Jackie Robinson

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Jackie robinson)
Jump to: navigation, search
For other persons named Jackie Robinson, see Jackie Robinson (disambiguation).
Jackie Robinson

Second baseman
Born: January 31, 1919(1919-01-31)
Cairo, Georgia
Died: October 24, 1972 (aged 53)
Stamford, Connecticut
Batted: Right Threw: Right 
MLB debut
April 15, 1947 for the Brooklyn Dodgers
Last MLB appearance
October 10, 1956 for the Brooklyn Dodgers
Career statistics
Batting average     .311
Hits     1,518
Home runs     137
Stolen bases     197
Teams
Career highlights and awards
Member of the National
Baseball Hall of Fame
Induction     1962
Vote     77.5% (first ballot)

Jack Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was the first African-American Major League Baseball player of the modern era.[2] While not the first African-American player in major league history, Robinson broke the baseball color line when he debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers organization in the mid-1940s. This ended a nearly sixty-year era of segregation in professional baseball, in which African-Americans were prohibited from competing in Major League Baseball and its affiliated minor league systems, and were instead relegated to the Negro Leagues.[3] Since segregation dominated most aspects of American life at the time,[4] Robinson's baseball career had a major cultural impact beyond sports and was a significant precursor to the subsequent Civil Rights Movement.[5]

Apart from his cultural impact, Robinson had an exceptional baseball career. In ten seasons, he played in six World Series, contributing to a World Championship for the Dodgers in 1955. He was selected for six consecutive All-Star Games from 1949 to 1954,[6] was the recipient of the inaugural MLB Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, and won the National League MVP Award in 1949 – the first black player so honored.[7] Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962. In 1997, Major League Baseball conferred a unique honor upon Robinson by retiring uniform number 42, his designation, across all major league teams.

Robinson was also known for his pursuits outside the baseball diamond. He was the first African-American television analyst in Major League Baseball, and the first African-American vice-president of a major American corporation. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned/controlled entity based in Harlem, New York. In recognition of his achievements on and off the field, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal.

Contents

Early life

Robinson was born on January 31, 1919 into a family of sharecroppers in Cairo, Georgia, during a Spanish flu and smallpox epidemic. He was the youngest of five children, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed "Mack"), and Willa Mae.[8][9] His middle name was in honor of former President Theodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born.[10][11] After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, it moved to Pasadena, California.[12][13][14] The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family.[15] Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities.[16] As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it.[16][17][18]

John Muir High School

In 1935, Robinson graduated from Dakota Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir High School (Muir Tech).[19] Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers Mack (himself an accomplished athlete and silver medalist at the 1936 Summer Olympics)[18] and Frank inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports.[20][21] At Muir Tech, Robinson played several sports at the varsity level and lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track, and baseball.[14] He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, quarterback on the football team, and guard on the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in the broad jump. He was also a member of the tennis team.[22]

In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on the Pomona annual baseball tournament all-star team, which included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon.[23] In late January 1937, the Pasadena Star-News newspaper reported that Robinson "for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball and tennis."[24]

Pasadena Junior College

After Muir, Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College (PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track.[25] On the football team, he played quarterback and safety. He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team, and he broke school broad jump records held by his brother Mack.[14] As at Muir Hugh School, most of Jackie's teammates were white.[23] While playing football at PJC, Jackie suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military.[26][27] Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities.[28] In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player.[21][29] That year, Robinson was one of ten students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing "outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition."[30]

An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived as racist – a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police.[31] Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident – along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police – gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism.[32] Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Jackie felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearby University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family.[21][33]

UCLA and afterward

In 1940, Robinson (pictured here in his track uniform) became the first athlete at UCLA to letter in the same year in four sports: baseball, football, basketball and track.
Robinson in his UCLA track uniform

After graduating from PJC in spring 1939,[34] Robinson transferred to UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track.[35][36] He was one of four African-Americans on the 1939 UCLA Bruins football team; the others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players[37] – unprecedented at a time when only a few dozen African-Americans played college football at desegregated universities.[38] Belying his future career, baseball was Robinson's "worst sport" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twice stole home plate.[39]

While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum, a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic career at PJC.[40] In the spring semester of 1941, despite his mother's and Isum's reservations, Robinson left college just shy of graduation.[41] He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government's National Youth Administration (NYA) in Atascadero, California.[42][43][44]

After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled to Honolulu in fall 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu Bears.[42][44] After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League.[45] By that time, however, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, drawing the United States into World War II and ending Robinson's nascent football career.[42]

Military career

Robinson, in military uniform, visits his family home in Pasadena, California, c. 1943, and receives a salute from his nephew Frank. The crossed-sabre ensignia indicates Robinson's membership in a cavalry unit.
Robinson in his military uniform, c. 1943

In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit in Fort Riley, Kansas. Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to an Officer Candidate School (OCS) then located at Fort Riley. Although Army policy had allowed black applicants to enter OCS since July 1941,[46] the applications of Robinson and his colleagues were inexplicably delayed for several months.[47] After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War),[48] the men were accepted into OCS.[42][47][49] This common military experience spawned a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis.[50][51] Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943.[52] Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged.[47]

After receiving his commisison, Robinson was reassigned to Fort Hood, Texas, where he joined the 761st "Black Panthers" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (now Huston-Tillotson University) in nearby Austin, Texas; Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC.[53][54]

An event in July 1944 derailed Robinson's military career. While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus.[55][56][57] Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned the Military Police, who took Robinson into custody.[55][58] When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson be court-martialed.[55][59] After Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion – where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness – even though Robinson neither drank nor smoked.[55][60]

By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of alleged insubordination during questioning.[55] Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers.[55] Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, and he never saw combat action.[61] After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until he received an honorable discharge in November 1944.[62] While there, Robinson met an ex-player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro Leagues, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout.[63] Robinson took the ex-player's advice and wrote Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird.[64]

Post-military

After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs.[45] Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Sam Huston College in Austin, then of the Southwestern Athletic Conference.[65] The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season.[53] As a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games.[65][66] Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach,[53] and drew the admiration of, among others, Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes, a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters.[67]

Baseball career

Negro Leagues

Robinson (right) stands next to Satchel Paige together in their Kansas City Monarchs uniform, during the 1945 season. Note that Robinson's pants indicate his uniform number, 5.
Robinson (right) and Satchel Paige in the uniform of the Kansas City Monarchs

In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro Leagues.[53][68] Robinson accepted a contract for $400 ($4,854 in current dollars) per month, a boon for him at the time.[42][69] Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro Leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him.[70][71] The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter.[72] In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting .387 with five home runs, registering 13 stolen bases, and appearing in the 1945 Negro League All-Star Game (where he was hitless in five at-bats).[73]

During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interest. The Boston Red Sox held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16, 1945.[74] The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore Muchnick.[75] Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets.[76] Robinson left the tryout humiliated,[74] and more than twelve years later, in July of 1959, the Red Sox became the last major league team to integrate its roster.[77]

Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940's, Branch Rickey, club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising African-American players, and interviewed Robinson for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals.[78] Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him.[79][80] In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily – a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military.[42] Robinson was aghast: "Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?"[79][81] Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player "with guts enough not to fight back."[79][81] After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month.[82][83]

Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945.[84] On October 23, Rickey publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season.[42][83][85] On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals.[86] In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment",[42] Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s.[87]

With the offer securing his future and the relentless bus trips of the Negro League schedule wearing him down, Robinson left the Monarchs before season's end and returned home to Pasadena, California. In late September, he signed with Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-season barnstorming team in the California Winter League, which competed against Negro League teams and white all-star squads.[88] Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City.[89] On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, Rev. Karl Downs.[42][90][91]

Minor leagues

In 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida, for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League (the designation of "AAA" for the highest level of minor league baseball was first used in the 1946 season). Robinson's presence was controversial in racially charged Florida. Not allowed to stay at the regular team hotel, he lodged instead at the home of a local black politician.[92][93] Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility (the Dodger-controlled spring training compound in Vero Beach known as "Dodgertown" did not open until spring 1948),[94] scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. In Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach.[95][96] In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director.[97] In DeLand, a scheduled day game was called off, putatively on account of faulty electrical lighting.[98][99][100]

After much persuading of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach.[101][102] Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus simultaneously became the first African-American to openly play for a minor league team and against a major league team since the baseball color line was implemented in the 1880s.[3] Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base.[60] Robinson's performance soon rebounded. In the Royals' regular-season opening game on April 18, 1946, he had four hits, including a home run.[60] Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage,[20] and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.[103] Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, for example),[60] the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson.[104] Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an amazing figure by International League standards.[105] In fall 1946, following the season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-lived Los Angeles Red Devils.[106]

Major leagues

1947: Breaking the color barrier

The following year, six days before the start of the 1947 season, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues. With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major-league season as a first baseman.[107] On April 15, 1947, Robinson made his major league debut at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, including more than 14,000 black patrons.[108] Although he failed to get a base hit, the Dodgers won 5–3.[108] Robinson became the first player since the 1880s to openly break the major league baseball color line.[109]

Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players.[104][105][110] However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse.[111] Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded."[112]

Robinson was also derided by opposing teams. Some, notably the St. Louis Cardinals, threatened to strike if Robinson played. After the threat, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended.[104][113][114][115] Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg.[4] On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players called Robinson a "nigger" from their dugout and yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields".[116][117] Rickey later recalled that Phillies manager Ben Chapman "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men."[104][118]

Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them."[119] In 1948, Reese put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Cincinnati.[120] A statue by sculptor William Behrends, unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, commemorates this event by representing Reese with his arm around Robinson.[121] Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with racial epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. After colliding with Robinson at first base on one occasion, Greenberg whispered a few words into Robinson's ear, which Robinson later characterized as "words of encouragement."[122] Greenberg had advised him that the best way to combat the slurs from the opposing dugout was to beat them on the field.[122]

Robinson finished the season with 12 home runs, a league-leading 29 steals, a .297 batting average, a .427 slugging percentage, and 125 runs scored.[123] His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).[124] In the October 1948 issue of Sport magazine, Robinson said he had not expected to see baseball's color barrier fall in his lifetime. "I thought it would take another war," he said.[125]

1948 to 1950: MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography

Further information: Paul Robeson and Jackie Robinson

Following Stanky's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky).[126] Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season.[127] In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cycle – a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game.[128] The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the league title and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series.[129]

Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 as a number of other black players entered the majors. Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson.[126] In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from a vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions, and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Due to his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp thirty pounds overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate.[130]

In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field.[131] Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to susequently adjust to a slower curveball.[131] Robinson also noted that "Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second".[131] The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949.[131] In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 stolen bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124 RBIs with 122 runs scored.[79] For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player award for the National League.[79] Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Game – the first All-Star Game to include black players.[132]

That year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?", reached number 13 on the charts; Count Basie recorded a famous version.[133] Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series.[126]

Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made that April by African-American athlete and actor Paul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined.[134]

A lobby card for The Jackie Robinson Story (1950) portrays actor Minor Watson (left, playing Dodgers president Branch Rickey) and Robinson.
Lobby card for The Jackie Robinson Story, 1950

In 1950, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133.[128] His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($317,524 in current dollars).[135] He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases.[127] the year 1950 saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life, The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself,[136] and actress Ruby Dee played Rachael "Rae" (Isum) Robinson.[137] The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.[137] The New York Times wrote that Robinson, "doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star."[137]

Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as "Rickey's prima donna".[138] In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise.[139] Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, "Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it."[140][141].

1951 to 1953: Pennant races and outside interests

In 1951, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137.[128] He single-handedly kept the Dodgers in the race for the 1951 pennant. During the final game of the regular season, against Philadelphia, he made a season-saving defensive play in the 12th inning and then hit a game-winning home run in the 14th. This forced a three-game playoff against the Giants.

A comic book cover from 1951 shows a portrait of Jackie Robinson in Brooklyn Dodgers cap; inset image shows Jackie Robinson covering a slide at second base.
Cover of a Jackie Robinson comic book, issue #5, 1951

Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run known as the Shot Heard 'Round the World on October 3, 1951. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was."[142] He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases.[127]

Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952.[143] He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases.[127] He did, however, record a career-high on-base percentage of .436.[127][144] The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. That year, on the the television show Youth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager, George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player.[145] Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a "bigot", said, "If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness."[146] The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties.[127] Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request.[88]

In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals,[127] leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats.[147] He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for Our Sports magazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend Joe Louis.[148][149] Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.[4][150]

1954 to 1956: World Championship and retirement

In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles.[127][128] The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers beat the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series. Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base.[151] Robinson, then 37 years old, missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series.[142] Robinson missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. That season, Dodgers Don Newcombe became the first major-league black pitcher to win twenty games in a year.[152]

In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals.[127] By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes, and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball.[88] After the season, Robinson was traded by the Dodgers to the arch-rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash. The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company.[153] Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously,[153] his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization.[154]

Baseball legacy

Robinson's major league debut ended approximately sixty years of baseball segregation, also known as the baseball color line. Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only 10 seasons, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers.[155] During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games.[6] In 1999, he was posthumously named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.

Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–"long ball" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning.[156] Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially more walks than strikeouts (740 to 291).[104][127][155][157] Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñoso was the other).[104] On the basepaths, Robinson accumulated 197 stolen bases in 227 attempts, a success rate of almost 87 percent.[104][144] He stole home plate 19 times in his career. None of these were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time).[104][158] Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as "the father of modern base-stealing."[159]

I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being.
—Robinson[119]

Historical statistical analysis also indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the majors and at virtually every position he played.[160] After playing his rookie season at first base,[107] Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.[161] He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951.[162][163] Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both.[160]

Assessing himself, Robinson said, "I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being."[104][119] Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, "Ya want a guy that comes to play. This guy didn't just come to play. He come [sic] to beat ya. He come [sic] to stuff the goddamn bat right up your ass."[164]

Post-baseball life

Further information: Racial integration in baseball
Robinson and his son David (then age 11) are interviewed during the March on Washington, August 28, 1963.
Robinson and his son David at the August 28, 1963 March on Washington

Robinson retired from baseball on January 5, 1957.[165] In his first year of eligibility for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962,[61] Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game.[166] He was elected on the first ballot, becoming the first African-American inducted into the Cooperstown museum.[167]

In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC's Major League Baseball Game of the Week telecasts, the first black person to do so.[168] On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number, 42, alongside those of Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32).[169] From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation.[104][167][170] Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of African-Americans in commerce and industry.[171] Robinson also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and he served on the organization's board until 1967.[170] In 1964, he helped found, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Bank – an African-American-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem.[170] He also served as the bank's first Chairman of the Board.[172] In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families.[13][173]

Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He was a Republican and held conservative opinions on several issues, including the Vietnam War (once writing Martin Luther King, Jr. to defend the Johnson Administration's military policy).[174] However, he was not afraid to cross party lines. After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights.[175] He subsequently supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in 1968.[154] In 1964, Robinson became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller's Republican presidential campaign and later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966.[170]

Robinson made his final public appearance on October 14, 1972, throwing the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series. He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the 25th anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, "I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball."[176] This wish was fulfilled only after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson (no relation), a Hall of Fame–bound player who would go on to manage several other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s.

Family life and death

Robinson's gravesite is located in Cypress Hills Cemetery, Brooklyn. Robinson is buried alongside Zellee Isum (his mother-in-law) and Jackie Robinson, Jr.. The quote on the family headstone, attributed to Robinson, Sr., reads: "A life is not important except in the impact it has on other lives."
Robinson's gravesite in Cypress Hills Cemetery

After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wife, Rachel Robinson, pursued a career in academic nursing – she became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center.[177] She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990.[178]

Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson, Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age.[179] He enrolled in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, and he served in the Vietnam War; he was wounded in action on November 19, 1965.[180] After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut and became a counselor at the institution.[181] On June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident.[182][183] The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson, Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life.[184]

Robinson did not long outlive his son. Complications of heart disease and diabetes weakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age.[185] On October 24, 1972, he died of a heart attack at home in Stamford, Connecticut, aged 53.[79][186] Robinson is interred at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, next to his son Jackie. The graves are located about a half-mile south of the Jackie Robinson Parkway, which bisects the cemetery.

After Robinson's death, his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation, of which she remains an officer as of 2009.[79][187] Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for Major League Baseball, and the author of two books about her father.[188] His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania.[189]

Awards and recognition

A bronze sculpture by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack, is located on Garfield Avenue in Pasadena, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall
Memorial busts of Jackie and Mack Robinson near Pasadena City Hall in California.

According to a poll conducted in 1947, Robinson was the second most popular man in the country, behind Bing Crosby.[190] In 1999, he was named by Time magazine on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.[191] Also in 1999, he ranked number 44 on the Sporting News list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team as the top vote-getter among second basemen.[192][193] Baseball writer Bill James, in the The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time based strictly on his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.[104][194] Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA’s Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984.[39] In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[195] Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000.[196]

The City of Pasadena has recongized Robinson in several ways. Brookside Park, situated next to the Rose Bowl, features a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field.[197] Pasadena's Human Services Department operates the Jackie Robinson Center, a community outreach center which, among other things, provides early diabetes detection services.[198] In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue in Pasadena, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family.[199][200][201]

An eight-foot blue sculpture of Robinson's uniform number, 42, graces the Jackie Robinson Rotunda inside Citi Field, home of the New York Mets, dedicated April 15, 2009.
Memorial in the Jackie Robinson rotunda inside Citi Field

Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the "Jackie Robinson Award" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues).[124][202] On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired by Major League Baseball; no future player on any major league team can wear it. The number was retired in ceremonies at Shea Stadium to mark the 50th anniversary of Robinson's first game with the Dodgers.[203] A handful of players who wore number 42 as a salute to Robinson, such as the Mets' Butch Huskey and Boston's Mo Vaughn, were allowed to continue to use the number.[204] The Yankees' Mariano Rivera is the last player in the major leagues to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis.

As an exception to the retired-number policy, Major League Baseball has recently begun honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day. For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, Major League Baseball invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007. The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey, Jr., who sought Rachel Robinson's permission to wear the number.[205] After receiving her permission, Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same.[206] Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates.[207] The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's number 42.[208] On June 25, 2008, Major League Baseball installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics.[166] In 2009, all uniformed personnel (players, managers, coaches, and umpires) wore number 42 on April 15.[209]

The headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square in lower Manhattan, New York, will also serve as a museum dedicated to Robinson's life and career.
Future museum in Manhattan

At the November 2006 groundbreaking for a new ballpark for the New York Mets, Citi Field, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009.[210] It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that, in conjunction with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation, the Mets will create a Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center in lower Manhattan, the main purpose of which will be to fund scholarships for "young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals."[211][212]

Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American.[104][170] President Ronald Reagan posthumously presented Robinson's widow the Presidential Medal of Freedom on his behalf on March 26, 1984,[167][213] and on October 29, 2003, the United States Congress posthumously approved him for the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress.[39][214][215] Robinson's widow accepted the award in a ceremony in the Capitol Rotunda on March 2, 2005.[216] Robinson is only the second baseball player to receive the Congressional Gold Medal, after Roberto Clemente.[217] On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.[218]

Rachel Robinson (third from left) accepts the posthumous Congressional Gold Medal for her husband from President George W. Bush in a March 2, 2005 ceremony in the Capitol Rotunda. Also pictured are Nancy Pelosi (left) and Dennis Hastert (right)
Rachel Robinson (third from left) accepting Jackie's posthumous Congressional Gold Medal

A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium,[219] which, due to the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis.[220] City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida – the baseball field that became the Dodgers' de facto spring training site in 1947 – was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1989.[221] The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson,[222] and Dorsey High School in Los Angeles named its football stadium after him.[223] Elementary schools in Chicago, Illinois, and Long Beach, California, are named after Robinson.[224][225] In 1976, his home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark.[104][226] Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson.

Career statistics

Year Team G AB R H 2B 3B HR RBI SB CS BB SO AVG OBP SLG TB SH SF IBB HBP GDP E
1945 Kansas City 47 163 36 63 14 4 5 23 13 .387
1946 Montreal 124 444 113 155 25 8 3 66 40 92 27 .349 10
1947 Brooklyn 151 590 125 175 31 5 12 48 29 0 74 36 .297 .383 .427 252 28 9 5 16
1948 Brooklyn 147 574 108 170 38 8 12 85 22 0 57 37 .296 .367 .453 260 8 7 7 15
1949 Brooklyn 156 593 122 203 38 12 16 124 37 0 86 27 .342 .432 .528 313 17 8 22 16
1950 Brooklyn 144 518 99 170 39 4 14 81 12 0 80 24 .328 .423 .500 259 10 5 11 11
1951 Brooklyn 153 548 106 185 33 7 19 88 25 8 79 27 .338 .429 .527 289 6 9 10 7
1952 Brooklyn 149 510 104 157 17 3 19 75 24 7 106 40 .308 .440 .465 237 6 14 16 20
1953 Brooklyn 136 484 109 159 34 7 12 95 17 4 74 30 .329 .425 .502 243 9 7 12 6
1954 Brooklyn 124 386 62 120 22 4 15 59 7 3 63 20 .311 .413 .505 195 5 4* 7 13 7
1955 Brooklyn 105 317 51 81 6 2 8 36 12 3 61 18 .256 .378 .363 115 6 3 5** 3 8 10
1956 Brooklyn 117 357 61 98 15 2 10 43 12 5 60 32 .275 .382 .412 147 9 2 2 3 9 9
Totals Brooklyn 1382 4877 947 1518 273 54 137 734 197 30 740 291 .311 .409 .474 2310 104 9 7 72 113 107
Career 1553 5494 1096 1736 342 67 161 867 248 832 318 .316 117

Sources:[127][185][227]

(*) Note: The sacrifice fly (SF) as a unique statistical category did not exist in major league baseball from 1940 through 1953. Any pre-1954 sacrifice flies by Robinson would be reflected in the sacrifice hit (SH) category.

(**) Note: Likewise, the intentional walk (IBB) category only became a unique statistic beginning in 1955.[228][229] Any intentional walks issued to Robinson before that year would be reflected in the walk (BB) category.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Clark, Dick; Larry Lester (1994). The Negro Leagues Book. Cleveland, OH: The Society for American Baseball Research. pp. 250–251. ISBN 9780910137553. 
  2. ^ Rothe, p. 544.
  3. ^ a b Loewen, James (1995). Lies My Teacher Told Me. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 163. ISBN 9781565841000. 
  4. ^ a b c Wormser, Richard (2002). "Jackie Robinson". Public Broadcasting Service. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_events_jackie.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-08. 
  5. ^ Glasser, Ira. "Branch Rickey and Jackie Robinson: Precursors of the Civil Rights Movement". http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2003/march/mtpub.asp. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  6. ^ a b Robinson was voted by fans as the starting second baseman in 1949–1952, and as an outfielder in 1954. In 1953, he was a manager's selection at third base. See BaseballAlmanac.com's All-Star Game Voting records for 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, and 1954. Retrieved on 2009-05-27.
  7. ^ Nemec, p. 201.
  8. ^ Rampersad, p. 15.
  9. ^ Bigelow, p. 225.
  10. ^ "White House Dream Team: Jackie Roosevelt Robinson". Whitehouse.gov. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/kids/dreamteam/jackierobinson.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  11. ^ Eig, p. 7.
  12. ^ Rampersad, pp. 15–18.
  13. ^ a b "Biography". Official Site of Jackie Robinson. http://www.jackierobinson.com/about/bio.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-09. 
  14. ^ a b c Robinson, Jackie, p. 9.
  15. ^ Eig, p. 8.
  16. ^ a b Robinson, Rachel, p. 17.
  17. ^ Rampersad, pp. 33–35.
  18. ^ a b Eig, p. 10.
  19. ^ Rampersad, p. 36.
  20. ^ a b "Jackie Robinson Biography (1919–1972)". The Biography Channel. http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9460813. Retrieved on 2008-10-08. 
  21. ^ a b c Robinson, Rachel, p. 20
  22. ^ Rampersad, pp. 36–37.
  23. ^ a b Rampersad, p. 37.
  24. ^ Rampersad, pp. 39.
  25. ^ Rampersad, pp. 40–41.
  26. ^ "YANK Magazine Article Jackie Robinson" (PDF). YANK Magazine. 1946-11-23. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/INTERVIEW_Jackie_Robinson_U.pdf YANK Magazine Article. Retrieved on 2009-04-10. 
  27. ^ Falkner, p. 44.
  28. ^ Rampersad, p. 47.
  29. ^ Rampersad, p. 54.
  30. ^ Rampersad, pp. 59–60.
  31. ^ Linge, p. 18.
  32. ^ Rampersad, pp. 50-51.
  33. ^ Falkner, p. 51.
  34. ^ Falkner, p. 49.
  35. ^ Eig, p. 11.
  36. ^ "Achievements". Official Site of Jackie Robinson. http://www.jackierobinson.com/about/achieve.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-09. 
  37. ^ Violett, B.J. (1997). "Teammates Recall Jackie Robinson's Legacy". UCLA Today. http://www.today.ucla.edu/portal/ut/970425TeammatesRecall.aspx. Retrieved on 2008-10-12. 
  38. ^ "Kenny Washington". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-9389095. Retrieved on 2008-10-12. 
  39. ^ a b c "Jackie Robinson UCLA Biography". UCLA Athletics. http://spotlight.ucla.edu/alumni/jackie-robinson/. Retrieved on 2009-04-13. 
  40. ^ Robinson, Jackie, pp. 10–11.
  41. ^ Sources point to various reasons for Robinson's departure from UCLA. Family sources cite financial concerns. "Biography". Official Site of Jackie Robinson. http://www.jackierobinson.com/about/bio.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-09.  In addition, Robinson himself cited his growing disillusionment about the value of a college degree for a black man of his era. Robinson, Jackie, p. 11. Other sources suggest that Robinson was uninterested in academics, and behind on class work at the time he left UCLA. Falkner, p. 45; Eig, p. 13.
  42. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Black History Biographies Jackie Robinson". Gale Cengage Learning. http://www.gale.cengage.com/free_resources/bhm/bio/robinson_j.htm. Retrieved on 2008-11-24. 
  43. ^ Linge, p. xiii.
  44. ^ a b Robinson, Jackie, p. 12.
  45. ^ a b Gill, Bob (1987). "Jackie Robinson: Pro Football Prelude" (PDF). The Coffin Corner (Professional Football Researchers Association) 9 (3): 1–2. http://www.profootballresearchers.org/Coffin_Corner/09-03-295.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  46. ^ "Redstone Arsenal Military History". http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/integrate/CHRON3.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 
  47. ^ a b c Robinson, Jackie, p. 13.
  48. ^ "Library of Congress: Truman K. Gibson Papers". http://www.loc.gov/rr/mss/text/gibson.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-22. 
  49. ^ Goldstein, Richard (01-02-2006). "Truman K. Gibson, Who Fought Army Segregation, Is Dead at 93". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/02/national/02gibson.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  50. ^ Rampersad, p. 91.
  51. ^ Patrick, p. 11.
  52. ^ "Baseball, Breaking the Color Line, and Jackie Robinson". Library of Congress. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/collections/robinson/jr1940.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-09. 
  53. ^ a b c d "Jackie Robinson, College Basketball Coach". Austin American-Statesman. 1997-04-15. http://www.ericenders.com/jackieaustin.htm. Retrieved on 2009-04-08. 
  54. ^ Linge, p. 18.
  55. ^ a b c d e f Tygiel, Jules (August/September 1984). "The Court-Martial of Jackie Robinson". American Heritage. http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1984/5/1984_5_34.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-11-25. 
  56. ^ Linge, p. 37.
  57. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 18.
  58. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 19.
  59. ^ Robinson, Jackie, pp. 20–21.
  60. ^ a b c d "Jackie Makes Good". Time. 1946-08-26. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,933586,00.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-12. 
  61. ^ a b "Featured Baseball Personalities – Jackie Robinson – Historic Baseball Resources". Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/topics/baseball/featured/jackierobinson.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-06. 
  62. ^ McElderry, Michael (2002). "Jackie Robinson A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/rr/mss/text/robinsnj.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-24. 
  63. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 23.
  64. ^ Rampersad, p. 113.
  65. ^ a b Rampersad, p. 114.
  66. ^ Eig, p. 16.
  67. ^ Tramel, Jimmie (2008-06-25). "Globetrotting tales". Tulsa World. http://www.tulsaworld.com/sports/article.aspx?articleID=20080625_226_B1_pncase451210. Retrieved on 2009-04-09. 
  68. ^ Eig, p. 17.
  69. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p.24.
  70. ^ Tygiel, p. 63.
  71. ^ Bryant, p. 30.
  72. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 25.
  73. ^ "Baseball Almanac.com". http://www.baseball-almanac.com/players/p_robij3.shtml. Retrieved on 2009-04-14. 
  74. ^ a b Bryant, p. 31.
  75. ^ Simon, pp. 46-47.
  76. ^ NPR (2002). "The Boston Red Sox and Racism with New Owners, Team Confronts Legacy of Intolerance". http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/oct/redsox/. Retrieved on 2008-04-10. 
  77. ^ O'Connell, Jack (2007-04-13). "Robinson's many peers follow his lead". http://mlbnetwork.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20070412&content_id=1895202&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved on 2009-07-06. 
  78. ^ Povich, Shirley (1997-03-28). "The Ball Stayed White, but the Game Did Not". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/sports/longterm/general/povich/launch/jackier.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-12. 
  79. ^ a b c d e f g Schwartz, Larry (2007). "Jackie changed face of sports". ESPN. http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016431.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-10. 
  80. ^ "One meeting, two men, a changed world". Baseball Hall of Fame. http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080415&content_id=6977&vkey=hof_news. Retrieved on 2009-05-22. 
  81. ^ a b Robinson, Jackie, p. 33.
  82. ^ Rampersad, p. 127.
  83. ^ a b Robinson, Jackie, p. 34.
  84. ^ Rampersad, pp. 127-128.
  85. ^ McElrath, Jessica. "About.com: Jackie Robinson". http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/jackierobinson/p/bio_robinson_j.htm. Retrieved on 2009-06-01. 
  86. ^ Rampersad, p. 129.
  87. ^ Pennington, Bill (2006-07-26). "Breaking a Barrier 60 Years Before Robinson". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/27/sports/27hall.html?scp=18&sq=jacdikie%20robinson%202006&st=cse. Retrieved on 2009-04-10. 
  88. ^ a b c Thorn, John. "Jackie Robinson's Signing: The Real, Untold Story". Mr.Baseball.com. http://www.mrbaseball.com/index.php?Itemid=57&id=23&option=com_content&task=view. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  89. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 37.
  90. ^ Linge, p. 49.
  91. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 38.
  92. ^ Lamb, p. 93.
  93. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 41.
  94. ^ McNeil, pp. 358-359.
  95. ^ Lamb, p.88.
  96. ^ Robinson, Jackie, pp. 42–43.
  97. ^ Lamb, pp. 135–136.
  98. ^ "Jackie Robinson 1946 Memorabilia". Robert Edwards Auctions. http://www.robertedwardauctions.com/auction/2004/288.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-10. 
  99. ^ "Jackie Robinson Ballpark". BallparkDigest.com. http://www.ballparkdigest.com/visits/index.html?article_id=614. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 
  100. ^ Lamb, p. 140.
  101. ^ Lamb, p. 104.
  102. ^ Robinson, Jackie, p. 45.
  103. ^ Simon, p. 97.
  104. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Jackie Robinson Biography". SportMag.us. http://sportmag.us/product_info.php?products_id=86. Retrieved on 2009-04-22. 
  105. ^ a b "SABR Biography of Jackie Robinson". http://bioproj.sabr.org/bioproj.cfm?a=v&v=l&bid=2379&pid=12074. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  106. ^ "BlackFivesBlog". http://blackfivesblog.com/?p=303#comments. Retrieved on 2009-05-22. 
  107. ^ a b Schwartz, Larry. "Jackie Changed the Face of Sports". ESPN. http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016431.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-13. 
  108. ^ a b McNeil, p. 357.
  109. ^ "Myths in Sports: The Jackie Robinson Edition". The Sporting News. 2007-04-11. http://www.sportingnews.com/blog/aajoe7/76313/. Retrieved on 2008-10-12. 
  110. ^ For a general survey of the media reaction to Robinson at various phases of his career, see www.umass.edu and subpages. Retrieved on 2009-07-06.
  111. ^ "Jackie Robinson breaks major league color barrier". History Channel. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=Article&id=57535. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  112. ^ Kirwin, p. 198.
  113. ^ Kirwin, p. 199.
  114. ^ Eig, p. 95.
  115. ^ Bryant, p. 70.
  116. ^ Burns, Ken (writer and director). (1994). Baseball, Part 6. [Television production]. Public Broadcasting Service. Event occurs at minute 120. 
  117. ^ Williams, p. 9.
  118. ^ Burns, Ken (writer and director). (1994). Baseball, Part 6. [Television production]. Public Broadcasting Service. Event occurs at minute 122. 
  119. ^ a b c Newman, Mark (2007-04-13). "1947: A time for change". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article_perspectives.jsp?ymd=20070412&content_id=1895445&vkey=perspectives&fext=.jsp. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  120. ^ Barra, Allen (2007-04-24). "Debunkers Strike Out". The Village Voice. http://www.villagevoice.com/2007-04-24/news/debunkers-strike-out/. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  121. ^ "Statue of Reese and Robinson". http://www.flickr.com/photos/wallyg/207740560/. Retrieved on 05-06-2009. 
  122. ^ a b Mathews, Jack (2000-01-12). "'Greenberg' A Home Run". New York Daily News. http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/entertainment/2000/01/12/2000-01-12__greenberg__a_home_run.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-12. 
  123. ^ Eig, p. 224.
  124. ^ a b "MLB Rookies of the Year". Baseball Almanac. http://www.baseball-almanac.com/awards/aw_roy.shtml. Retrieved on 2009-04-13. 
  125. ^ "Jackie Robinson Day". Carter Brothers Sports Blog. http://carterbrotherssportsblog.blogspot.com/2008/04/jackie-robinson-day.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-11. 
  126. ^ a b c McNeil, p. 94.
  127. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Historical Player Stats". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/stats/historical/individual_stats_player.jsp?c_id=mlb&playerID=121314. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  128. ^ a b c d Lester, Larry (2007). "My Hero - Jackie Robinson". LarryLester42.com. http://larrylester42.com/my-hero/. Retrieved on 2008-10-30. 
  129. ^ Lowenfish, Lee (2007). Branch Rickey : baseball's ferocious gentleman. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. p. 461. ISBN 0803211031. http://books.google.com/books?id=OuVCBUIgN0IC&pg=PA461&dq=dodgers+1948&client=firefox-a. 
  130. ^ Linge, pp. 71-72.
  131. ^ a b c d Huhn, Rick (2004). The Sizzler. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. p. 260. ISBN 0826215556. http://books.google.com/books?id=H2WnmvjRCWAC&pg=PA260&dq=jackie+robinson+1949&lr=&client=firefox-a#PPA260,M1. 
  132. ^ In addition to Robinson, the 1949 All-Star game featured Larry Doby, Roy Campanella, and Don Newcombe. See "All-Star Game Voting, 1949". Baseball-almanac.com. http://baseball-almanac.com/asgbox/yr1949as.shtml. Retrieved on 05-04-2009. 
  133. ^ ""Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?"". Library of Congress. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/collections/robinson/music.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-24. 
  134. ^ Duberman, Martin (1989). "The Right to Travel". Paul Robeson. New York: Knopf. pp. 361-362. ISBN 9780394527802. 
  135. ^ Santella, Andrew (1996). Jackie Robinson Breaks the Color Line. Children's Press. p. 17. ISBN 0516066374. 
  136. ^ "Jackie Robinson Star Ballplayer Stars in a Movie", Life Magazine, 1950-05-08, http://www.life.com/image/74168523/in-gallery/23148/jackie-robinson-american-pioneer 
  137. ^ a b c Bogle, Donald (2001). Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies & Bucks. New York: Continuum. pp. 184–185. ISBN 0826412676. http://books.google.com/books?id=Sz7K1c9QSoMC&pg=PA184&dq=jackie+robinson+1950&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=4AEbSa7jEouCswPkrp37Ag&client=opera. 
  138. ^ Stout, p. 160.
  139. ^ Stout, p. 162.
  140. ^ Long, p. 7.
  141. ^ "Library of Congress: Robinson Letter Collection". http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/robinson/jaraglet.html. Retrieved on 2009-06-03. 
  142. ^ a b Bloom, Barry (2007-04-13). "Robinson made impact on field, too". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/content/printer_friendly/mlb/y2007/m04/d12/c1895331.jsp. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  143. ^ Dorinson, p. 154.
  144. ^ a b "Courageous Character: Jackie Robinson". http://courageouscharacterofjr.org/index.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-21. 
  145. ^ "The Legacy of Race Through Time". New York Daily News. 1997-04-13. http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/1997/04/13/1997-04-13_the_legacy__race_through_time.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-28. 
  146. ^ Falkner, p. 213.
  147. ^ Long, pp. 10–11.
  148. ^ "Jackie Robinson and Other Baseball Highlights, 1860s-1960s". Library of Congress. 2002-09-26. http://international.loc.gov/learn/collections/jr/history.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-22. 
  149. ^ "Baseball, the Color Line, and Jackie Robinson". Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/robinson/jr1947.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  150. ^ Erskine, Carl; Burton Rocks (2005). "Wait Till Next Year". What I Learned from Jackie Robinson. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 65–66. ISBN 0071450858. http://books.google.com/books?id=jrShYWYyuKYC&pg=PA64&dq=1954+jackie+robinson&ei=W-0lScPGO5WekwTMk6ykDQ&client=firefox-a#PPA66,M1%20What%20I%20Learned%20from%20Jackie%20Robinson. 
  151. ^ Eig, p. 269.
  152. ^ Nemec, p. 198.
  153. ^ a b Linge, p. 114.
  154. ^ a b Bloom, Barry (2007-06-04). "Jackie Robinson: Gone but not forgotten". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20070603&content_id=2003372&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  155. ^ a b Kindred, Dave (July 1999). "The No. 1 Most Significant Development in the 20th Century". The Sporting News. http://www.sportingnews.com/archives/sports2000/numbers/170132.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-31. 
  156. ^ Dorinson, pp. 151–152.
  157. ^ Simon, Mark. "Remembering Jackie Robinson". ESPN. http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=1783632. Retrieved on 2008-10-31. 
  158. ^ Williams, p. 97.
  159. ^ Falkner, p. 171.
  160. ^ a b James, Bill; Mary A. Wirth (1988). Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract. New York: Random House. pp. 502–503. ISBN 0394758056. 
  161. ^ Singer, Tom. "The pioneer". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/history/mlb_negro_leagues_profile.jsp?player=robinson_jackie. Retrieved on 2008-10-12. 
  162. ^ "BaseballHistorian.com". http://www.baseballhistorian.com/html/american_heroes.cfm?page=137. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  163. ^ "BaseballHistorian.com". http://www.baseballhistorian.com/green_box.cfm?random_fact_id=293. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  164. ^ Mallett, Ashley; Ian Chappell (2007). Chappelli Speaks Out. Crow's Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. p. 235. ISBN 1741750369. http://books.google.com/books?id=pdIawCAJiHkC&pg=PA235&lpg=PA235. , quoting Kahn, Roger (2006). The Boys of Summer. New York: HarperPerennial. p. 393. ISBN 9780060883966. 
  165. ^ "Jackie Robinson Career Chronology". BaseballLibrary.com. http://www.baseballlibrary.com/ballplayers/player.php?name=Jackie_Robinson_1919&page=chronology. Retrieved on 2009-05-04. 
  166. ^ a b "Robinson honored with new Hall of Fame plaque". ESPN. 2008-06-25. http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section=mlb&id=3460774&campaign=rsssrch&source=dodgers. Retrieved on 2008-10-31. 
  167. ^ a b c "Jackie Robinson Biography". The Biography Channel. 2008. http://www.biography.com/articles/Jackie-Robinson-9460813. Retrieved on 2008-11-24. 
  168. ^ Smith, Curt (2005). Voices of Summer: Ranking Baseball's 101 All-Time Best Announcers. New York: Da Capo Press. p. 316. ISBN 0786714468. http://books.google.com/books?id=fZCJUI0UMDUC&pg=PA316&dq=jackie+robinson++%22Game+of+the+Week%22+sportscaster&ei=0O4qSe-XO5eOkASy5P2ECw&client=firefox-a. 
  169. ^ "Dodgers Retired Numbers". MLB.com. 2008. http://losangeles.dodgers.mlb.com/la/history/retired_numbers.jsp. Retrieved on 2008-11-24. 
  170. ^ a b c d e "Baseball, the Color Line, and Jackie Robinson". Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/robinson/jr1957.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  171. ^ Long, p. 174.
  172. ^ Robinson, Rachel, p. 190.
  173. ^ Falkner, p. 340.
  174. ^ Long, pp. 255–257.
  175. ^ Long, pp. 171–172.
  176. ^ Helyar, John (2007-04-09). "Robinson would have mixed view of today's game". ESPN. http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/jackie/news/story?id=2828584. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  177. ^ Lee, Cynthia (2009-05-05). "Rachel Robinson to receive UCLA's highest honor". UCLA Today. http://www.today.ucla.edu/portal/ut/rachel-robinson-to-receive-ucla-90830.aspx. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  178. ^ Robinson, Rachel, p. 192.
  179. ^ Robinson, Rachel, p. 194.
  180. ^ Robinson, Rachel, p. 200.
  181. ^ Robinson, Rachel, p. 201.
  182. ^ "Jackie Robinson Dies". The Bryan Times. 1972-10-24. http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rDwLAAAAIBAJ&dq=jackie%20robinson%20son%20drugs%20died%20jr&sjid=clIDAAAAIBAJ&pg=722%2C1696817. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  183. ^ Robinson, Rachel, p. 202.
  184. ^ Rampersad, pp. 438, 443.
  185. ^ a b "Jackie Robinson Biography". JRank.com. http://sports.jrank.org/pages/3981/Robinson-Jackie-Part-Noble-Experiment.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-05. 
  186. ^ Long, p. 319.
  187. ^ "History". Jackie Robinson Foundation. http://www.jackierobinson.org/about/history.php. Retrieved on 2008-11-24. 
  188. ^ Robinson, Sharon (2001) and Robinson, Sharon (2004). See "Baseball legend's daughter pitches father's fundamental ideals to kids". http://www.bookpage.com/0105bp/sharon_robinson.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  189. ^ "The Way to Sweet Unity". NMH Magazine. http://www.nmhschool.org/magazine/2005_fall/david_robinson.php. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  190. ^ Dorinson, p. 47.
  191. ^ "TIME 100: Jackie Robinson". Time. http://www.time.com/time/time100/heroes/profile/robinson01.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  192. ^ "Baseball's 100 Greatest Players". The Sporting News. 1999. http://archive.sportingnews.com/baseball/100/index-44.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  193. ^ "All-Century Team final voting". ESPN. http://static.espn.go.com/mlb/news/1999/1023/129008.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-05. 
  194. ^ James, Bill (2003). The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract. New York: Free Press. p. 361. ISBN 0743227220. http://books.google.com/books?id=mUzTJ4-8N0EC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0. 
  195. ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, NY: Prometheus. pp. 264-267. ISBN 9781573929639. http://www.amazon.com/100-Greatest-African-Americans-Biographical/dp/1573929638#reader. 
  196. ^ "African-American Subjects on United States Postage Stamps" (PDF). United States Postal Service. 2008. http://www.usps.com/postalhistory/_pdf/AfrAmStamps.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-05-24.  Images: 1982, 1999, 2000.
  197. ^ "Pasadena Parks and Facilities". http://www.ci.pasadena.ca.us/humanservices/parksandfacilities.asp#3. Retrieved on 2009-06-08. 
  198. ^ "Jackie Robinson Center". http://www.ci.pasadena.ca.us/humanservices/Jackie_Robinson_Center.asp. Retrieved on 2009-06-08. 
  199. ^ "Bronze Busts Unveiled in Tribute to Robinson Brothers". Los Angeles Times. 1997-11-07. http://articles.latimes.com/1997/nov/07/local/me-51230. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  200. ^ Lehr, Dick (1997-05-20). "Jackie's still larger than life; Newton sculptor creates 9-foot tribute". Boston Globe. 
  201. ^ "Publicheart.com: Robinson Memorial". http://publicheart.wordpress.com/category/sports-monuments/. Retrieved on 05-26-2009. 
  202. ^ Wulf, Steve (1987-07-27). "Scorecard: 'Nicely Done'". Sports Illustrated. http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1066214/index.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  203. ^ "Baseball remembers Jackie Robinson". International Herald Tribune. 2008-04-16. http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/04/16/sports/JACKIE.php. Retrieved on 2008-09-01. 
  204. ^ Smith, Claire (1997-04-16). "A Grand Tribute to Robinson and His Moment". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/specials/baseball/robinson-0416-smith.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-11. 
  205. ^ Stone, Larry (2009-04-15). "Ken Griffey Jr. on Jackie Robinson and the decline of African-Americans in baseball". Seattle times. http://blog.seattletimes.nwsource.com/stone/2009/04/15/griffey_on_jackie_robinson_day.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  206. ^ "Griffey, Jr., others to wear No. 42 as part of Jackie Robinson Day Tribute". MLB.com. 2007-04-05. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/press_releases/press_release.jsp?ymd=20070404&content_id=1879309&vkey=pr_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved on 2007-04-07. 
  207. ^ "A Measure of Respect for Jackie Robinson Turns Into a Movement". The New York Times. 2007-04-13. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/13/sports/baseball/13jackie.html?_r=1&ref=baseball&oref=slogin. Retrieved on 2007-04-15. 
  208. ^ "Robinson's legacy celebrated at Shea". MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080415&content_id=2531842&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  209. ^ "Jackie's impact will be felt today". MLB.com. 2009-04-15. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090414&content_id=4268616&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved on 2009-04-15. 
  210. ^ "Jackie Robinson Rotunda dedicated at Citi Field". Associated Press. 04-16-2009. http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=4072441. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  211. ^ "Mets honor Robinson at new home". New York Daily News. 2006-11-14. http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2006/11/14/2006-11-14_mets_honor_robinson_at_new_h.html. Retrieved on 2009-06-30. 
  212. ^ "Plans Unveiled for Robinson Museum". 2008-03-04. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080304&content_id=2403980&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved on 2009-07-06. 
  213. ^ October 30, 2007 archive of "MedalofFreedom.com: 1984 Recipients". http://web.archive.org/web/20061022044520/www.medaloffreedom.com/1984Recipients.htm.  from "web.archive.org". http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.medaloffreedom.com. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  214. ^ "US House Clerk's Office: Gold Medal recipients". http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house_history/goldMedal.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  215. ^ January 20, 2008 archive of "CongressionalGoldMedal.com: Jackie Robinson". http://web.archive.org/web/20071107111704/www.congressionalgoldmedal.com/JackieRobinson.htm.  from "web.archive.org". http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.congressionalgoldmedal.com. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  216. ^ "MLB.com: Robinson to receive Congressional Gold Medal". http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20050128&content_id=936492&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  217. ^ "Congress Honors Jackie Robinson". CBS News. 2005-03-02. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/03/02/entertainment/main677574.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  218. ^ "Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver Announce the 2007 California Hall of Fame Inductees". Office of the Governor of California. 2007-08-20. http://gov.ca.gov/press-release/7189/. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  219. ^ "Steele Field at Jackie Robinson Stadium". CBS College Sports Network. http://uclabruins.cstv.com/genrel/062200aah.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-24. 
  220. ^ "UCLA history project: Robinson statue". http://www.uclahistoryproject.ucla.edu/Fun/ThisMonth_AprRobinson.asp. Retrieved on 2009-05-06. 
  221. ^ "Jackie Robinson Ballpark". Daytona Cubs. http://www.daytonacubs.com/ballpark-jackie.php. Retrieved on 2009-04-09. 
  222. ^ Anderson, Dave (1997-04-01). "Robinson 'Stood Up For What He Believed'". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0CE3DB1E3AF932A35757C0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. Retrieved on 2008-11-25. 
  223. ^ "Fearing Gang Violence, School Forfeits a Game". The New York Times. 1991-11-03. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE1D8163BF930A35752C1A967958260. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  224. ^ "Robinson Elementary School". Public School Review. http://www.publicschoolreview.com/school_ov/school_id/23983. Retrieved on 2009-05-27 2009. 
  225. ^ "Jackie Robinson Elementary School". School Finder. http://www.education.com/schoolfinder/us/california/long-beach/jackie-robinson-elementary/. Retrieved on 2009-05-27. 
  226. ^ "Historic sports sites rarely take landmark status". USA Today. 2007-07-26. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/2007-07-25-history-sportsites_N.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-07. 
  227. ^ Gutman, p. 146.
  228. ^ "Baseball-Reference.com: Intentional Walks". http://www.baseball-reference.com/bullpen/Intentionally_walk. Retrieved on 2009-05-20. 
  229. ^ Spector, Jesse (2008-08-18). "Walk this way: Intentional pass with bags packed works". New York Daily News. http://www.nydailynews.com/blogs/touchingbase/2008/08/walk-this-way-intentional-pass.html. Retrieved on 2009-07-06. 

References

External links

Search Wikiquote Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jackie Robinson
Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jackie Robinson
Awards and achievements
Preceded by
Pete Reiser
Richie Ashburn		 National League Stolen Base Champion
1947
1949		 Succeeded by
Richie Ashburn
Sam Jethroe
Preceded by
First Winner		 Major League Rookie of the Year
1947		 Succeeded by
Alvin Dark
Preceded by
Stan Musial		 National League Most Valuable Player
1949		 Succeeded by
Jim Konstanty
Preceded by
Stan Musial		 National League Batting Champion
1949		 Succeeded by
Stan Musial
v • d • e
Brooklyn Dodgers 1955 World Series Champions
1 Pee Wee Reese | 4 Duke Snider | 6 Carl Furillo | 8 George Shuba | 12 Frank Kellert | 14 Gil Hodges | 15 Sandy Amorós | 17 Carl Erskine | 19 Jim Gilliam | 23 Don Zimmer | 30 Billy Loes | 34 Russ Meyer | 36 Don Newcombe | 37 Ed Roebuck | 39 Roy Campanella | 40 Roger Craig | 41 Clem Labine | 42 Jackie Robinson | 43 Don Hoak | 45 Johnny Podres (World Series MVP) | 46 Don Bessent | 48 Karl Spooner
Manager 24 Walter Alston
Coaches: 22 Billy Herman | 31 Jake Pitler | 33 Joe Becker
v • d • e
National League Rookie of the Year Award
1947: J. Robinson | 1948: Dark | 1949: Newcombe | 1950: Jethroe | 1951: Mays | 1952: Black | 1953: Gilliam | 1954: Moon | 1955: Virdon | 1956: F. Robinson | 1957: Sanford | 1958: Cepeda | 1959: McCovey | 1960: F. Howard | 1961: B. Williams | 1962: Hubbs | 1963: Rose | 1964: Allen | 1965: Lefebvre | 1966: Helms | 1967: Seaver | 1968: Bench | 1969: Sizemore | 1970: Morton | 1971: E. Williams | 1972: Matlack | 1973: Matthews | 1974: McBride | 1975: Montefusco | 1976: Metzger / Zachry | 1977: Dawson | 1978: Horner | 1979: Sutcliffe | 1980: Howe | 1981: Valenzuela | 1982: Sax | 1983: Strawberry | 1984: Gooden | 1985: Coleman | 1986: Worrell | 1987: Santiago | 1988: Sabo | 1989: Walton | 1990: Justice | 1991: Bagwell | 1992: Karros | 1993: Piazza | 1994: Mondesi | 1995: Nomo | 1996: Hollandsworth | 1997: Rolen | 1998: Wood | 1999: Williamson | 2000: Furcal | 2001: Pujols | 2002: Jennings | 2003: Willis | 2004: Bay | 2005: R. Howard | 2006: Ramírez | 2007: Braun | 2008: Soto
v • d • e
National League MVP Award
1931: Frisch | 1932: Klein | 1933: Hubbell | 1934: Dean | 1935: Hartnett | 1936: Hubbell | 1937: Medwick | 1938: Lombardi | 1939: Walters | 1940: McCormick | 1941: Camilli | 1942: Cooper | 1943: Musial | 1944: Marion | 1945: Cavarretta | 1946: Musial | 1947: Elliott | 1948: Musial | 1949: J. Robinson | 1950: Konstanty | 1951: Campanella | 1952: Sauer | 1953: Campanella | 1954: Mays | 1955: Campanella | 1956: Newcombe | 1957: Aaron | 1958: Banks | 1959: Banks | 1960: Groat | 1961: F. Robinson | 1962: Wills | 1963: Koufax | 1964: Boyer | 1965: Mays | 1966: Clemente | 1967: Cepeda | 1968: B. Gibson | 1969: McCovey | 1970: Bench | 1971: Torre | 1972: Bench | 1973: Rose | 1974: Garvey | 1975: Morgan | 1976: Morgan | 1977: Foster | 1978: Parker | 1979: Hernandez & Stargell | 1980: Schmidt | 1981: Schmidt | 1982: Murphy | 1983: Murphy | 1984: Sandberg | 1985: McGee | 1986: Schmidt | 1987: Dawson | 1988: K. Gibson | 1989: Mitchell | 1990: Bonds | 1991: Pendleton | 1992: Bonds | 1993: Bonds | 1994: Bagwell | 1995: Larkin | 1996: Caminiti | 1997: Walker | 1998: Sosa | 1999: Jones | 2000: Kent | 2001: Bonds | 2002: Bonds | 2003: Bonds | 2004: Bonds | 2005: Pujols | 2006: Howard | 2007: Rollins | 2008: Pujols
v • d • e
Major League Baseball All-Century Team
Pitchers
Infielders
Outfielders
v • d • e
Los Angeles Dodgers retired numbers
#1 Pee Wee Reese • #2 Tommy Lasorda • #4 Duke Snider • #19 Jim Gilliam • #20 Don Sutton • #24 Walter Alston • #32 Sandy Koufax • #39 Roy Campanella • #42 Jackie Robinson • #53 Don Drysdale
v • d • e
Baseball Hall of Fame Class of 1962
BBWAA Vote
Bob Feller (93.75) • Jackie Robinson (77.5%)
Veterans Committee
v • d • e
Second basemen in the National Baseball Hall of Fame
Carew • Collins • Doerr • Evers • Fox • Frisch • Gehringer • Gordon * • Grant • Herman • Hornsby • Lajoie • Lazzeri • Mazeroski • McPhee • Morgan • Robinson • Sandberg • Schoendienst
* Player elected to Hall of Fame and awaiting official induction
v • d • e
Major League Baseball on ABC
Related programs
Related articles
Commentators
Key figures
Lore
League Championship Series
1976 (ALCS/NLCS) · 1978 (ALCS/NLCS) · 1980 (ALCS/NLCS) · 1982 (ALCS/NLCS) · 1984 (ALCS/NLCS) · 1986 (ALCS/NLCS) · 1988 (ALCS/NLCS) · 1995 (ALCS/NLCS)
All-Star Games
1976 · 1978 · 1980 · 1982 · 1984 · 1986 · 1988 · 1995
World Series
1977 · 1979 · 1981 · 1983 · 1985 · 1987 · 1989 · 1995
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson"
Personal tools