Andrei Sakharov
Andrei Sakharov Андрей Сахаров | |
---|---|
Андрей Дмитриевич Сахаров | |
![]() Sakharov at a conference of the USSR Academy of Sciences on 1 March 1989 | |
Born | |
Died | 14 December 1989 Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union | (aged 68)
Citizenship | Soviet |
Alma mater | |
Known for | |
Spouse(s) | Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva (1943–1969; her death) Yelena Bonner (1972–1989; his death) |
Awards |
|
Scientific career | |
Fields | Nuclear physics |
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (Russian: Андре́й Дми́триевич Са́харов; 21 May 1921 – 14 December 1989) was a Russian nuclear physicist, dissident, and activist for disarmament, peace and human rights.[1]
He became renowned as the designer of the Soviet Union's RDS-37, a codename for Soviet development of thermonuclear weapons. Sakharov later became an advocate of civil liberties and civil reforms in the Soviet Union, for which he faced state persecution; these efforts earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Sakharov Prize, which is awarded annually by the European Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, is named in his honor.[2]
Biography
Sakharov was born in Moscow on May 21, 1921. His father was Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, a private school physics teacher and an amateur pianist.[3] His father later taught at the Second Moscow State University.[4] Andrei's grandfather Ivan had been a prominent lawyer in the Russian Empire who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles (including advocating the abolition of capital punishment) that would later influence his grandson. Sakharov's mother was Yekaterina Alekseyevna Sakharova, a great-granddaughter of the prominent military commander Alexey Semenovich Sofiano (who was of Greek ancestry).[5][6] Sakharov's parents and paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped his personality. His mother and grandmother were churchgoers; his father was a nonbeliever. When Andrei was about thirteen, he realized that he did not believe, but in later life he unequivocally described his religious feeling.[7]
Education and career
Sakharov entered Moscow State University in 1938. Following evacuation in 1941 during the Great Patriotic War (World War II), he graduated in Aşgabat, in today's Turkmenistan.[8] He was then assigned to laboratory work in Ulyanovsk. In 1943, he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva, with whom he raised two daughters and a son. Klavdia would later die in 1969. He returned to Moscow in 1945 to study at the Theoretical Department of FIAN (the Physical Institute of the Soviet Academy of Sciences). He received his Ph.D. in 1947.[9]
Development of thermonuclear devices
After World War II, he researched cosmic rays. In mid-1948 he participated in the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov and Igor Tamm. Sakharov's study group at FIAN in 1948 came up with a second concept in August–September 1948.[10] Adding a shell of natural, unenriched uranium around the deuterium would increase the deuterium concentration at the uranium-deuterium boundary and the overall yield of the device, because the natural uranium would capture neutrons and itself fission as part of the thermonuclear reaction. This idea of a layered fission-fusion-fission bomb led Sakharov to call it the sloika, or layered cake.[10] The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29, 1949. After moving to Sarov in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the development of the first megaton-range Soviet hydrogen bomb using a design known as Sakharov's Third Idea in Russia and the Teller–Ulam design in the United States. Before his Third Idea, Sakharov tried a "layer cake" of alternating layers of fission and fusion fuel. The results were disappointing, yielding no more than a typical fission bomb. However the design was seen to be worth pursuing because deuterium is abundant and uranium is scarce, and he had no idea how powerful the US design was. Sakharov realised that in order to cause the explosion of one side of the fuel to symmetrically compress the fusion fuel, a mirror could be used to reflect the radiation. The details had not been officially declassified in Russia when Sakharov was writing his memoirs, but in the Teller–Ulam design, soft X-rays emitted by the fission bomb were focused onto a cylinder of lithium deuteride to compress it symmetrically. This is called radiation implosion. The Teller–Ulam design also had a secondary fission device inside the fusion cylinder to assist with the compression of the fusion fuel and generate neutrons to convert some of the lithium to tritium, producing a mixture of deuterium and tritium.[11][12] Sakharov's idea was first tested as RDS-37 in 1955. A larger variation of the same design which Sakharov worked on was the 50 Mt Tsar Bomba of October 1961, which was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated.
Sakharov saw "striking parallels" between his fate and those of J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller in the US. Sakharov believed that in this "tragic confrontation of two outstanding people", both deserved respect, because "each of them was certain he had right on his side and was morally obligated to go to the end in the name of truth." While Sakharov strongly disagreed with Teller over nuclear testing in the atmosphere and the Strategic Defense Initiative, he believed that American academics had been unfair to Teller's resolve to get the H-bomb for the United States since "all steps by the Americans of a temporary or permanent rejection of developing thermonuclear weapons would have been seen either as a clever feint, or as the manifestation of stupidity. In both cases, the reaction would have been the same – avoid the trap and immediately take advantage of the enemy's stupidity."
Sakharov never felt that by creating nuclear weapons he had "known sin", in Oppenheimer's expression. He later wrote:
After more than forty years, we have had no third world war, and the balance of nuclear terror ... may have helped to prevent one. But I am not at all sure of this; back then, in those long-gone years, the question didn't even arise. What most troubles me now is the instability of the balance, the extreme peril of the current situation, the appalling waste of the arms race ... Each of us has a responsibility to think about this in global terms, with tolerance, trust, and candor, free from ideological dogmatism, parochial interests, or national egotism."
— Andrei Sakharov[13]
Support for peaceful use of nuclear technology
In 1950 he proposed an idea for a controlled nuclear fusion reactor, the tokamak, which is still the basis for the majority of work in the area. Sakharov, in association with Tamm, proposed confining extremely hot ionized plasma by torus shaped magnetic fields for controlling thermonuclear fusion that led to the development of the tokamak device.[14]
Magneto-implosive generators
In 1951 he invented and tested the first explosively pumped flux compression generators,[15] compressing magnetic fields by explosives. He called these devices MK (for MagnetoKumulative) generators. The radial MK-1 produced a pulsed magnetic field of 25 megagauss (2500 teslas). The resulting helical MK-2 generated 1000 million amperes in 1953.
Sakharov then tested a MK-driven "plasma cannon" where a small aluminum ring was vaporized by huge eddy currents into a stable, self-confined toroidal plasmoid and was accelerated to 100 km/s.[16] Sakharov later suggested replacing the copper coil in MK generators with a large superconductor solenoid to magnetically compress and focus underground nuclear explosions into a shaped charge effect. He theorized this could focus 1023 protons per second on a 1 mm2 surface.
Particle physics and cosmology
After 1965 Sakharov returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and physical cosmology.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/2D_didactic_image_of_Sakharov%27s_twin_universe_model.svg/300px-2D_didactic_image_of_Sakharov%27s_twin_universe_model.svg.png)
He mainly tried to explain the baryon asymmetry of the universe; in that regard, he was the first to propose proton decay and to consider CPT-symmetric events occurring before the Big Bang:
We can visualize that neutral spinless maximons (or photons) are produced at t < 0 from contracting matter having an excess of antiquarks, that they pass "one through the other" at the instant t = 0 when the density is infinite, and decay with an excess of quarks when t > 0, realizing total CPT symmetry of the universe. All the phenomena at t < 0 are assumed in this hypothesis to be CPT reflections of the phenomena at t > 0.
— Andrei Sakharov, in Collected Scientific Works (1982).[16]
Sakharov was the first scientist to introduce twin universes he called "sheets". He achieved a complete CPT symmetry since the second sheet is populated by invisible "shadow matter" which is antimatter (C-symmetry) because of an opposite CP-violation there, and the two sheets are mirror of each other both in space (P-symmetry) and time (T-symmetry) through the same initial gravitational singularity.
In his first model the two universes did not interact, except via local matter accumulation whose density and pressure become high enough to connect the two sheets through a bridge without spacetime between them, but with a continuity of geodesics beyond the Schwarzschild radius with no singularity, allowing an exchange of matter between the two conjugated sheets, based on an idea after Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov.[27] Novikov called such singularities a collapse and an anticollapse, which are an alternative to the couple black hole and white hole in the wormhole model. Sakharov also proposed the idea of induced gravity as an alternative theory of quantum gravity.[28]
Turn to activism
Since the late 1950s Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the 1960s, Sakharov was against nuclear proliferation. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in Moscow.
Sakharov was also involved in an event with political consequences in 1964, when the USSR Academy of Sciences nominated for full membership Nikolai Nuzhdin, a follower of Trofim Lysenko (initiator of the Stalin-supported anti-genetics campaign Lysenkoism). Contrary to normal practice Sakharov, a member of the Academy, publicly spoke out against full membership for Nuzhdin, holding him responsible for "the defamation, firing, arrest, even death, of many genuine scientists."[29]: 109 In the end, Nuzhdin was not elected, but the episode prompted Sergei Khrushchev to order the KGB to gather compromising material on Sakharov.[29]: 109
The major turn in Sakharov's political evolution came in 1967, when anti-ballistic missile defense became a key issue in US–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of July 21, 1967, Sakharov explained the need to "take the Americans at their word" and accept their proposal for a "bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense", because otherwise an arms race in this new technology would increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript (which accompanied the letter) in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by this kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABMs in the Soviet press.[30][31]
In May 1968 Sakharov completed an essay entitled "Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom". In it, he described the anti-ballistic missile defense as a major threat of world nuclear war. After this essay was circulated in samizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union,[32] Sakharov was banned from conducting any military-related research and returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics.
Over the next twelve years, until his exile to Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) in January 1980, Andrei Sakharov assumed the role of a widely recognized and open dissident in Moscow.[33]: 21 He stood vigil outside closed courtrooms, wrote appeals on behalf of more than two hundred individual prisoners, and continued to write essays about the need for democratization.[33]: 21
In 1970 Sakharov was among the three founding members of the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR along with Valery Chalidze and Andrei Tverdokhlebov.[33]: 21 The Committee wrote appeals, collected signatures for petitions and succeeded in affiliating with several international human rights organizations. Its work was the subject of many KGB reports and brought Sakharov under increasing pressure from the government.[14]
Sakharvov married a fellow human rights activist, Yelena Bonner, in 1972.[citation needed]
By 1973 Sakharov was meeting regularly with Western correspondents, holding press conferences in his apartment.[33]: 21 He appealed to the U.S. Congress to approve the 1974 Jackson-Vanik Amendment to a trade bill, which coupled trade tariffs to the Kremlin's willingness to allow freer emigration.[33]: 24
Attacked by Soviet establishment, 1972 onwards
In 1972 Sakharov became the target of sustained pressure and intimidation, from his fellow scientists in the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Soviet press and direct threats of physical assault. Dissident activists, including the writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, sprang to his defence.[35]
In 1973 and 1974, the Soviet media campaign continued, targeting both Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn. While Sakharov disagreed with Solzhenitsyn's vision of Russian revival, he deeply respected him for his courage. Only a few individuals in the Soviet Union were willing to defend 'traitors' like Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn, and those who had dared were inevitably punished.[13]
Sakharov later described that it took "years" for him to "understand how much substitution, deceit, and lack of correspondence with reality there was" in the Soviet ideals. "At first I thought, despite everything that I saw with my own eyes, that the Soviet State was a breakthrough into the future, a kind of prototype for all countries". Then he came, in his words, to "the theory of symmetry: all governments and regimes to a first approximation are bad, all peoples are oppressed, and all are threatened by common dangers."[13]
After that he realized that there is not much "symmetry between a cancer cell and a normal one. Yet our state is similar to a cancer cell – with its messianism and expansionism, its totalitarian suppression of dissent, the authoritarian structure of power, with a total absence of public control in the most important decisions in domestic and foreign policy, a closed society that does not inform its citizens of anything substantial, closed to the outside world, without freedom of travel or the exchange of information."[13] Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works he declared that "the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally", defying the unwritten ideological rules imposed by the Communist ruling elite on the society in spite of the seemingly democratic (1936) USSR Constitution.
In no way did Sakharov consider himself a prophet or the like: "I am no volunteer priest of the idea, but simply a man with an unusual fate. I am against all kinds of self-immolation (for myself and for others, including the people closest to me)." In a letter written from exile, he cheered up a fellow physicist and human rights activist with the words: "Fortunately, the future is unpredictable and also – because of quantum effects – uncertain." For Sakharov the indeterminacy of the future supported his belief that he could, and should, take personal responsibility for it.[13]
Nobel Peace Prize (1975)
In 1973, Sakharov was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and in 1974 was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.
Sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Norwegian Nobel Committee called him "a spokesman for the conscience of mankind".[2] In the words of the Nobel Committee's citation: "In a convincing manner Sakharov has emphasised that Man's inviolable rights provide the only safe foundation for genuine and enduring international cooperation."[13]
Sakharov was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect the prize. His wife Yelena Bonner read his speech at the ceremony in Oslo, Norway.[36][37] On the day the prize was awarded, Sakharov was in Vilnius, where human rights activist Sergei Kovalev was being tried.[38] In his Nobel lecture, titled "Peace, Progress, Human Rights", Sakharov called for an end to the arms race, greater respect for the environment, international cooperation, and universal respect for human rights. He included a list of prisoners of conscience and political prisoners in the USSR, stating that he shares the prize with them.[37]
By 1976 the head of the KGB Yuri Andropov was prepared to call Sakharov "Domestic Enemy Number One" before a group of KGB officers.[33]: 24
Internal exile (1980–1986)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/C0474-NN-Sakharov-house.jpg/170px-C0474-NN-Sakharov-house.jpg)
Sakharov was arrested on January 22, 1980, following his public protests against the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979, and was sent to internal exile in the city of Gorky, now Nizhny Novgorod, a city that was off limits to foreigners.
Between 1980 and 1986, Sakharov was kept under tight Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs he mentions that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. Sakharov was named the 1980 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association.[39]
In May 1984, Sakharov's wife, Yelena Bonner, was detained and Sakharov began a hunger strike, demanding permission for his wife to travel to the United States for heart surgery. He was forcibly hospitalized and force-fed. He was held in isolation for four months. In August 1984 Bonner was sentenced by a court to five years of exile in Gorky.
In April 1985, Sakharov started a new hunger strike for his wife to travel abroad for medical treatment. He again was taken to a hospital and force-fed. In August the Politburo discussed what to do about Sakharov.[40] He remained in the hospital until October 1985 when his wife was allowed to travel to the United States. She had heart surgery in the United States and returned to Gorky in June 1986.
In December 1985, the European Parliament established the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought, to be given annually for outstanding contributions to human rights.[41]
On December 19, 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev, who had initiated the policies of perestroika and glasnost, called Sakharov to tell him that he and his wife could return to Moscow.[42]
Political leader
In 1988, Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the International Humanist and Ethical Union.[citation needed] He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In March 1989, Sakharov was elected to the new parliament, the All-Union Congress of People's Deputies and co-led the democratic opposition, the Inter-Regional Deputies Group. In November the head of the KGB reported to Mikhail Gorbachev on Sakharov's encouragement and support for the coal-miners' strike in Vorkuta.[43]
Death
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/People_gathered_at_the_grave_of_Andrei_Sakharov%2C_1990.jpg/220px-People_gathered_at_the_grave_of_Andrei_Sakharov%2C_1990.jpg)
Soon after 21:00 on December 14, 1989, Sakharov went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress. His wife went to wake him at 23:00 as he had requested but she found Sakharov dead on the floor. According to the notes of Yakov Rapoport, a senior pathologist present at the autopsy, it is most likely that Sakharov died of an arrhythmia consequent to dilated cardiomyopathy at the age of 68.[44] He was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow.
Influence
Memorial prizes
The Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought was established in 1988 by the European Parliament in his honour, and is the highest tribute to human rights endeavours awarded by the European Union. It is awarded annually by the parliament to "those who carry the spirit of Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov"; to "Laureates who, like Sakharov, dedicate their lives to peaceful struggle for human rights."[45]
An Andrei Sakharov prize has also been awarded by the American Physical Society every second year since 2006 "to recognize outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights".
The Andrei Sakharov Prize For Writer's Civic Courage was established in October 1990.[46]
In 2004, with the approval of Elena Bonner, an annual Sakharov Prize for journalism was established for reporters and commentators in Russia. Funded by former Soviet dissident Pyotr Vins,[47] now a businessman in the USA, the prize is administered by the Glasnost Defence Foundation in Moscow. The prize "for journalism as an act of conscience" has been won over the years by famous journalists such as Anna Politkovskaya and young reporters and editors working far from Russia's media capital, Moscow. The 2015 winner was Yelena Kostyuchenko.[48]
Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center
The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center, established at Brandeis University in 1993, are now housed at Harvard University.[49] The documents from that archive were published by the Yale University Press in 2005.[50] These documents are available online.[51] Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of the KGB to the Central Committee about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers. The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 (Brezhnev stagnation). The documents characterize not only Sakharov's activity, but that of other dissidents, as well as that of highest-position apparatchiks and the KGB. No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available.
Legacy and remembrance
This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2016) |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/A_portrait_Andrey_Sakharov_by_Dmitry_Vrubel%2C_as_restored_in_July_2009.jpg/220px-A_portrait_Andrey_Sakharov_by_Dmitry_Vrubel%2C_as_restored_in_July_2009.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/1991_CPA_6322.jpg/150px-1991_CPA_6322.jpg)
Places
- In Moscow, there is Academician Sakharov Avenue and Sakharov Center.
- During the 1980s, the block of 16th Street NW between L and M streets, in front of the Russian ambassador's residence in Washington, D.C. was renamed "Andrei Sakharov Plaza" as a form of protest against his 1980 arrest and detention.[52]
- In Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, Sakharov Square, located in the heart of the city, is named after him.
- The Sakharov Gardens (est. 1990) are located at the entrance to Jerusalem, Israel, off the Jerusalem–Tel Aviv Highway.[53] There is also a street named after him in Haifa.
- In Nizhny Novgorod, there is a Sakharov Museum in the apartment on the first floor of the 12-storeyed house where the Sakharov family lived for seven years; in 2014 his monument was erected near the house.
- In St. Petersburg, his monument stands in Sakharov Square, and there is a Sakharov Park.
- In 1979, an asteroid – 1979 Sakharov – was named after him.
- A public square in Vilnius in front of the Press House is named after Sakharov. The square was named on March 16, 1991, as the Press House was still occupied by the Soviet Army.
- Andreja Saharova iela in the district of Pļavnieki in Rīga, Latvia, is named after Sakharov.
- Andreij-Sacharow-Platz in downtown Nuremberg is named in honor of Sakharov.
- In Belarus, International Sakharov Environmental University was named after him.
- Intersection of Ventura Blvd and Laurel Canyon Blvd in Studio City, Los Angeles, is named Andrei Sakharov Square.[54]
- In Arnhem, the bridge over the Nederrijn is called the Andrej Sacharovbrug.
- The Andrej Sacharovweg is a street in Assen, Netherlands. There are also streets named in his honor in Amsterdam, Amstelveen, The Hague, Hellevoetsluis, Leiden, Purmerend, Rotterdam and Utrecht.
- Quai Andreï Sakharov in Tournai, Belgium, is named in honor of Sakharov.
- In Poland, streets named in his honor in Warsaw and Kraków.
- Andreï Sakharov Boulevard in the district of Mladost in Sofia, Bulgaria, is named after him.
- In New York, a street sign at the southwest corner of Third Avenue and 67th Street reads Sakharov-Bonner Corner, in honor of Sakharov and his wife, Yelena Bonner. The corner is just down the block from the Russian (then Soviet) Mission to the United Nations and was the scene of repeated anti-Soviet demonstrations.[55]
Media
- In the 1984 made-for-TV film Sakharov starring Jason Robards.
- In the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, one of the Enterprise-D's Shuttlecraft is named after Sakharov, and is featured prominently in several episodes. This follows the Star Trek tradition of naming Shuttlecraft after prominent scientists, and particularly in The Next Generation, physicists.
- The fictitious interplanetary spacecraft Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov from the novel 2010: Odyssey Two by Arthur C. Clarke is powered by a "Sakharov drive". The novel was published in 1982, when Sakharov was in exile in Nizhny Novgorod, and was dedicated both to Sakharov and to Alexey Leonov.
- Russian singer Alexander Gradsky wrote and performed the song "Памяти А. Д. Сахарова" ("In memory of Andrei Sakharov"), which features on his Live In "Russia" 2 (Живем в "России" 2) CD.[56]
Quotations
In this pamphlet, advanced for discussion by its readers, the author has set himself the goal to present, with the greatest conviction and frankness, two theses that are supported by many people in the world. These are:
- The division of mankind threatens it with destruction ... Only universal cooperation under conditions of intellectual freedom and the lofty moral ideals of socialism and labor, accompanied by the elimination of dogmatism and pressure of the concealed interests of ruling classes, will preserve civilization ...
- The second basic thesis is that intellectual freedom is essential to human society – freedom to obtain and distribute information, freedom for open-minded and unfearing debate and freedom from pressure by officialdom and prejudices. Such a trinity of freedom of thought is the only guarantee against an infection of people by mass myths, which, in the hands of treacherous hypocrites and demagogues, can be transformed into bloody dictatorship. Freedom of thought is the only guarantee of the feasibility of a scientific democratic approach to politics, economics and culture.
— Andrei Sakharov, Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom, in The New York Times, July 22, 1968[57]
I foresee a universal information system (UIS), which will give everyone access at any given moment to the contents of any book that has ever been published or any magazine or any fact. The UIS will have individual miniature-computer terminals, central control points for the flood of information, and communication channels incorporating thousands of artificial communications from satellites, cables, and laser lines. Even the partial realization of the UIS will profoundly affect every person, his leisure activities, and his intellectual and artistic development. ... But the true historic role of the UIS will be to break down the barriers to the exchange of information among countries and people.
— Andrei Sakharov, Saturday Review/World, August 24, 1974[58]
Thousands of years ago, tribes of human beings suffered great privations in the struggle to survive. In this struggle it was important not only to be able to handle a club, but also to possess the ability to think reasonably, to take care of the knowledge and experience garnered by the tribe, and to develop the links that would provide cooperation with other tribes. Today the entire human race is faced with a similar test. In infinite space many civilizations are bound to exist, among them civilizations that are also wiser and more "successful" than ours. I support the cosmological hypothesis which states that the development of the universe is repeated in its basic features an infinite number of times. In accordance with this, other civilizations, including more "successful" ones, should exist an infinite number of times on the "preceding" and the "following" pages of the Book of the Universe. Yet this should not minimize our sacred endeavors in this world of ours, where, like faint glimmers of light in the dark, we have emerged for a moment from the nothingness of dark unconsciousness of material existence. We must make good the demands of reason and create a life worthy of ourselves and of the goals we only dimly perceive.
— Andrei Sakharov, Last paragraph of Sakharov's Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1975)[37]
Honours and awards
- Hero of Socialist Labour (three times: August 12, 1953; June 20, 1956; March 7, 1962).
- Four Orders of Lenin.
- Lenin Prize (1956).
- Stalin Prize (1953).
In 1980, Sakharov was stripped of all Soviet awards for "anti-Soviet activities".[59] Later, during glasnost, he declined the return of his awards and, consequently, Mikhail Gorbachev did not sign the necessary decree.[citation needed]
- Prix mondial Cino Del Duca (1974).
- Nobel Peace Prize (1975).
- Laurea Honoris Causa of the Sapienza University of Rome (1980).
- Grand Cross of Order of the Cross of Vytis (posthumously on January 8, 2003).
Bibliography
Books
- Sakharov, Andrei (1974). Sakharov speaks. Collins: Harvill Press. ISBN 0-00-262755-8.
- Sakharov, Andrei (1975). My country and the world. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-40226-X.
- Sakharov, Andrei (1978). Alarm and hope. The world-renowned Nobel laureate and political dissident speaks out on human rights, disarmament, and détente. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-50369-4.
- Sakharov, Andrei (1982). Collected scientific works. Marcel Dekker Inc. ISBN 978-0-8247-1714-8.
- Sakharov, Andrei (1991). Moscow and beyond: 1986 to 1989. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-394-58797-4.
- Sakharov, Andrei (1992). Memoirs. Vintage. ISBN 067973595X.
- Сахаров, Андрей (1996). Воспоминания. В 2 томах [Memoirs. In 2 volumes] (in Russian). Vol. Vol. 1. Moscow: Права человека. ISBN 5-7712-0011-5.
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Articles and interviews
- Sakharov, Andrei (1968). Thoughts on progress, peaceful coexistence and intellectual freedom. Foreign Affairs Publishing Company. ISBN 0-900380-03-9.
- Sakharov; Andrei (July 22, 1968). "Thoughts on progress, peaceful coexistence and intellectual freedom" (PDF). The New York Times. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 13, 2013.
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suggested) (help) - Sakharov, Andrei (Spring 1969). "Here and there: the threat of nuclear war". American Scientist. 57 (1): 167–171. JSTOR 27828445.
- Sakharov, Andrei (1974). О письме Александра Солженицына "Вождям Советского Союза" [On Alexander Solzhenitsyn's "A Letter to the Soviet Leaders"] (in Russian). New York: Khronika. OCLC 2326203.
- Sakharov, Andrei; Tverdokhlebov, Andrei; Albrecht, Vladimir (May 28, 1974). "USSR. The chronicle of current events". Index on Censorship. 3 (3): 87. doi:10.1080/03064227408532355.
- Sakharov, Andrei (November 1975). "The need for an open world: Andrei Sakharov calls on scientists to intensify the campaign for a nuclear weapons ban and full disarmament". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: 8–9.
- Sakharov, Andrei; Turchin, Valentin; Medvedev, Roy (June 6, 1970). "The need for democratization". The Saturday Review: 26–27.
- Sakharov, Andrei; Turchin, Valentin; Medvedev, Roy (Summer 1970). "An open letter". Survey: 160–170.
- Sakharov, Andrei (Summer 1972). "Memorandum". Survey: 223–233.
- Sakharov, Andrei (Spring 1973). "Statement by the Human Rights Committee". Survey: 271–273.
- Sakharov, Andrei (December 1973). "Interview with Swedish RTV". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 13–17. doi:10.1080/03064227308532263.
- Sakharov, Andrei (December 1973). "The Deputy Prosecutor‐General and I". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 19–23. doi:10.1080/03064227308532264.
- Sakharov, Andrei (December 1973). "Press conference". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 25–29. doi:10.1080/03064227308532265.
- Sakharov, Andrei (December 1973). "Reply to critics". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 29–30. doi:10.1080/03064227308532266.
- Sakharov, Andrei (January–March 1974). "Reply to oppression". Rivista di Studi Politici Internazionali. 41 (1): 47–54. JSTOR 42733796.
- Sakharov, Andrei (March 21, 1974). "How I came to dissent". The New York Review of Books.
- Sakharov, Andrei (June 13, 1974). "In answer to Solzhenitsyn". The New York Review of Books.
- Sakharov, Andrei (March 1975). "Sakharov's statement on Jackson amendment". Index on Censorship. 4 (1): 73–74. doi:10.1080/03064227508532405.
- Sakharov, Andrei (June 1976). "Peace, progress and human rights". Index on Censorship. 5 (2): 3–9. doi:10.1080/03064227608532514.
- Sakharov, Andrei (February 9, 1978). "The death penalty". The New York Review of Books.
- Sakharov, Andrei (February 1978). "Letter from Sakharov and Meiman". Nature. 271 (5645): 499. Bibcode:1978Natur.271..499S. doi:10.1038/271499c0.
- Sakharov, Andrei (Fall 1978). "The human rights movement in the USSR and Eastern Europe: its goals, significance, and difficulties". Trialogue (19): 4–7, 26–27.
- Sakharov, Andrei (December 1980). "USSR: Sakharov's plea for poets". Index on Censorship. 9 (6): 64. doi:10.1080/03064228008533146.
- Sakharov, Andrei (May 1981). "The responsibility of scientists". Nature. 291 (5812): 184–185. Bibcode:1981Natur.291..184S. doi:10.1038/291184a0.
- Sakharov, Andrei (June 1981). "The social responsibility of scientists". Physics Today. 34 (6): 25–30. Bibcode:1981PhT....34f..25S. doi:10.1063/1.2914603. ISSN 0031-9228.
- Sakharov, Andrei (October 1981). "The responsibility of scientists". Quadrant. 25 (10): 18–21. ISSN 0033-5002.
- Sakharov, Andrei (Fall 1981). "An autobiographical note". The Partisan Review: 511–513.
- Sakharov, Andrei (January 21, 1982). "Letter to my foreign colleagues". The New York Review of Books.
- Sakharov, Andrei; Meiman, Naum (March–April 1982). "The plight of Yuri Orlov". Harvard International Review. 4 (6): 50. JSTOR 42762207.
- Sakharov, Andrei (Summer 1982). "An appeal". The Partisan Review: 480–482.
- Sakharov, Andrei (June 1983). "A message from Gorky". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 39 (6): 2–3. doi:10.1080/00963402.1983.11458999.
- Sakharov, Andrei (Summer 1983). "The danger of thermonuclear war. An open letter to Dr. Sidney Drell" (PDF). Foreign Affairs. 61 (5): 1001–1016. doi:10.2307/20041632. JSTOR 20041632. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 16, 2016.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|dead-url=
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suggested) (help) - Sakharov, Andrei (July 21, 1983). "A reply to slander". The New York Review of Books.
- Sakharov, Andrei (March 1, 1984). "A letter to my scientific colleagues". The New York Review of Books.
- Sakharov, Andrei (March 16, 1987). "Of arms and reforms". Time.
- Sakharov, Andrei (August 13, 1987). "On accepting a prize". The New York Review of Books.
- Sakharov, Andrei (February 25, 1988). "A man of universal interests". Nature. 331 (6158): 671–672. Bibcode:1988Natur.331..671S. doi:10.1038/331671a0.
- Sakharov, Andrei (December 22, 1988). "On Gorbachev: a talk with Andrei Sakharov". The New York Review of Books.
- Sajarov, Andrei; Bonner, Elena (1989). "Al simposio de Madrid sobre las relaciones comerciales y económicas Este-Oeste" [Madrid symposium on East-West trade relations and economics]. Política Exterior (in Spanish). 3 (12): 45–47. JSTOR 20642878.
- Sakharov, Andrei (August 17, 1989). "A speech to the People's Congress". The New York Review of Books. 36 (13): 25–26.
- Sakharov, Andrei (1990). "We cannot do without nuclear power plants, but ...". World Marxist Review. 33: 21–22. ISSN 0043-8642.
- Sakharov, Andrei (May 21, 1990). "Sakharov: Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn: a difference in principle". Time.
- Sakharov, Andrei (May 21, 1990). "Sakharov: years in exile". Time.
- Sakharov, Andrei (July 1999). "Lecture in Lyons: science and freedom". Physics Today. 52 (7): 22–24. Bibcode:1999PhT....52g..22S. doi:10.1063/1.882746. ISSN 0031-9228.
See also
- Sakharov conditions
- Sakharov Prize
- Sergei Kovalev
- Natan Sharansky
- Edward Teller
- Stanislaw Ulam
- Omid Kokabee, Mordechai Vanunu
References
- ^ "Sakharov Human Rights Prize 25th anniversary marked in US". Voice of America. January 15, 2014.
- ^ a b "Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons and Human Rights".
- ^ "Andrei Sakharov – Biographical".
- ^ Sidney David Drell, Sergeǐ Petrovich Kapitsa, Sakharov Remembered: a tribute by friends and colleagues (1991), p. 4
- ^ Bonner, Yelena. Об А.Д. Сахарове (in Russian). Archived from the original on November 18, 2010. Retrieved November 2, 2009.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ Греки в Красноярском крае (Материалы из книги И.Джухи "Греческая операция НКВД") (in Russian). Archived from the original on November 18, 2010. Retrieved November 2, 2009.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ Gorelik, Gennady; Antonina W. Bouis (2005). The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom. Oxford University Press. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-19-515620-1.
"I cannot imagine the Universe and human life without some origin of meaning, without a source of spiritual "warmth," lying outside matter and its laws".
- ^ "Nobel Prize Laureates from MSU". Moscow State University. Retrieved October 8, 2017.
- ^ Mastin, Luke (2009). "Andrei Sakharov - Important Scientists". The Physics of the Universe. Retrieved October 8, 2017.
- ^ a b Zaloga, Steve (17 February 2002). The Kremlin's Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia's Strategic Nuclear Forces 1945–2000. Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1588340074.
- ^ Sakharov, Andrei (1992). Memoirs. Vintage. ISBN 067973595X.
- ^ Gorelik, Gennady; Bouis, Antonina (2005). The world of Andrei Sakharov: a Russian physicist's path to freedom. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019515620X.
- ^ a b c d e f Gorelik, Gennady (2008). "Andrei Sakharov". In Koertge, Noretta (ed.). New dictionary of scientific biography. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons/Thomson Gale.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|1=
(help) - ^ a b "Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons and Human Rights".
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (January 1966). "Взрывомагнитные генераторы" (PDF). Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (in Russian). 88 (4): 725–734. doi:10.3367/ufnr.0088.196604e.0725. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (1966). "Magnetoimplosive generators". Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 9 (2): 294–299. Bibcode:1966SvPhU...9..294S. doi:10.1070/PU1966v009n02ABEH002876. Republished as: Sakharov, A. D.; et al. (1991). "Взрывомагнитные генераторы" (PDF). Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (in Russian). 161 (5): 51–60. doi:10.3367/UFNr.0161.199105g.0051. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D.; et al. (1991). "Magnetoimplosive generators". Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 34 (5): 387–391. Bibcode:1991SvPhU..34..385S. doi:10.1070/PU1991v034n05ABEH002495.
- ^ a b Sakharov, A. D. (December 7, 1982). Collected Scientific Works. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 978-0824717148.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (January 1966). "Начальная стадия расширения Вселенной и возникновение неоднородности распределения вещества". Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 49 (1): 345–358. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (January 1966). "The Initial Stage of an Expanding Universe and the Appearance of a Nonuniform Distribution of Matter" (PDF). JETP. 22 (1): 241–249. Bibcode:1966JETP...22..241S.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (January 1967). "Нарушение СР–инвариантности, С–асимметрия и барионная асимметрия Вселенной". Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 5 (1): 32–35. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (January 1967). "Violation of CP invariance, C asymmetry, and baryon asymmetry of the universe" (PDF). JETP Letters. 5 (1): 24–26. Bibcode:1967JETPL...5...24S. Republished as Sakharov, A. D. (May 1991). "Violation of CP invariance, C asymmetry, and baryon asymmetry of the universe" (PDF). Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 34 (5): 392–393. Bibcode:1991SvPhU..34..392S. doi:10.1070/PU1991v034n05ABEH002497.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (January 1967). "Кварк–мюонные токи и нарушение СР–инвариантности". Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 5 (1): 36–39. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (January 1967). "Quark-Muonic Currents and Violation of CP Invariance" (PDF). JETP Letters. 5 (1): 27–30. Bibcode:1967JETPL...5...27S.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (1969). "Антикварки во Вселенной" [Antiquarks in the Universe]. Problems in theoretical physics (in Russian). Nauka: 35–44. Dedicated to the 30th anniversary of N. N. Bogolyubov.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (1972). "Топологическая структура элементарных зарядов и СРТ–симметрия" [The topological structure of elementary charges and CPT symmetry]. Problems in theoretical physics (in Russian). Nauka: 243–247. Dedicated to the memory of I. E. Tamm.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (April 1979). "Барионная асимметрия Вселенной". Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 76 (4): 1172–1181.Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (April 1979). "The baryonic asymmetry of the Universe" (PDF). JETP Letters. 49 (4): 594–599.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (September 1980). "Космологические модели Вселенной с поворотом стрелы времени". Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 79 (3): 689–693.Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (September 1980). "Cosmological models of the Universe with reversal of time's arrow" (PDF). JETP Letters. 52 (3): 349–351.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (October 1982). "Многолистные модели Вселенной". Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 82 (3): 1233–1240. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (October 1982). "Many-sheeted models of the Universe" (PDF). JETP. 56 (4): 705–709.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (August 1984). "Космологические переходы с изменением сигнатуры метрики". Pi'sma ZhÉTF. 87 (2): 375–383. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (August 1984). "Cosmological transitions with changes in the signature of the metric" (PDF). JETP. 60 (2): 214–218.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (September 1986). "Испарение черных мини–дыр и физика высоких энергий". Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 44 (6): 295–298. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (September 1986). "Evaporation of black mini-holes and high-energy physics" (PDF). JETP Letters. 44 (6): 379–383. Bibcode:1986JETPL..44..379S.
- ^ Novikov, I. D. (March 1966). "The Disturbances of the Metric when a Collapsing Sphere Passes below the Schwarzschild Sphere" (PDF). JETP Letters. 3 (5): 142–144. Bibcode:1966JETPL...3..142N.
- ^ Sakharov, A. D. (1967). "Вакуумные квантовые флуктуации в искривленном пространстве и теория гравитации". Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences (in Russian). 177 (1): 70–71. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (1991). "Vacuum Quantum Fluctuations in Curved Space and the theory of gravitation" (PDF). Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 34 (5): 394. Bibcode:1991SvPhU..34..394S. doi:10.1070/PU1991v034n05ABEH002498.
- ^ a b Crump, Thomas (2013). Brezhnev and the Decline of the Soviet Union. Routledge Studies in the History of Russia and Eastern Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-66922-6.
- ^ Gennady Gorelik. The Metamorphosis of Andrei Sakharov. Scientific American, 1999, March.
- ^ Web exhibit "Andrei SAKHAROV: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights" at American Institute of Physics [1]
- ^ Initially on July 6, 1968, in the Dutch newspaper Het Parool through intermediary of the Dutch academic and writer Karel van het Reve, followed by The New York Times: "Outspoken Soviet Scientist; Andrei Dmitriyevich Sakharov". New York Times.
- ^ a b c d e f The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov. Joshua Rubenstein, Alexander Gribanov (eds.), Ella Shmulevich, Efrem Yankelevich, Alla Zeide (trans.). New Haven, CN. 2005. ISBN 0-300-12937-8.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Подрабинек, Александр (2014). Диссиденты [Dissidents] (in Russian). Moscow: АСТ. ISBN 978-5-17-082401-4.
- ^ "30.12 Materials about Sakharov". A Chronicle of Current Events.
- ^ Y.B. Sakharov: Acceptance Speech, Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 10, 1975.
- ^ a b c Y.B. Sakharov: Peace, Progress, Human Rights, Sakharov's Nobel Lecture, Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 11, 1975.
- ^ Gorelik, Gennady (2005). The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist’s Path to Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534374-8.
- ^ "Humanist of the Year". Archived from the original on January 14, 2013. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ The Bukovsky Archives, 29 August 1985.
- ^ "AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chronology".
- ^ Michael MccGwire (1991). Perestroïka and Soviet national security. Brookings Institution Press. p. 275. ISBN 0-8157-5553-8.
- ^ The Bukovsky Archives, 14 November 1989.
- ^ Coleman, Fred (1997). The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Empire: Forty Years That Shook the World, from Stalin to Yeltsin. New York: St. Martin's. p. 116.
- ^ "Sakharov Prize Network". European Parliament. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
- ^ "For Writer's Civic Courage" Archived May 26, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Literaturnaya Gazeta, October 31, 1990
- ^ "No 49 : 14 May 1978". A Chronicle of Current Events.
- ^ "Glasnost defence foundation digest No. 734".
- ^ Harvard University. KGB file of Sakharov Archived May 16, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov. (edited by Joshua Rubenstein and Alexander Gribanov), New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005; ISBN 978-0-300-10681-7
- ^ The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov Archived May 21, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, online version with original texts and the English translations in English and in Russian (text version in Windows-1251 character encoding and the pictures of the original pages).
- ^ Washington's Sakharov Plaza: A Message to Russia, Toledo Blade, 27 Aug 1984. Retrieved May 2013
- ^ Template:Ru icon. Photo exhibition "Sakharov Gardens" Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine (sakharov-center.ru)
- ^ Aaron Curtiss (November 22, 1991). "Sakharov Junction". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles. Archived from the original on November 18, 2010. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
{{cite news}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Anderson, Susan; Bird, David (August 10, 1984). "New York day by day; human rights reminder posted near Soviet mission". The New York Times.
- ^ "Alexander Gradsky official website" (in Russian). Retrieved February 3, 2013.
- ^ "Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons and Human Rights".
- ^ The human rights movement, 1969–1979.
- ^ "Andrei Sakharov, 68, Soviet 'Conscience,' Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved March 24, 2018.
{{cite web}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|dead-url=
(help)
Further reading
- "100,000 honour Andrei Sakharov". The Glasgow Herald. December 18, 1989. p. 4.
- "An honourable dissident". New Scientist. 90 (1251): 266. April 30, 1981.
- "Andrei Sakharov addresses grads". The Lewiston Daily Sun. June 15, 1987. p. 14.
- "Andrei Sakharov ends lone hunger strike". Eugene Register-Guard. August 7, 1984. p. 4A.
- Developments concerning Dr. Andrei Sakharov: joint hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, House of Representatives, Ninety-ninth Congress, second session, March 18, 1986. Vol. Vol. 4. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1986.
{{cite book}}
:|volume=
has extra text (help) - "Exile of Andrei Sakharov is deplored". The Telegraph. January 23, 1980. p. 2.
- "How Sakharov won exit visa for his wife". Chicago Tribune. February 24, 1986.
- "President honors Andrei Sakharov". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. May 19, 1983. p. 7A.
- "Russia orders end of internal exile for Andrei Sakharov, noted dissident". The Tuscaloosa News. December 19, 1986.
- Sakharov, Andrei. Facets of a Life. Frontieres. 1991. ISBN 978-2-86332-096-9.
- "Sakharov case spotlights Soviet efforts against dissidents". The Hour. May 26, 1984.
- "Sakharov in a plea on prisoners". The New York Times. September 4, 1986.
- "Sakharov is "symbol" of fight for freedom: Russian dissident scientist awarded Nobel Peace Prize". Observer–Reporter. October 10, 1975.
- "Sakharov letter describes torment". Chicago Tribune. February 16, 1986.
- "Sakharov speaks out on repression, detente (Sakharov's letter to Anatoly P. Aleksandrov, president of the Soviet Academy of Sciences)". The Ukrainian Weekly. Vol. LXXXVII, no. 31. December 28, 1980.
- "Scientists meet in New York to honour Sakharov". New Scientist. 90 (1252): 332. May 7, 1981.
- Soviet detention of Andrei Sakharov: Markup before the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, Second Session, 4 February 1980. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1980.
- "Soviet opposition left leaderless by passing of Andrei Sakharov". Eugene Register-Guard. December 17, 1989. p. 18A.
- "Soviet Union: Sakharov's defense". Time. September 24, 1973.
- "Soviet Union: a warning for Sakharov". Time. November 5, 1973.
- "Soviet Union: a travel permit for Sakharov". Time. October 31, 1988.
- "The blessed curse of Andrei Sakharov". Chicago Tribune. November 17, 1988.
- "The undefeated Sakharovs". Chicago Tribune. December 28, 1986.
- "Trying to help Andrei Sakharov". The Hour. March 1, 1980. p. 23.
- Altshuler, Boris (February 2012). "Andrei Sakharov today: lasting impact on science and society". Physics-Uspekhi. 55 (2): 176. Bibcode:2012PhyU...55..176A. doi:10.3367/UFNe.0182.201202h.0188.
- Applebaum, Anne (October 20, 2005). "Hero". The New York Review of Books.
- Babyonyshev, Alexander (1982). On Sakharov. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-71004-4.
- Bailey, George (1989). The making of Andrei Sakharov. Allen Lane. ISBN 0713990333.
- Belotserkovsky, Vadim (1975). "Soviet dissenters: Solzhenitsyn, Sakharov, Medvedev". Partisan Review. 42 (1): 35–68.
- Bergman, Jay (2009). Meeting the Demands of Reason: The Life and Thought of Andrei Sakharov. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4731-0.
- Bohlen, Celestine (January 11, 1987). "Sakharov describes loneliness of life in Gorki". The Washington Post.
- Bonner, Yelena (May 16, 1986). "Yelena Bonner tells of medical abuse of her husband". Science. 232 (4752): 821. Bibcode:1986Sci...232..821H. doi:10.1126/science.3704629.
- Bonner, Elena (1988) [1986]. Alone together (3 ed.). New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0394755383.
- Bonner, Elena (December 2005). "Sakharov is Tokamak's originator". Physics Today. 58 (12): 15. Bibcode:2005PhT....58Q..15B. doi:10.1063/1.2169425.
- Capuzza, Jamie; Golden, James (1988). The images and impact of Andrei Sakharov: a study of dissident rhetoric in the Soviet human rights movement. Ohio State University. OCLC 19583828.
- Carroll, Nicholas (February 25, 1981). "The loneliness of Andrei Sakharov". The Montreal Gazette. p. 23.
- Clemens, Walter Jr. (1971). "Sakharov: a man for our times". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 27 (10): 4–56. doi:10.1080/00963402.1971.11455417.
- Clementi, Marco (2002). Il diritto al dissenso: il progetto costituzionale di Andrej Sacharov [The right to dissent: Andrei Sakharov's constitutional project] (in Italian). Rome: Odradek Edizioni. ISBN 8886973446.
- Dornan, Peter (1975). "Andrei Sakharov: the conscience of a liberal scientist". In Tökés, Rudolf (ed.). Dissent in the USSR: politics, ideology, and people. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 354–417. ISBN 0-8018-1661-0.
- Drell, Sidney (May 2000). "Andrei Sakharov and the nuclear danger". Physics Today. 53 (5): 37. Bibcode:2000PhT....53e..37D. doi:10.1063/1.883099.
- Drell, Sidney; Hoagland, Jim; Shultz, George (June 25, 2015). "The man who spoke truth to power: Andrei Sakharov's enduring relevance". Foreign Affairs.
- Drell, Sidney; Kapitsa, Sergei (eds.) (1991). Sahkarov Remembered. Springer. ISBN 978-0-88318-852-1.
{{cite book}}
:|author=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Drell, Sidney; Okun, Lev (August 1990). "Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov". Physics Today. 43 (8): 26. Bibcode:1990PhT....43h..26D. doi:10.1063/1.881252.
- Drell, Sidney; Shultz, George (2015). Andrei Sakharov: the conscience of humanity. Hoover Press. ISBN 0817918965.
- Drummond, Roscoe (March 7, 1977). "What kind of man is Andrei Sakharov?". Observer–Reporter. p. A4.
- Eaton, William (July 20, 1985). "Sakharov: Soviet aides defend internal exile: Soviets, challenged on rights, defend treatment of Sakharov". Los Angeles Times.
- Eaton, William (December 8, 1985). "Tass says Sakharov is only afflicted by 'aging'". Los Angeles Times.
- Ferullo, Joe; Moore, Suzanne (January 30, 1979). "Talking to Tanya: Sakharov's daughter speaks in Massachusetts". Columbia Daily Spectator. CIII (61): 3.
- Feshbach, Herman (April 1987). "A meeting with Sakharov". Physics Today. 40 (4): 7. Bibcode:1987PhT....40d...7F. doi:10.1063/1.2819974.
- Fireside, Harvey (Winter 1989). "Dissident visions of the USSR: Medvedev, Sakharov & Solzhenitsyn". Polity. 22 (2): 213–229. doi:10.2307/3234832.
- Fisher, Dan (May 24, 1984). "Andrei Sakharov. A prophet without honor among his own people". Los Angeles Times. p. 7A.
- Furth, Harold (April 30, 1981). "Sakharov: science of a dissident". New Scientist. 90 (1251): 274–278.
- Ginzburg, Vitaly (2001). "The Sakharov phenomenon". The physics of a lifetime: reflections on the problems and personalities of 20th century physics. Springer. pp. 471–506. ISBN 3540675345.
- Glazov, Yuri (1985). "Pasternak, Solzhenitsyn, and Sakharov". The Russian mind since Stalin’s death. D. Reidel Publishing Company. pp. 158–179. ISBN 9027718288.
- Gorelik, Gennady, Bouis, Antonina (2005). The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515620-1.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Gorelik, Gennady (July 2002). "The metamorphosis of Andrei Sakharov: the inventor of the Soviet hydrogen bomb became an advocate of peace and human rights. What led him to his fateful decision?" (PDF). Scientific American: 27–30. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2016.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|dead-url=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - Gottfried, Kurt; Orlov, Yuri (December 19, 1989). "A man who would not be silenced: Sakharov: he saw scientific, political and moral realities as one equation, and he died still warning about 'tomorrow'". The Los Angeles Times.
- Harasowska, Marta; Olhovych, Orest (1977). The international Sakharov hearing. Smoloskyp Publishers. ISBN 0914834118.
- Harris, Zelda; Richter, Elihu (July 7, 2010). "Andrei Sakharov, Elena Bonner and Gilad Schalit". The Jerusalem Post.
- Hesse, Natalya; Tolz, Vladimir (April 12, 1984). "The Sakharovs in Gorky". The New York Review of Books.
- Hermann, Anton (November 1987). "Elena Bonner and Andrei Sakharov". Quadrant. 33 (11): 78–79.
- Holloway, David (March 1990). "Andrei Sakharov, 1921–1989". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 46 (2): 14. doi:10.1080/00963402.1990.11459791.
- Holloway, David (June 30, 1991). "Moral leader of a nation". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 47 (6): 37–38.
- Jacobs, Michael (March 1980). "Sakharov exile triggers reaction in US physics community". Physics Today. 33 (3): 133. Bibcode:1980PhT....33c.133J. doi:10.1063/1.2913982.
- Keller, Bill (April 3, 1987). "Sakharov disillusions dissidents". The Chicago Tribune.
- Kelley, Donald (February 1979). "Solzhenitsyn and Sakharov as futurologists". Futures. 11 (1): 63–68. doi:10.1016/0016-3287(79)90070-3.
- Kelley, Donald (1982). The Solzhenitsyn-Sakharov dialogue: politics, society, and the future. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313229406.
- Klehr, Harvey (September 5, 2005). "Sakharov Watch. Fearful police state meets brave dissident". The Weekly Standard. 10 (47).
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ignored (|url-status=
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ignored (|url-status=
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ignored (|url-status=
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(help) The Regesto delle lauree honoris causa dal 1944 al 1985 is a detailed and carefully commented register of all the documents of the official archive of the Sapienza University of Rome pertaining to the honoris causa degrees awarded or not. It includes all the awarding proposals submitted during the considered period, detailed presentations of the work of the candidate, if available, and precise references to related articles published on Italian newspapers and magazines, if the laurea was awarded. - Wade, Nicholas (February 15, 1980). "A pledge to help Sakharov" (PDF). Science. 207 (4432): 745. Bibcode:1980Sci...207S.745W. doi:10.1126/science.11643589. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2015.
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ignored (|url-status=
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ignored (|url-status=
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ignored (|url-status=
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External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)
- The Andrei Sakharov Archives at the Houghton Library.
- "Faces of Resistance in the USSR, The Andrei Sakharov Archives Homepage (archived webpage)". Brandeis University. Archived from the original on January 20, 2003. Retrieved April 17, 2006.
- Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights. Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics.
- Andrei Sakharov: Photo-chronology
- Annotated bibliography of Andrei Sakharov from the Alsos Digital Library
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