridgetown, Barbados.
  • Dominica is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
 Dominican Republic
  • Brazil has an embassy in Santo Domingo.
  • Dominican Republic has an embassy in Brasilia.
 Ecuador
  • Brazil has an embassy in Quito.
  • Ecuador has an embassy in Brasilia.
 El Salvador
  • Brazil has an embassy in San Salvador.
  • El Salvador has an embassy in Brasilia.
 Grenada
  • Brazil is accredited to Grenada from its embassy in Bridgetown, Barbados.
  • Grenada is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
 Guatemala
  • Brazil has an embassy in Guatemala City.
  • Guatemala has an embassy in Brasilia.
 Guyana See Brazil–Guyana relations

Brazil–Guyana relations have traditionally been close. Brazil has provided military assistance to Guyana in the form of warfare training and logistics. Bilateral relations between the countries have recently increased, as a result of Brazil's new South-South foreign policy aimed to strengthen South American integration.

  • Brazil has an embassy in Georgetown.
  • Guyana has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in Boa Vista.
 Haiti 1928 See Brazil–Haiti relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Port-au-Prince.
  • Haiti has an embassy in Brasília.
 Honduras
  • Brazil has an embassy in Tegucigalpa.
  • Honduras has an embassy in Brasilia.
 Jamaica 1962-10-14 See Brazil–Jamaica relations

Both countries are full members of the Group of 15.

  • Brazil has an embassy in Kingston.
  • Jamaica has an embassy in Brasília.
 Mexico 7 August 1824 See Brazil–Mexico relations

Brazil and Mexico have the two largest emerging economies in Latin-America and the global stage. Both nations are considered to be regional powers and highly influential within the American continent. Both nations have historically been friendly and they have both participated in and are members of several multilateral organizations such as the G20, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, Rio Group and the United Nations. Several high-level diplomatic meeting have been held by presidents of both nations to enhance bilateral relations.

 Nicaragua
  • Brazil has an embassy in Managua.
  • Nicaragua has an embassy in Brasilia.
 Panama
  • Brazil has an embassy in Panama City.
  • Panama has an embassy in Brasilía and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro, Santos and in São Paulo.
 Paraguay See Brazil–Paraguay relations

Paraguay–Brazil relations have improved greatly after Brazilian President Lula's decision in 2009 to triple its payments to Paraguay for energy from a massive hydro-electric dam on their border, ending a long-running dispute. Under the accord, Brazil will pay Paraguay $360m a year for energy from the jointly-operated Itaipu plant. Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva called it a "historic agreement" and the deal slated as a political victory for Paraguayan President Fernando Lugo.[83] In February 2019, Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro praised the late military strongman of Paraguay, Alfredo Stroessner, calling him "a man of vision." Bolsonaro made the comments during a ceremony at the Itaipu hydroelectric dam on the countries' shared border. At his side was his close ally, Paraguayan right-wing President Mario Abdo Benitez.[84]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Asunción and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
  • Paraguay has an embassy in Brasília and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
 Peru See Brazil–Peru relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Lima and a consulate in Iquitos.
  • Peru has an embassy in Brasilía and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
  • Brazil is accredited to Saint Kitts and Nevis from its embassy in Bridgetown, Barbados.
  • Saint Kitts and Nevis is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
 Saint Lucia
  • Brazil has an embassy in Castries.
  • Grenada is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
  • Brazil is accredited to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines from its embassy in Bridgetown, Barbados.
  • Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
 Suriname See Brazil–Suriname relations
 Trinidad and Tobago 1965 See Brazil-Trinidad and Tobago relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Port of Spain.
  • Trinidad and Tobago has an embassy in Brasilia.
 United States 1824 See Brazil–United States relations

Brazil-United States relations has a long history, characterized by some moments of remarkable convergence of interests but also by sporadic and critical divergences on sensitive international issues.[88] The United States has increasingly regarded Brazil as a significant power, especially in its role as a stabilizing force and skillful interlocutor in Latin America.[89] As a significant political and economic power, Brazil has traditionally preferred to cooperate with the United States on specific issues rather than seeking to develop an all-encompassing, privileged relationship with the United States.[89] In October 2020, Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro said that the Brazil-US relations have elevated to “its best moment ever.” [90]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
  • United States has an embassy in Brasília and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
 Uruguay 1828 See Brazil–Uruguay relations

Brazil and Uruguay are neighboring countries that share close historical, cultural and geographical ties. The singularity of the bilateral relationship between the two countries originates from the strong historical connection - marked by important events, such as the establishment of the Colônia do Sacramento in 1680, the annexation by Brazil and the subsequent creation of the Província Cisplatina in 1815, and Uruguay's independence from Brazil in 1828.[91]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Montevideo and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
  • Uruguay has an embassy in Brasília and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
 Venezuela See Brazil–Venezuela relations

During the Brazilian government of President Jair Bolsonaro since 2019, Brazil has cut off the relations with the current Venezuelan leftwing and disputed government of president Nicolás Maduro. Brazil downgraded its diplomatic relations with the ruling Venezuelan government. Brazil has recognised Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaidó as the legitimate President of Venezuela.[92]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Caracas and maintains several consulates throughout the country.
  • Venezuela has an embassy in Brasilia and maintains several consulates throughout the country.

Asia

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Armenia 17 February 1992 See Armenia–Brazil relations
 Azerbaijan 21 October 1993 See Azerbaijan–Brazil relations
  • Azerbaijan has an embassy in Brasília.[95]
  • Brazil has an embassy in Baku.[96]
 Bangladesh See Bangladesh-Brazil relations

Relations have been good. In 2013, Bangladesh has sought Brazil's support for its candidature at the Human Rights Council in 2015 and non-permanent seat of the UN Security Council for 2016–17 term. In 2014, Brazil assured its support to Bangladesh for the posts of United Nations Human Rights Commission and CEDAW (The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women). Bangladesh also supported Brazil's candidature for the post of Director General of World Trade Organization.

  • Bangladesh has an embassy in Brasília.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Dhaka.
 Bhutan 2009-09-21

Bhutan and Brazil established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2009.[97][98]

 China See Brazil–China relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Shanghai.
  • China has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Recife, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
 East Timor See Brazil–East Timor relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Dili.
  • East Timor has an embassy in Brasilia.
 Georgia April 1993 See Brazil–Georgia relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Tbilisi.
  • Georgia has an embassy in Brasília.
 India See Brazil–India relations

The two countries share similar perceptions on issues of interest to developing countries and have cooperated in the multilateral level on issues such as reform to the UN and the UNSC expansion.[99]

  • Brazil has an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate-general in Mumbai.
  • India has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Indonesia See Brazil–Indonesia relations

Both are large tropical country endowed with rich natural resources, Brazil and Indonesia possess the largest tropical rain forest of the world that contains the world's richest biodiversity, which gave them a vital role in global environment issues, such as ensuring tropical forests protection. Both countries leading the list of Megadiverse countries with Indonesia second only to Brazil.

  • Brazil has an embassy in Jakarta.
  • Indonesia has an embassy in Brasília.
 Iran See Brazil–Iran relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Tehran.
  • Iran has an embassy in Brasília.
 Iraq 1967 See Brazil–Iraq relations
  • Brazil maintains an embassy in Baghdad.
  • Iraq maintains an embassy in Brasília.

Both countries are full members of the Group of 77. Brazil was the first Latin American country to reopen its embassy in Iraq since the 1991 Gulf War.[100]

 Israel 1949-2-7[101] See Brazil–Israel relations

Brazil played a large role in the establishment of the State of Israel. Brazil held the Presidency office of the UN General Assembly in 1947, which proclaimed the Partition Plan for Palestine. The Brazilian delegation to the U.N., supported and heavily lobbied for the partition of Palestine toward the creation of the State of Israel. Brazil was also one of the first countries to recognize the State of Israel, on 7 February 1949, less than one year after Israeli Declaration of Independence. Nowadays, Brazil and Israel maintains close political, economic and military ties. Brazil is a full member state of Israel Allies Caucus,[102] a political advocacy organization that mobilizes pro-Israel parliamentarians in governments worldwide. The two nations enjoy a degree of arms cooperation as Brazil is a key buyer of Israeli weapons and military technology.[103] Also, Brazil is Israel's largest trading partner in Latin America.[104] Brazil has the 9th largest Jewish community in the world, about 107,329 by 2010, according to the IBGE census.[105] The Jewish Confederation of Brazil (CONIB) estimates to more than 120,000.[106] Brazil-Israel relations have improved significantly during the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro since 2019. Brazilian president Bolsonaro has expressed his love for Israel several times.[107] He has even said to have turned Brazil into Israel's new best friend.[108]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Tel Aviv.
  • Israel has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Japan 1895 See Brazil–Japan relations
 Jordan
  • Brazil has an embassy in Amman.
  • Jordan has an embassy in Brasília.
 Kazakhstan 22 September 1993 See Brazil–Kazakhstan relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Nur-Sultan.
  • Kazakhstan has an embassy in Brasília.
 Kuwait
  • Brazil has an embassy in Kuwait City.
  • Kuwait has an embassy in Brasília.
 Lebanon November 1945 See Brazil–Lebanon relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Beirut.[111]
  • Lebanon has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.[112]
 Malaysia See Brazil–Malaysia relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.
  • Malaysia has an embassy in Brasília.
 North Korea 9 March 2001[113] See Brazil–North Korea relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Pyongyang.
  • North Korea has an embassy in Brasília.
 Pakistan See Brazil–Pakistan relations

Brazil-Pakistan relations are characterized as friendly and cooperative. In 2008, Brazil approved the sale of 100 MAR-1 anti-radiation missiles to Pakistan despite India's pressure on Brazil to avoid doing so.[114]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Islamabad.
  • Pakistan has an embassy in Brasília.
 Palestine See Brazil–Palestine relations
  • Brazil has a representative office in Ramallah.
  • Palestine has an embassy in Brasília.
 Philippines See Brazil–Philippines relations

In June 2009, Brazil and the Philippines made their pledges as they signed mutual cooperation agreements in the fields of bio-energy and agriculture.[115] The two countries committed themselves to take the necessary steps to implement the signed Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation in Agriculture and the Memorandum of Understanding on Bioenergy Cooperation.[116] The Philippines and Brazil signed six memoranda of understanding and agreements on the development and production of renewable energy, and agriculture cooperation.[117] It intends to "facilitate technical cooperation... on the production and use of biofuels, particularly ethanol, and promote the expansion of bilateral trade and investment in biofuel,"[118]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Manila.
  • Philippines has an embassy in Brasília.
 Qatar 5 November 1974 See Brazil–Qatar relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Doha.[119]
  • Qatar has an embassy in Brasília.[120]
 Saudi Arabia See Brazil-Saudi Arabia relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Riyadh.
  • Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Brasília.
 Singapore
  • Brazil has an embassy in Singapore.
  • Singapore has an embassy in Brasília.
 South Korea 31 October 1959[121] See Brazil–South Korea relations

The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the Federative Republic of Brazil started on 31 October 1959.

  • South Korea has an embassy in Brasília.[122]
  • Brazil has an embassy in Seoul.[123]
 Syria
  • Brazil has an embassy in Damascus.
  • Syria has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Taiwan See Brazil–Taiwan relations
  • Brazil has a Commercial Office in Taipei.
  • Taiwan has an Economic and Cultural Office in Brasília and in São Paulo.
 Thailand 17 April 1959
  • Brazil has an embassy in Bangkok.
  • Thailand has an embassy in Brasília.

Brazil is the main trading partner of Thailand in Latin America.[124]

 Turkey 1927[125] See Brazil–Turkey relations
 United Arab Emirates
  • Brazil has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a trade office in Dubai.
  • UAE has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Vietnam 8 May 1989

The Brazilian Embassy in Hanoi was opened in 1994, being the first Latin American country to open an embassy in Hanoi. Vietnamese Presidents Lê Đức Anh and Trần Đức Lương have visited Brazil in October 1995 and November 2004, respectively.[126]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Hanoi.
  • Vietnam has an embassy in Brasília.

Europe

See also: Brazil–European Union relations
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Albania See Albania–Brazil relations
  • Albania has an embassy in Brasília.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Tirana.
 Andorra 9 July 1996
  • Andorra does not have an accreditation to Brazil.
  • Brazil is accredited to Andorra from its embassy in Madrid, Spain and maintains an honorary consulate in Andorra la Vella.
 Austria See Austria–Brazil relations
  • Austria has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Vienna.
 Bulgaria
  • Brazil has an embassy in Sofia.
  • Bulgaria has an embassy in Brasília.
 Cyprus July 21, 1964
  • Diplomatic relations were established on July 21, 1964.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Nicosia.
  • Cyprus has an embassy in Brasília.
 Czech Republic 1918 See Brazil–Czech Republic relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Prague.
  • Czech Republic has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Denmark See Brazil–Denmark relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Copenhagen.
  • Denmark has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Estonia
  • Brazil has an embassy in Tallinn.
  • Estonia is accredited to Brazil from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tallinn.
 Finland April 8, 1929 See Brazil–Finland relations

Brazil recognised the independence of Finland on December 26, 1919.

  • Brazil has an embassy in Helsinki.
  • Finland has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate in São Paulo.
 France See Brazil–France relations

France has recognized Brazil as its special partner in South America and as a global player in international affairs. The two countries are committed to strengthening their bilateral cooperation in the areas for which working groups have been created: nuclear power, renewable energies, defence technologies, technological innovation, joint cooperation in African countries and space technologies, medicines and the environment.[127] Recently, France announced its support to the Brazilian bid for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.[127]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Paris and consulates-general in Marseille and in Cayenne and Saint-Georges (both in French Guiana).
  • France has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo and a consulate in Recife.
 Germany See Brazil–Germany relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Munich.
  • Germany has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
 Greece See Brazil–Greece relations

The countries have enjoyed "Bilateral relations [that] have always been good and are progressing smoothly," according to the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[128]

  • Brazil has an embassy in Athens.
  • Greece has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate general in São Paulo.
 Holy See See Brazil–Holy See relations
 Hungary 1927 See Brazil–Hungary relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Budapest.
  • Hungary has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
  • The two countries signed the Brazil-Hungary Cultural Agreement in 1992.
 Iceland 1952
  • Brazil is accredited to Iceland from its embassy in Oslo, Norway and maintains an honorary consulate in Reykjavík.
  • Iceland is accredited to Brazil from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Reykjavík and maintains honorary consulates in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
 Ireland 1975 See Brazil–Ireland relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Dublin.
  • Ireland has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Italy 1834 See Brazil–Italy relations
 Latvia
  • Brazil is accredited to Latvia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.
  • Latvia is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Lisbon, Portugal.
 Lithuania 1991 See Brazil–Lithuania relations
  • Brazil is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark and maintains an honorary consulate in Vilnius.[137]
  • Lithuania has a consulate-general in São Paulo.[138]
 Malta 23 June 1975
  • Brazil is accredited to Malta from its embassy in Rome, Italy and maintains an honorary consulate in Valletta.
  • Malta has an embassy in Brasília.
 Monaco
  • Brazil is accredited to Monaco from its embassy Paris, France and maintains an honorary consulate in Monaco.
  • Monaco has an honorary consulate in São Paulo.
 Netherlands
  • Brazil has an embassy in The Hague a consulate-general in Rotterdam[139] and a consulate in Curaçao.[140]
  • Netherlands has an embassy in Brasilia and two consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.[141]
 Norway See Brazil–Norway relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Oslo.
  • Norway has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in Rio de Janeiro.
 Poland 27 May 1920 See Brazil–Poland relations
  • Poland has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in Curitiba.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Warsaw.
 Portugal See Brazil–Portugal relations

Portugal and Brazil have countless bilateral agreements in areas such as culture, language, R&D, immigration, defence, tourism, economy, environment, among others.[142][143] Portugal and Brazil hold regular Summits to discuss bilateral and multilateral agreements and current topics (last one in Bahia in 2008, before that one in Porto in 2005).[144] One rather controversial topic was the spelling reform that aims at homogenising spelling in lusophone countries. Both countries share a common heritage and are committed in its preservation, be it through bilateral agreements or involving other nations, such as in the framework of CPLP.[145] Both countries lobby within the UN to upgrade Portuguese to a working language in that Organisation.[146] Portugal has also lobbied for Brazil to become a permanent member of the UN Security Council.[147] Finally, Portugal hosted the 1st EU-Brazil summit, in 2007.

 Romania 1928 See Brazil–Romania relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Bucharest.
  • Romania has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in Rio de Janeiro.
 Russia See Brazil–Russia relations

Brazil–Russia relations have seen a significant improvement in recent years, characterized by an increasing commercial trade and cooperation in military and technology segments. Today, Brazil shares an important alliance with the Russian Federation, with partnerships in areas such as space and military technologies, and telecommunications.

 Serbia 1946 See Brazil–Serbia relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Belgrade.
  • Serbia has an embassy in Brasília.
 Spain 1834 See Brazil–Spain relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Madrid and a consulate-general in Barcelona.
  • Spain has an embassy in Brasilia and consulates-general in Porto Alegre, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador and in São Paulo.
 Sweden 1826 See Brazil–Sweden relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Stockholm.
  • Sweden has an embassy in Brasília.
  Switzerland
  • Brazil has an embassy in Bern and consulates-general in Geneva and Zürich.
  • Switzerland has an embassy in Brasília.
 Ukraine See Brazil–Ukraine relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Kyiv.
  • Ukraine has an embassy in Brasilia, a consulate-general in Rio de Janeiro and a consulate in Curitiba.
 United Kingdom See Brazil–United Kingdom relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in London and a consulate-general in Edinburgh.
  • United Kingdom has an embassy in Brasilia and consulates-general in Belo Horizonte, Recife, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo..

Oceania

Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Australia See Australia–Brazil relations
  • Australia has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
  • Brazil has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate-general in Sydney.
 Fiji
  • Brazil is accredited to Fiji from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.
  • Fiji does not have an accreditation to Brazil.
 Nauru 2 November 2005

Both countries established diplomatic relations on November 2, 2005.[148]

 New Zealand 1964 See Brazil–New Zealand relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Wellington.
  • New Zealand has an embassy in Brasilia and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
 Samoa 2005

Both countries established diplomatic relations on February 1, 2005.[149][150]

  • Brazil is accredited to Samoa from its embassy in Wellington, New Zealand.
  • Samoa does not have an accreditation to Brazil.

See also

References

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Bibliography

Further information: Brazil–United States relations § Further reading
  • Abellán, Javier, and José Antonio Alonso, eds. The role of Brazil as a new donor of development aid in Africa (University of Bologna, 2017).
  • Almeida, Paulo Roberto de. "Never before seen in Brazil: Luis Inácio Lula da Silva's grand diplomacy." Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional 53 (2010): 160–177. online
  • Buarque, Daniel. "Brazil is not (perceived as) a serious country: exposing gaps between the external images and the international ambitions of the nation." Brasiliana: Journal for Brazilian Studies 8.1-2 (2019): 285-314 online.
  • Burges, Sean W. Brazil in the world: The international relations of a South American giant (2016) excerpt; wide-ranging survey.
  • Burges, Sean W. Brazilian Foreign Policy after the Cold War (UP of Florida, 2009)
  • Burges, Sean W., and Fabrício H. Chagas Bastos. "The importance of presidential leadership for Brazilian foreign policy." Policy Studies 38.3 (2017): 277–290. online
  • Burges, Sean W. "Without Sticks or Carrots: Brazilian Leadership in South America during the Cardoso Era, 1992–2003.” Bulletin of Latin American Research 25#1 (2006): 23–42.
  • Burges, Sean W. Consensual Hegemony: Theorizing Brazilian Foreign Policy after the Cold War.” International Relations (2008) 22 (1): 65–84.
  • Brazilian foreign policy under Jair Bolsonaro: far-right populism and the rejection of the liberal international order.

Academic Journal

  • Casarões, Guilherme et al. "Brazilian foreign policy under Jair Bolsonaro: far-right populism and the rejection of the liberal international order." Cambridge Review of International Affairs vol 34 (September 2021), p1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2021.1981248
  • Chagas-Bastos, Fabrício H., and Marcela Franzoni. "The dumb giant: Brazilian foreign policy under Jair Bolsonaro." E-international Relations 16 (2019). online
  • Dehshiri, Mohammad Reza, and Mohammad Hossein Neshastesazan. "Human Rights Diplomacy: Case Study of Brazil." World Sociopolitical Studies 2.1 (2018): 87–125. online
  • De Sá Guimarães, Feliciano, and Irma Dutra De Oliveira E Silva. "Far-right populism and foreign policy identity: Jair Bolsonaro's ultra-conservatism and the new politics of alignment." International Affairs 97.2 (2021): 345–363. online
  • Gardini, G., and M. Tavares de Almeida. Foreign Policy Responses to the Rise of Brazil: Balancing Power in Emerging States (Palgrave, 2017). How other states responded. excerpt
  • Long, Tom. "The US, Brazil and Latin America: the dynamics of asymmetrical regionalism." Contemporary Politics 24.1 (2018): 113–129. online
  • Lopes, Dawisson Belém. "De-westernization, democratization, disconnection: the emergence of Brazil’s post-diplomatic foreign policy." Global Affairs 6.2 (2020): 167–184. online
  • Magalhães, Diego Trindade D'Ávila, and Laís Forti Thomaz. "The Conspiracy-Myth Diplomacy: anti-globalism vs pragmatism in Bolsonaro’s foreign policy for South American integration." OIKOS 20.3 (2022). online
  • Mares, David R., and Harold A. Trinkunas, eds. Aspirational power: Brazil on the long road to global influence (Brookings Institution Press, 2016).
  • Pitts, Bryan. "The Empire Strikes Back: US-Brazil Relations from Obama to Trump" in The Future of US Empire in the Americas (Routledge, 2020) pp. 165–187.
  • Rossone de Paula, Francine. The Emergence of Brazil to the Global Stage: Ascending and Falling in the International Order of Competition (2018) preview; also online review
  • Rossone de Paula, Francine. "Brazil’s non-indifference: a case for a feminist diplomatic agenda or geopolitics as usual?." International Feminist Journal of Politics 21.1 (2019): 47–66.
  • Saraiva, Miriam Gomes. "The democratic regime and the changes in Brazilian foreign policy towards South America." Brazilian Political Science Review 14 (2020). online
  • Smith, Joseph. Brazil and the United States: Convergence and Divergence (U of Georgia Press; 2010), 256 pages
  • Visentini, Paulo. "The Brazil of Lula: a global and affirmative diplomacy (2003-2010)" Austral: Brazilian Journal of Strategy & International Relations 1.1 (2012): 23–35. online
  • Vigevani, Tullo, and Gabriel Cepaluni, eds. Brazilian Foreign Policy in Changing Times: The Quest for Autonomy from Sarney to Lula (Lexington Books, 2009).
  • Weiffen, Brigitte. "Foreign Policy and International Relations: Taking Stock after Two Years of the Bolsonaro Administration." in Brazil under Bolsonaro. How endangered is democracy? (2022): 55–66. online

Historical

  • Bethell, Leslie. The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question (2009) excerpt
  • Fritsch, Winston. External Restraints on Economic Policy in Brazil, 1889-1930 (1988), emphasis on role of Great Britain.
  • Garcia, Eugenio V. "Antirevolutionary diplomacy in oligarchic Brazil, 1919–30." Journal of Latin American Studies 36.4 (2004): 771–796. online[dead link]
  • Graham, Richard. Britain and the Onset of Modernization in Brazil 1850–1914 (1972) excerpt
  • Harmer, Tanya. "Brazil's Cold War in the Southern Cone, 1970–1975' Cold War History (2012) 12#4 pp 659-681.
  • Hilton, Stanley E. "The Argentine factor in twentieth-century Brazilian foreign policy strategy." Political Science Quarterly 100.1 (1985): 27–51. online
  • Mota, Isadora Moura. "On the Verge of War: Black Insurgency, the ‘Christie Affair’, and British Antislavery in Brazil." Slavery & Abolition 43.1 (2022): 120-139. London threatened war in 1862-1863 in the "Christie Affair."
  • Rivere, Peter. Absent Minded Imperialism: Britain and the Expansion of Empire in 19th-Century Brazil (1995)
  • Rodrigues, Jose Honorio. "The Foundations of Brazil's Foreign Policy." International Affairs 38.3 (1962): 324–338; covers 1822 to 1889. online
  • Roett, Riordan. "Brazil ascendant: international relations and geopolitics in the late 20th century." Journal of international affairs (1975): 139–154. online
  • Skidmore, Thomas E. "The Historiography of Brazil, 1889-1964," Hispanic American Historical Review (1976) 56#1 pp 81–109; emphasis is on economics and foreign policy. DOI: 10.2307/2513726
  • Smith, Joseph. Unequal Giants: Diplomatic Relations between the United States & Brazil, 1889-1930 1991).
  • Topik, Steven C. Trade & Gunboats: The United States & Brazil in the Age of Empire (1997), covers 1870 to 1899.
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