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Absinthe

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For the "Absinthe" travelling circus, see Spiegelworld.
A reservoir glass filled with a naturally coloured verte absinthe, next to an absinthe spoon
Albert Maignan's "Green Muse" (1895): A poet succumbs to the Green Fairy.

Absinthe (Template:Pron-en AB-sinth, or ˈæbsænθ AB-santh) is historically described as a distilled, highly alcoholic (45–74% ABV / 90-148 proof) beverage.[1][2][3][4] It is an anise-flavoured spirit derived from herbs, including the flowers and leaves of the herb Artemisia absinthium, commonly referred to as "grande wormwood", together with green anise and sweet fennel. Absinthe traditionally has a natural green colour but can also be colourless. It is commonly referred to in historical literature as "la fée verte" (the "green fairy" in French).

Although it is sometimes mistakenly called a liqueur, absinthe is not bottled with added sugar and is therefore classified as a spirit.[5] Absinthe has a very high level of alcohol by volume but is normally diluted with water when consumed.

Absinthe originated in the canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. It achieved great popularity as an alcoholic drink in late 19th- and early 20th-century France, particularly among Parisian artists and writers. Owing in part to its association with bohemian culture, consumption of absinthe was opposed by social conservatives and prohibitionists. Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Amedeo Modigliani, Vincent van Gogh, Oscar Wilde, Aleister Crowley and Alfred Jarry were all known drinkers of absinthe.[6]

Absinthe has been portrayed as a dangerously addictive psychoactive drug.[7] The chemical thujone, present in small quantities, was blamed for its alleged harmful effects. By 1915, absinthe had been banned in the United States and in most European countries including France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although absinthe was vilified, it has not been shown that it is any more dangerous than ordinary spirits. Its psychoactive properties, apart from those of alcohol, have been much exaggerated.[7]

A revival of absinthe began in the 1990s, when countries in the European Union began to reauthorize its manufacture and sale. As of February 2008, nearly 200 brands of absinthe were being produced in a dozen countries, most notably in France, Switzerland, Spain, and the Czech Republic.

Production

Anise, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe
Grande wormwood, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe
Fennel, one of the three main herbs used in production of absinthe

Currently, most countries have no legal definition of absinthe, although spirits such as Scotch whisky, brandy, and gin generally have such a definition. Manufacturers can label a product "absinthe" or "absinth" without regard to any legal definition or minimum standard.

Producers of legitimate absinthes use one of two processes to create the finished spirit: either distillation, or cold mixing. In the few countries which have a legal definition of absinthe, distillation is the sole permitted process. An online description of the distillation process (in French) is available.[8]

Distilled absinthe

Distilled absinthe is produced in a form similar to high quality gin. The botanicals are macerated in the already distilled alcohol before being redistilled one or more times with the herbal ingredients to impart complexity and texture to the beverage.

Absinthe distillation, ca. 1904

The distillation of absinthe first produces a colourless distillate that leaves the alembic at around 72 percent ABV. The distillate can be bottled clear, to produce a Blanche or la Bleue absinthe, or it can be coloured using artificial or natural colouring. Traditional absinthes take their green colour from chlorophyll, which is present in some of the herbal ingredients during the secondary maceration.

The natural colouring process is considered critical for absinthe ageing, since the chlorophyll remains chemically active. The chlorophyll plays the same role in absinthe that tannins do in wine or brown liquors.[unreliable source?][9]

This is done by steeping petite wormwood, hyssop, and melissa (among other herbs) in the liquid. Chlorophyll from these herbs is extracted giving the drink its famous green colour. This process also provides the herbal complexity that is typical of high quality absinthe. This type of absinthe is known as a verte. After the colouring process, the resulting product is diluted with water to the desired percentage of alcohol. Historically, most absinthes contain between 50 and 75 percent alcohol by volume. It is said to improve materially with storage, and many pre-ban distilleries aged their absinthe in neutral barrels before bottling.

Cold mixed

Many modern absinthes are produced using the cold mix system. This process is forbidden in countries with formal legal designations of absinthe. The beverage is manufactured by mixing flavouring essences and artificial colouring in strong alcohol, and is similar to a flavoured vodka or "absinthe schnapps". Some modern Franco–Suisse absinthes are bottled at up to 82.3 percent alcohol[unreliable source?][10] and some modern bohemian-style absinthes contain up to 89.9 percent. Because of the lack of a formal legal definition of absinthe in most countries, many of these lesser brands claim their products to be "distilled" (since the alcohol base itself was created through distillation) and sell them at prices comparable to more authentic absinthes that are distilled directly from whole herbs.

Ingredients

Anise seeds

Absinthe is traditionally prepared from a distillation of neutral alcohol, various herbs, and water. Traditional absinthes were redistilled from a white grape spirit (or eau de vie), while lesser absinthes were more commonly made from alcohol from grain, beets, or potatoes.[11] The principal botanicals are grande wormwood, green anise, and florence fennel, which are often called "the holy trinity."[12] Many other herbs may be used as well, such as petite wormwood (Artemisia pontica or Roman wormwood), hyssop, melissa, star anise, angelica, sweet flag, dittany, coriander, veronica, juniper, and nutmeg.

Alternative colouring

Absinthe can also be naturally coloured red using hibiscus flowers. This is called a rouge or rose absinthe. As of now, only one historical rouge brand has been discovered.[unreliable source?][13]

Adding to absinthe's negative reputation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, unscrupulous makers of the drink were said to have used toxic copper compounds to create the legendary green "verte" colour instead of using the traditional "colouring" phase of manufacture. This may have caused some of the added toxicity associated until recently with this beverage. And, in recent times, some home-makers have used store-bought food colouring to simulate the green colouration of verte absinthe when their process did not produce a proper verte colouration. In addition, antimony trichloride was reputedly added to enhance the louching effect.[14]

Kits

The interest in absinthe has spawned a rash of "absinthe kits", which are claimed to produce homemade absinthe (not to be confused with hausgemacht absinthe, despite "hausgemacht" translating as "homemade" in German). Kits often call for soaking herbs in vodka or alcohol or adding a liquid concentrate to the same to create an ersatz absinthe. Such practices usually yield a harsh substance that bears little resemblance to the genuine article, and are considered to be inauthentic by any practical standard.[unreliable source?][15] Some concoctions may even be dangerous, especially if they call for supplementation with potentially poisonous herbs, oils and/or extracts. One case has been described in which a person suffered acute renal failure after drinking 10 ml of pure wormwood oil, a dose much higher than that found in absinthe.[unreliable source?][16]

Preparation

Main article: Absinthiana
See also: Ouzo effect
Preparing absinthe the traditional way. No burning is used.
Collection of absinthe spoons. These specialized spoons are used to hold the sugar cube, over which ice-cold water is poured to dilute the absinthe. The slot on the handle allows the spoon to rest securely on the rim of the glass.

Traditionally, absinthe is prepared by placing a sugar cube on top of a specially designed slotted spoon and then placing the spoon on the glass which has been filled with a shot of absinthe. Ice-cold water is then poured or dripped over the sugar cube so that the water is slowly and evenly displaced into the absinthe, typically 1 part absinthe and 3 to 5 parts water. During this process, components not soluble in water (mainly those from anise, fennel, and star anise) come out of solution and cloud the drink. The resulting milky opalescence is called the louche (Fr. "opaque" or "shady", IPA [luʃ]). Releasing these components allows herbal aromas and flavours to "blossom" or "bloom" and brings out subtleties originally over-powered by the anise. This is often referred to as "The French Method."

"The Bohemian Method" is an alternative that is popular primarily due to the use of fire.[citation needed] Like the French method, a sugar cube is placed on a slotted spoon over a glass containing one shot of absinthe. The difference is that the sugar is pre-soaked in alcohol, usually more absinthe, and then set ablaze. The flaming sugar cube is then dropped into the glass igniting the absinthe. Finally, a shot glass full of water is added to douse the flames. This method tends to produce a stronger drink than the French method. A variant of "The Bohemian Method" is to allow the fire to burn itself out. This variant, called "Cooking the Absinthe" or "Flaming Green Fairy," removes much but not all of the alcohol. The origins of this burning ritual may come from a coffee and brandy drink that was served at Café Brûlot, in which a sugar cube soaked in brandy was set aflame.[14]

Slow drip absinthe fountain

Originally a waiter would serve a dose of absinthe, ice water in a carafe, and sugar separately, and the drinker would prepare it to his or her preference.[unreliable source?][17] With increased popularity, the absinthe fountain, a large jar of ice water on a base with spigots, came into use. It allowed a number of drinks to be prepared at once, and with a hands-free drip, patrons were able to socialize while louching a glass.

Although many bars served absinthe in standard glasses, a number of glasses were specifically made for absinthe. These had a dose line, bulge, or bubble in the lower portion denoting how much absinthe should be poured in. One "dose" of absinthe is around 1 ounce (30 ml), and most glasses used this as the standard, with some drinkers using as much as 1½ ounces (45 ml).

In addition to being drunk with water poured over sugar, absinthe was a common cocktail ingredient in both the United Kingdom and the United States,[18] and continues to be a popular ingredient today. One of the most famous of these is Ernest Hemingway's "Death in the Afternoon" cocktail, a concoction he contributed to a 1935 collection of celebrity recipes. His directions are as follows: "Pour one jigger absinthe into a Champagne glass. Add iced Champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness. Drink three to five of these slowly."[19]

Styles

The Absinthe Drinker by Viktor Oliva (1861–1928)

Most categorical alcoholic beverages have regulations governing their classification and labelling, while those governing absinthe have always been conspicuously lacking. According to popular treatises from the 19th century, absinthe could be loosely categorized into several grades (ordinaire, demi-fine, fine, and Suisse—which does not denote origin), in order of increasing alcoholic strength and quality. Many contemporary absinthe critics simply classify absinthe as distilled or mixed, according to its production method. And while the former is generally considered far superior in quality to the latter, an absinthe simply classified as 'distilled' makes no guarantee as to the quality of its base ingredients or the skill of its maker.

  • Blanche, or la Bleue: Blanche absinthe (also referred to as la Bleue in Switzerland) is bottled directly following distillation and reduction, and is uncoloured (clear). The name la Bleue was originally a term used for bootleg Swiss absinthe, but has become a popular term for post-ban-style Swiss absinthe in general.
  • Verte ("green" in French) absinthe begins as a blanche. The blanche is altered by the "colouring step," by which a new mixture of herbs is placed into the clear distillate. This confers a peridot green hue and an intense flavour. Vertes are the type of absinthe that was most commonly drunk in the 19th century. Artificially coloured green absinthe is also called "verte," though it lacks the herbal characteristics.
  • Hausgemacht (German for home-made, often abbreviated as HG) is a type of absinthe that is home-distilled by hobbyists. It is often called clandestine absinthe. It should not be confused with the Clandestine brand, nor should it be confused with absinthe kits. Produced mainly in small quantities for personal use and not for sale, hausgemacht absinthe enables experienced distillers to select the herbs personally and to fine-tune each batch. Clandestine production increased after absinthe was banned, when small producers went underground, most notably in Switzerland. Although the Swiss had produced both vertes and blanches before the ban, clear absinthe (also known as la Bleue) became more popular after the ban because it was easier to hide. Although the ban has been lifted, many clandestine distillers have not made themselves legal. Authorities believe that high taxes on alcohol and the mystique of being underground are likely the reason for this.[22] Those hausgemacht distillers who have become legal often place the word clandestine on their labels.
  • Bohemian-style absinth (also called Czech-style absinthe, anise-free absinthe, or just "absinth" (without the "e")) is best described as a wormwood bitters. It is produced mainly in the Czech Republic,[23] from which it gets its designations as "Bohemian" or "Czech," although not all absinthe from the Czech Republic is Bohemian-style. It contains little or none of the anise, fennel, and other herbs that are found in traditional absinthe and bears very little resemblance to historically produced absinthes. Typical Bohemian-style absinth has only two similarities with its authentic, traditional counterpart: it contains wormwood and has a high alcohol content. In the 1990s Czech Absinth producers introduced the method of lighting the sugar cube on fire.[24] This type of absinth and the associated "fire ritual" are modern creations and have little to no relationship with the historical absinthe tradition.

Storage

Absinthe that is artificially coloured or clear is relatively stable and can be bottled in a clear container. If naturally coloured absinthe is exposed to light, the chlorophyll breaks down, changing the colour from emerald green to yellow green to brown. Pre-ban and vintage absinthes are often of a distinct amber colour as a result of this process. Though this colour is considered a mark of maturity in vintage absinthes, it is regarded as undesirable in contemporary absinthe. Due to this fragility, naturally coloured absinthe is typically bottled in dark UV resistant bottles. Absinthe should be stored in a cool, room temperature, dry place away from light and heat. It should also be kept out of the refrigerator and freezer as anethole can crystallize inside the bottle, creating a "scum" in the bottle which may or may not dissolve back into solution as the bottle warms.

Effects

Edouard Manet, The Absinthe Drinker, 1859

Absinthe has been frequently and incorrectly described in modern times as being hallucinogenic. In the 1970s, a scientific paper mistakenly reported thujone was related to THC, the active chemical in cannabis.[25] Ten years after his 19th century experiments with wormwood oil, Valentin Magnan studied 250 cases of alcoholism and claimed that those who drank absinthe were worse off than those drinking ordinary alcohol, and that they experienced rapid-onset hallucinations.[26] Such accounts by absinthe opponents were embraced by its most famous users, many of whom were bohemian artists or writers.[27]

Two famous painters who helped popularize the notion that absinthe had powerful psychoactive properties were Toulouse Lautrec and Vincent van Gogh. In one of the best-known accounts of absinthe drinking, Oscar Wilde described the feeling of having tulips on his legs after leaving a bar.[28] Today it is known that absinthe does not cause hallucinations.[29] Thujone, once thought to be the active chemical in absinthe, is a GABA antagonist; and while it can produce muscle spasms in large doses, there is not enough evidence that it causes hallucinations.[29] It has been speculated that reports of hallucinogenic effects of absinthe may have been due to poisonous chemicals being added to cheaper versions of the drink in the 19th century, to give it a more vivid colour.[30]

However, the debate over whether absinthe produces effects on the human mind additional to those of alcohol has not been conclusively resolved. The effects of absinthe have been described by some as mind opening.[29] The most commonly reported experience is a "clear-headed" feeling of inebriation—a form of "lucid drunkenness". Chemist, historian and absinthe distiller Ted Breaux has claimed that the alleged secondary effects of absinthe may be caused by the fact that some of the herbal compounds in the drink act as stimulants, while others act as sedatives, creating an overall lucid effect of awakening.[31] Long term effects of low absinthe consumption in humans remain unknown, although the herbs in absinthe have both painkilling[32] and antiparasitic[33] properties.

Controversy

It was once thought that excessive absinthe drinking had worse effects than those associated with overindulgence in other alcoholic drinks, a belief that led to diagnoses of the disease of "absinthism". One of the first vilifications of absinthe was an 1864 experiment in which a certain Dr. Magnan exposed a guinea pig to large doses of pure wormwood vapour and another to alcohol vapours. The guinea pig exposed to wormwood experienced convulsive seizures, while the animal exposed to alcohol did not. Magnan would later blame the chemical thujone, contained in wormwood, for these effects.[34]

Past reports estimated thujone levels in absinthe as being high—up to 260 mg/kg of absinthe.[35] More recently, published scientific analyses of samples of various original absinthes have disproven earlier estimates, showing that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe when using historical recipes and methods. Most proper absinthes, both vintage and modern, are within the current EU limits.[36][37][38][39]

Tests on mice showed an LD50 of about 45 mg thujone per kg of body weight,[40] which is much more than could be consumed in absinthe. The high percentage of alcohol in absinthe would kill a person before the thujone would become life-threatening.[40] In documented cases of acute thujone poisoning as a result of oral ingestion,[41] the source of thujone was not commercial absinthe, but rather non-controversial sources such as common essential oils, which can contain as much as 50% thujone.[42]

A study in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol[43] concluded that high doses (0.28 mg/kg) of thujone in alcohol had negative effects on attention performance. It slowed down reaction time, and caused subjects to concentrate their attention in the central field of vision. Low doses (0.028 mg/kg) did not produce an effect noticeably different from plain alcohol. While the effects of this high dose were statistically significant in a double blind test, the test subjects themselves were unable to reliably identify which samples were the ones containing thujone. For the average 65 kg man, the high dose in the study would be 18.2 mg of thujone. The EU limit of 35 mg/L of thujone in absinthe means that about 0.5 liter of the highest legal thujone content absinthe would have to be drunk to reach the measured effects, a feat likely to cause alcohol poisoning.

Regulations

Currently, most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike Scotch whisky or cognac). Manufacturers can label a product 'absinthe' or 'absinth', whether or not it matches the traditional definition. Due to many countries never banning absinthe, not every country has regulations specifically governing it.

Australia

Bitters can contain a maximum 35 mg/kg thujone, while other alcoholic beverages can contain a maximum 10 mg/kg[44] of thujone. In Australia, import and sales require a special permit although absinthe is readily available in many bottle shops. Regulation 5H of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (Cth)[45] (the Regulations) prohibits the importation of Absinthe (Schedule 8), unless the permission (in writing) of the Secretary or an authorised person has been granted permission to import the goods and the permission has been produced to the Collector. Item 12A of Schedule 8 of the Regulations,[46] refers to "oil of wormwood, being an essential oil obtained from plants of the genus Artemisia, and preparations containing oil of wormwood." The administrative arrangements include the Secretary and authorised officers (appropriately delegated TGA officers) of the Therapeutic Goods Administration[47] may grant permission to import absinthe. The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Collector for the importation of Schedule 8 goods. The domestic production and sale of Absinthe is regulated by State licensing laws.

Canada

In Canada, liquor laws are established by the various provincial governments. As with any spirit, importation by individuals for personal use is allowed, provided that conditions for the individual's duration outside the country are satisfied. (Importation is a federal matter, and is enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency).

Absinthe is not sold in some provinces, although, in Saskatchewan, an individual is permitted to import one case (usually twelve 750 ml bottles or eight one-litre bottles) of any liquor. Individual provincial liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold.

Production of spirits in Canada is provincially regulated. Okanagan Spirits in British Columbia released the Taboo brand in 2007: this is possibly the first commercial absinthe crafted in Canada.[48]

Brazil

Absinthe was prohibited in Brazil until 2000. Presently, absinthe sold in Brazil must abide by the national law that restricts all spirits to a maximum of 53.8% alcohol by volume. While this regulation is enforced throughout channels of legal distribution, most major cities have large open air markets where contraband items, including absinthe containing alcohol in excess of the legal limit, are sold without interference from local police.

European Union

The European Union permits a maximum thujone level of 35 mg/kg in alcoholic beverages where Artemisia species is a listed ingredient, and 10 mg/kg in other alcoholic beverages.[49] Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework. Sale of absinthe is permitted in all EU countries unless they further regulate it.

France

Despite adopting sweeping EU food and beverage regulations in 1988 that effectively re-legalized absinthe, a decree was passed that same year that preserved the prohibition on products explicitly labelled as "absinthe", while placing strict limits on fenchone (fennel) and pinocamphone (hyssop)[50] in an obvious (failed) attempt to thwart a possible return of absinthe-like products. French producers circumvented this regulatory obstacle by labelling absinthe as spiritueux à base de plantes d'absinthe ('wormwood-based spirits'), with many either reducing or omitting fennel and hyssop altogether. A legal challenge to the scientific basis of this decree resulted in its repeal (2009),[51] which opened the door for the official French re-legalization of absinthe for the first time since 1915. The French Senate voted to repeal the prohibition in mid-April 2011.[52]

Republic of Georgia

It is legal to produce and sell absinthe in the Republic of Georgia, which has several absinthe production facilities.

Germany

A ban on absinthe was enacted in Germany on 27 March 1923. In addition to banning the production of and commercial trade in absinthe, the law went so far as to prohibit the distribution of printed matter that provided details of its production. The original ban was lifted in 1981, but the use of Artemisia absinthium as a flavouring agent remained prohibited. On 27 September 1991, Germany adopted the European Union's standards of 1988, which effectively re-legalized absinthe.[53] Unlike Switzerland and France, there are no further restrictions.

New Zealand

Although the substance is not banned at national level, some local authorities have banned it. The latest is Mataura in Southland. The ban came in August 2008 after several issues of misuse drew public and police attention. One incident resulted in breathing difficulties and hospitalization of a 17-year-old for alcohol poisoning.[54] The particular brand of absinthe that caused these effects contained 89.9% vol. alc.

Sweden

The sale and production of absinthe has never been prohibited in Sweden. However, the only store that may sell alcoholic beverages containing more than 3.5% alcohol by volume is the government-owned chain of liquor stores called Systembolaget. Systembolaget did not import or sell absinthe for many years.[55]

Switzerland

In Switzerland, the sale and production of absinthe was prohibited from 1910 to 2005; the ban was lifted on 1 March 2005. To be legally made or sold in Switzerland, absinthe must be distilled[56] and must be either uncoloured or naturally coloured.[57]

United States

In 2007, the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) effectively lifted the longstanding absinthe ban, and has since approved many brands for sale in the U.S. market. This was made possible partly through the TTB's clarification of the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) thujone content regulations, which specify that finished food and beverages that contain Artemisia species must be thujone free.[58] In this context, the TTB considers a product to be thujone-free if the thujone content is less than 10ppm (equal to 10 mg/kg).[59][60] This is verified through the use of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.[61]

The importation, distribution, and sale of absinthe is permitted with respect to the following restrictions:

  • The product must be thujone-free as per TTB guidelines,
  • The word "absinthe" can neither be the brand name nor stand alone on the label, and
  • The packaging cannot "project images of hallucinogenic, psychotropic or mind-altering effects."

Absinthe imported in violation of these regulations is subject to seizure at the discretion of U.S. Customs.[62][63]

Beginning in 2001, a product called Absente was sold legally in the United States under the marketing tagline "Absinthe Refined", but as the product was made with southernwood (Artemisia abrotanum) and not grande wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) (prior to 2009), the TTB classified it as a liqueur.

Vanuatu

The Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 1915, passed in the New Hebrides, has never been repealed, and is included in the 1988 Vanuatu consolidated legislation, and contains the following all-encompassing restriction: The manufacture, importation, circulation and sale wholesale or by retail of absinthe or similar liquors in Vanuatu shall be prohibited.[64]

Cultural influence

L'Absinthe, by Edgar Degas, 1876
Main article: Cultural references to absinthe

The legacy of absinthe as a mysterious, addictive, and mind-altering drink continues to this day. Absinthe has been seen or featured in fine art, films, video, music and literature. The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal. It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking, even though traditionally neither is true. In addition, it is most portrayed in the media as causing over-the-top hallucinations.

Numerous artists and writers living in France in the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers who featured absinthe in their work. These included Emile Zola[citation needed], Vincent van Gogh, Édouard Manet, Amedeo Modigliani, Arthur Rimbaud, Guy de Maupassant, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and Paul Verlaine. Later artists and writers drew from this cultural well, including Pablo Picasso, August Strindberg, Oscar Wilde, and Ernest Hemingway. Aleister Crowley was also known to be a habitual absinthe drinker. Emile Cohl, an early pioneer in the art of animation, presented the effects of the drink in 1920 with the short film, Hasher's delirium.

The aura of illicitness and mystery surrounding absinthe has played into modern literature, movies, and television shows. Such depictions vary in their authenticity, often applying dramatic license to depict the drink as anything from an aphrodisiac to poison.

See also

  • Purl – an infusion of wormwood in ale
  • Vermouth – based upon a German wormwood wine

References

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  29. ^ a b c The Appeal of 'The Green Fairy', Sarasota Herald-Tribune, September 18, 2008. Citing Absinthe: History in a Bottle, Biomed Central, The Book of Absinthe, and Thujone.info
  30. ^ Ian Hutton: Myth, Reality and Absinthe, Current Drug Discovery, 2002, 9, page 63 "Common adulterants were cupric acetate (to provide the valued green color)"
  31. ^ "The Mystery of the Green Menace—Wired Magazine (see page 3 of article)". Wired-vig.wired.com. 2009-01-04. Retrieved 2010-08-14.
  32. ^ K.C. Rice and R.S. Wilson, J. Med. Chem. 19: 1054–1057, 1976. Cited by Jiří Patočka and Bohumil Plucar, Pharmacology and toxicology of absinthe, Journal of Applied Biomedicine, 1: 199–205, 2003. Retrieved Feb 8, 2009.
  33. ^ A study of plants in central Italy reported some veterinary use of wormwood as an anthelmintic for cows. P.M. Guarrera: "Traditional antihelmintic, antiparasitic and repellent uses of plants in central Italy." J Ethnopharmacol. 1999; 68 (1–3): 183–192. Cited at http://www.drugs.com/npp/wormwood.html
  34. ^ Conrad III, Barnaby; (1988). Absinthe History in a Bottle. Chronicle books. ISBN 0-8118-1650-8 Pg. 101
  35. ^ Ian Hutton, page 62, "quoted by Arnold"..."Arnold WN (1989) Absinthe: Scientific American 260(6):112–117"
  36. ^ Ian Hutton, pages 62–63
  37. ^ Joachim Emmert (2004). "Determination of α-/β-Thujone and Related Terpenes in Absinthe using Solid Phase Extraction and Gas Chromatography" (PDF). Deutsche Lebensmittel-Rundschau. 9 (100). Germany: Gabriele Lauser, Ingrid Steiner: 352–356. Retrieved 2007-11-26. Tab. 1 Concentrations of thujone and anethole in different absinthe samples {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Determination of a/β Thujone and Related Terpenes in Absinthe using Solid Phase Extraction and Gas Chromatography. Retrieved 5 March 2006.
  39. ^ Lachenmeier, Dirk W.; Nathan-Maister, David; Breaux, Theodore A.; Sohnius, Eva-Maria; Schoeberl, Kerstin; Kuballa, Thomas (2008). "Chemical Composition of Vintage Preban Absinthe with Special Reference to Thujone, Fenchone, Pinocamphone, Methanol, Copper, and Antimony Concentrations". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 56 (9): 3073–3081. doi:10.1021/jf703568f. PMID 18419128.
  40. ^ a b Hold, K. M. (2000). "alpha -Thujone (the active component of absinthe): gamma -Aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (8): 3826–3831. doi:10.1073/pnas.070042397. PMC 18101. PMID 10725394.
  41. ^ Weisbord, S. D., Soule, J. B. & Kimmel, P. L. (1997) N. Engl. J. Med. 337, pp. 825–827
  42. ^ Essential oils from Dalmatian Sage. J. Agric. Food Chem 29 April 1999. Retrieved 12 May 2006.
  43. ^ Absinthe: Attention Performance and Mood under the Influence of Thujone Journal of Studies on Alcohol, DETTLING, A. et al. Retrieved 21 May 2006.
  44. ^ Standard 1.4.1 Contaminants and Natural Toxicants. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Retrieved 25 May 2006.
  45. ^ Reg 5H, Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956
  46. ^ Schedule 8, Regulations
  47. ^ "Therapeutic Goods Administration website". Tga.gov.au. 2010-07-26. Retrieved 2010-08-14.
  48. ^ B.C. distiller pins his hopes on the green fairy "B.C. distiller pins his hopes on the green fairy". Retrieved 2008-09-25. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help)
  49. ^ Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 of the European Parliament and Council of 16 December 2008, European Commission.
  50. ^ Décret n°88–1024 du 2 novembre 1988. Retrieved 5 March 2006.
  51. ^ [1] French decree on fenchone and pinocamphone repealed.
  52. ^ "Absinthe in France: Legalising the 'green fairy'". BBC News. 2011-05-04.
  53. ^ "European Union PDF document" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-09-18. see thujon in table on page 11.
  54. ^ Gerken, Sonia (2008-08-30). "Liquor ban after teen's near death". The Southland Times. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
  55. ^ "Absint—"Den gröna feen"" (in Swedish). Systembolaget. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
  56. ^ "Ordonnance du DFI sur les boissons alcooliques : Art. 80 Absinth". Confédération Suisse. 2008-04-01. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
  57. ^ "Download from Confédération Suisse Website: see pages 3–4" (PDF). Confédération Suisse. 2005-02-07. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
  58. ^ "Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Chapter I, Part 172, Section 172.510—Food Additives Permitted for Direct Addition to Food for Human Consumption". US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2008-09-17. [dead link]
  59. ^ "Alcohol Tax and Trade Bureau Industry Circular Number 2007-5". Retrieved 2008-09-17.
  60. ^ "Rediscovering Absinthe: Removing The Green Fairy From The Banned List". Law Vibe. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  61. ^ "Alcohol Tax and Trade Bureau "Screening of Distilled Spirits for Thujone by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry". Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau. Retrieved 2008-09-17.
  62. ^ "Know Before You Go" (PDF). U.S. Customs and Border Protection. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
  63. ^ "Prohibited and Restricted Items". US Customs and Border Protection. Retrieved 2008-09-17.
  64. ^ "Absinthe (Prohibition) Act 4, Laws of the Republic of Vanuatu Revised Edition". 1988. Retrieved 2008-09-17.

Further reading

  • Arnold, Wilfred Niels (June 1989). "Absinthe". Scientific American. Retrieved September 18, 2010.
  • Blumer, D. (2002). "The Illness of Vincent van Gogh". American Journal of Psychiatry. 159 (4): 519–526. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.4.519. PMID 11925286.
  • Eadie, MJ (2009). "Absinthe, epileptic seizures and Valentin Magnan". The journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 39 (1): 73–8. PMID 19831287.
  • Huisman, M.; Brug, J.; MacKenbach, J. (2007). "Absinthe is its history relevant for current public health?". International Journal of Epidemiology. 36 (4): 738–744. doi:10.1093/ije/dym068. PMID 17982755.
  • Lachenmeier, Dirk W.; Nathan-Maister, David; Breaux, Theodore A.; Sohnius, Eva-Maria; Schoeberl, Kerstin; Kuballa, Thomas (2008). "Chemical Composition of Vintage Preban Absinthe with Special Reference to Thujone, Fenchone, Pinocamphone, Methanol, Copper, and Antimony Concentrations". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 56 (9): 3073–3081. doi:10.1021/jf703568f. PMID 18419128.
  • Lachenmeier, Dirk W.; Walch, Stephan G.; Padosch, Stephan A.; Kröner, Lars U. (2006). "Absinthe - A Review". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 46 (5): 365–377. doi:10.1080/10408690590957322. PMID 16891209.
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