Terrorism in Europe
There is a long history of terrorism in Europe. This has often been linked to nationalist and separatist movements, while other acts have been related to political extremism (including anarchism, far-right and far-left extremism), or religious extremism.
History
Definitions
Defining terrorism is difficult, and there are more than one hundred definitions of it in scholarly literature. The term is used in polemical contexts, thus it can become a move in a campaign rather than an aid to thought.[1] A simple definition would be "use of force against innocent people for political purposes". Some scholars argue that there is no true or correct definition due to terrorism being an abstract concept without a real presence. Legal definitions contain internal contradictions and might be misused.[2] There is an overlap between terrorism and various other forms of conflict and violent action, including civil wars[3] or non-international armed conflicts. This is the case with several significant non-international conflicts in Europe, where there thus can be dispute as to what counts as terrorism: examples include the Irish War of Independence (1919–21), the breakup of Yugoslavia and subsequent conflicts,[4] the First (1994–6) and Second Chechen Wars (1999–2009), and the War of Dagestan (1999).
Early history
In the Middle Ages, maritime nations in Europe sponsored pirates and privateering against rivals.[5] The term "terror" is used about the reign of terror in France, carried out by the Jacobins, 1792-4.
Modern trends
- Statistics from 2006 to 2013 by affiliation
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Attacks
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Arrests
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Terrorism in Europe around the beginning of the twentieth century was often associated with anarchism.[6][7]
Terrorism within the European Communities since 1951 has often been linked to separatist movements, including the Irish Republican Army within the United Kingdom, and Euskadi Ta Askatasuna within Spain. Other perpetrators have been linked to far-right and far-left extremism, environmental extremism and anarchism. Since 2001, there has been an increase in attacks linked to extremist Islamist groups, particularly in France. Many separatist terrorist activities also have a religious angle, as, for example, with Chechen separatism in Russia. The internationally co-ordinated element has seen increasing attempts by governments to seek to weaken extremist ideology, particularly Islamic extremism.
It remains the case that the majority of deaths from terrorism do not occur in the "West".[8] When the Al Qaeda attacks against the United States in 2001 are excluded, only 0.5% of all deaths from terrorism have occurred in Western countries – European nations, United States, Canada and Australia – in the years 2000-14.[9] However, there have been recent increases in the number of high-fatality attacks. There had been a decrease in the number of overall fatalities from terrorist attacks between 1990 and 2015, compared to those between 1970 and 1990.[10] Prior to 1990, on average 150 people died each year from terrorist attacks; this figure would be even higher if the large number of people who died in 1988 from the Pan Am 2013 bombing were included. From 1990, an average of a little under 50 people died each year. However, this figure has begun to increase again from 2011, with the attacks by far-right extremist Anders Breivik in Norway, and Islamist extremist attacks in France in 2015 and 2016.
Europol has published an annual trend report on terrorist attacks (including failed, foiled, and completed attacks) and terrorist related arrests in the EU since 2006.[11] The reports identify that perpetrators' known or suspected affiliations have been disparate in nature. Europol break these down into five categories: jihadist terrorism (previously termed "religiously-inspired terrorism"); ethno-nationalist and separatist terrorism; left-wing and anarchist terrorism; right-wing terrorism; and single-issue terrorism. Europol's reports do not provide a breakdown of the proportion of attacks that have been completed or the type of damage inflicted. According to these data the vast majority of terrorist attacks in the EU between 2006 and 2013 are affiliated with ethno-national or separatist motives, followed by left-wing attacks and those that are registered as 'unspecified'. A significant number of terror attacks are motivated religiously or associated with right-wing groups. However, among those arrested on terror-related crimes most are religiously motivated and form the largest group, followed by separatist related terror suspects.
In 2015, a total of 211 completed, failed, or foiled terrorist attacks were reported by EU states, resulting in 151 fatalities (of which 148 were in France, with 130 of them occurring during the November 2015 Paris attacks) and over 360 people injured. As in previous years, separatist attacks accounted for the largest proportion (65), followed by jihadist attacks (17). The latter, however, caused the largest number of fatalities (150) and injuries (250). The United Kingdom reported the largest number of attacks (103), but did not provide statistics on suspected affiliation.[12] Tackling jihadist terrorism threats has become an over-riding priority for security services, although many commentators express concerns that the risk of far-right terrorism is currently being underestimated.[13]
In 2017, British intelligence MI5 said that Northern Ireland is the most concentrated area of terrorist activity "probably anywhere in Europe", with weekly threats from dissident Irish republicans.[14]
Prevention
Early twentieth century
European states were at the fore of plans for an international criminal court under the League of Nations in the 1930s, working through the Committee for the Repression of Terrorism (CRT). The CRT sought to define terrorism and get nation's domestic policies to support anti-terrorism activities. Opposition by Britain and tensions over fascism in Germany and Italy limited the final proposals.[15]
Europol
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Europol_Building%3B_The_Hague%3B_Eisenhowerlaan%3B_Statenkwartier%3B_2014%3B_photo_nr._41860.jpg/220px-Europol_Building%3B_The_Hague%3B_Eisenhowerlaan%3B_Statenkwartier%3B_2014%3B_photo_nr._41860.jpg)
European cooperation in the field of counter-terrorism include the European Police Office (Europol), an EU agency, and Interpol. TREVI was an early example of EU cooperation in this field.
The main transnational activity to combat terrorism in recent years has been through Europol. They have categorised acts of terrorism that have either failed, been foiled or been successfully executed within the European Union (EU) as either pertaining to religious issues, right wing, left wing or separatist movements. The field is subject to considerable cooperation among national authorities.
Individual countries
In July 2014 the Government of France introduced legislation to combat terrorism by toughening surveillance, making it lawful to detain individuals linked to radical "Islamist" groups, and to block Internet sites that incite anti-Semitism, terrorism and hatred. The country's Interior Minister Bernard Cazeneuve revealed 600 French nationals were in Syria at the time or planned to go there. The bill includes a ban on foreign travel for up to six months for those believed to hold terrorist sympathies, provides for the confiscation and invalidation of passports, and prohibits airlines from allowing such individuals to fly.[16]
From 2005, the United Kingdom government introduced the CONTEST strategy, which seeks to improve co-operation between security services, and other public and private organisations.[17] This includes four strands, namely Pursue, (seeking to apprehend potential terrorists), Prevent, (seeking to reduce risks of 'radicalisation', deter potential terrorists and share information), Protect, (seeking to ensure the security of potential targets and organisations is optimised), and Prepare, (seeking to ensure an effective response in the immediate aftermath of any attack). Similar strategies have been adopted by other countries across the European Union, and there have been increases in co-operation between nations and security forces.
Incidents
Deadliest attacks
The following is a list of terrorist incidents in Europe which resulted in at least ten deaths. It lists attacks on civilians by non-state actors that are widely referred to as terrorism. It excludes transcontinental countries such as Turkey and Russia, which have most of their landmass in another continent. For incidents in Russia, see Terrorism in Russia and for incidents in Istanbul, see Terror attacks in Istanbul.
- Key: motivation
Nationalism/Separatism Islamist Right-wing Left-wing Other
Costliest attacks
These are the incidents that had the highest financial damage. By far the biggest three are listed here below, all having occurred in England.[83][84][85]
Date | Country/Region | Incident | Cost (USD) | Perpetrator |
---|---|---|---|---|
24 Apr 1993 | ![]() |
1993 Bishopsgate bombing | $1.212 billion | Provisional IRA |
15 Jun 1996 | ![]() |
1996 Manchester bombing | $996 million | Provisional IRA |
10 Apr 1992 | ![]() |
Baltic Exchange bombing | $897 million | Provisional IRA |
Terrorism by country and region
- Terrorist activity in Belgium
- Terrorist incidents in Denmark
- Terrorist incidents in France
- Terrorism in Germany
- Terrorism in Greece
- Terrorism in Italy
- Terrorism in Norway
- Terrorism in Russia
- Terrorism in Serbia
- Terrorism in the United Kingdom
- Terrorism in Yugoslavia
- Years of Lead (Italy)
See also
- Islamic terrorism in Europe
- Islamic terrorism in Europe (2014–present)
- List of non-state terrorist incidents
- Terrorism in the United States
References
- ^ Michael O'Keefe; C. A. J. Coady (2002). Terrorism and Justice: Moral Argument in a Threatened World. Melbourne Univ. Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-522-85049-9.
{{cite book}}
: Text "l" ignored (help) - ^ Jonathan R. White (1 January 2011). Terrorism and Homeland Security. Cengage Learning. p. 11. ISBN 0495913367.
- ^ "Defining Civil War by Examining Post-Soviet Conflicts" by Pavel K. Baev, Terrorism and Political Violence, 19(2), 247-268. doi:10.1080/09546550701246965
- ^ "Approaches to political violence and terrorism in former Yugoslavia 1" by Florian Bieber, Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans 2003, 5(1): 39-51
- ^ "West European Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism: The Evolving Dynamic" by P Chalk. 1996: Macmillan Press Ltd. p. 2
- ^ The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda by Gérard Chaliand & Arnaud Blin
- ^ a b Richard Jensen, "Daggers, rifles and dynamite: Anarchist terrorism in nineteenth century Europe." Terrorism and Political Violence 2004, 16(1):116-53
- ^ "Global Terrorism Index 2017 |". globalterrorismindex.org. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
Just five countries account for three quarters of all deaths from terrorism: Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, Nigeria and Pakistan.
- ^ "Global Terrorism Index: Measuring and Understanding the Impact of Terrorism" (PDF). Institute for Economics and Peace. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
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(help) - ^ Europol statistics, europol.europa.eu, retrieved 15 January 2015
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(help) - ^ European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2016, europol.europa.eu, retrieved 13 August 2016
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(help) - ^ Focus on Islamist terror plots overlooks threat from far right – report, The Guardian, retrieved 13 August 2016
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(help) - ^ https://www.irishmirror.ie/news/irish-news/m15-terror-threat-ireland-greatest-11734711
- ^ "International Terrorism in the 1920s and '30s: The Response of European States through the League of Nations and the Attempt to Create an International Criminal Court – Oxford Scholarship". doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199660285.001.0001/acprof-9780199660285-chapter-6.
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(help) - ^ "Legislation to crack down on jihadists planned by France". France News.Net. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
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(help) - ^ "The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering Terrorism: Annual Report 2015" (PDF). Her Majesty's Stationary Office. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
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(help) - ^ Jill Harsin (2002). Barricades: The War of the Streets in Revolutionary Paris, 1830-1848. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-29479-3.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ The Making of Ireland: A History, James Lydon, p.308
- ^ a b "Terrorism in Barcelona and Its Impact on Spanish Politics 1904-1909", by J. Romero Maura, Past & Present 1968, 41:130-183
- ^ Megas G. The Boatmen of Thesalloniki. The Bulgarian anarchist group and the bomb attacks of 1903, Troxalia, 1994 ISBN 960-7022-47-5
- ^ Chaliand, Gérard; Blin, Arnaud (August 2007). The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520247093.
- ^ Anna Geifman (1995). Thou shalt kill: revolutionary terrorism in Russia, 1894–1917. Princeton University Press. p. 341. ISBN 978-0-691-02549-0. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
- ^ Tadeusz Władysław Świątek, Rafał Chwiszczuk, Warszawski ruch społecznikowski, Fundacja Cultus, Warszawa, 2010, ISBN 978-83-62679-00-3, p.149
- ^ "PALACE BOMBED, 100 KILLED; Bessarabian Conspirators Accused of Outrage at Bolgard". The New York Times. 14 December 1921. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
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- ^ Template:It icon Una strage con troppi misteri, La Sicilia, May 1, 2011
- ^ Pech, Marie-Estelle (7 January 2015). "L'attentat le plus meurtrier depuis Vitry-Le-François en 1961" [The deadliest attack since Vitry-Le-François in 1961]. Le Figaro (in French). Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
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suggested) (help) () - ^ Flight International, 5 September 1968, p.361
- ^ Clutterbuck, Richard (1990). Terrorism, Drugs & Crime in Europe After 1992. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-415-61620-1. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
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- ^ Taylor, Peter (1999). Loyalists. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 88. ISBN 0-7475-4519-7.
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- ^ Cosgrove, Ben; Bhowmick, Nilanjana. "Terror at the Olympics: Munich, 1972". Time. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
- ^ RAND Corporation (3 April 2001). "TKB Incident Page: Other Group attacked Airports & Airlines target (Dec. 17, 1973, Italy)". MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
- ^ Sutton, Malcolm. "CAIN: Sutton Index of Deaths".
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- ^ Bocca, Giorgio. Gli anni del terrorismo (in Italian). pp. 291–293.
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(help) - ^ "AAR 75-07 Boeing 707 Ionian Sea Crash" (PDF). Airdisaster.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
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- ^ The Birmingham Framework -Six Innocent Men Framed for the Birmingham Bombings; Fr. Denis Faul and Fr. Raymond Murray (1976)
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Bibliography
- Barry M. Rubin; Judith Colp Rubin (2008). Chronologies of Modern Terrorism. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 9780765622068.
- Janos Besenyo: Low-cost attacks, unnoticable plots? Overview on the economical character of current terrorism, Strategic Impact (ROMANIA) (ISSN: 1841-5784) (eISSN: 1824-9904) 62/2017: (Issue No. 1) pp. 83–100.
- Poland, J.M (1988). Understanding Terrorism. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Further reading
- Romagnoli, M. 2016, "The Effects of Terrorism on Tourism: (Inter)relations, Motives & Risks", Almatourism, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 125–133.