Flowering plant

"Flowering Plants" redirects here. For the book by G. Ledyard Stebbins, see Flowering Plants: Evolution Above the Species Level.

Flowering plant Temporal range: Cretaceous (Valanginian) – present,
Buttercup Water lily Grass Apple tree Oak tree Orchid
Diversity of angiosperms
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Spermatophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Groups (APG IV)
Basal angiosperms Amborellales Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Core angiosperms Clades Magnoliids Monocots Eudicots Orders Chloranthales Ceratophyllales
Synonyms
Anthophyta Cronquist Angiospermae Lindl. Magnoliophyta Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm. Magnolicae Takht.

Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (/ˌændʒiəˈspərmiː/), commonly called angiosperms. They include insect-pollinated herbs such as buttercups, pond plants such as water lilies, wind-pollinated grasses, and trees such as apple and oak. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον /angeion ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / sperma ('seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. They are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species. Angiosperms were formerly called Magnoliophyta (/mæɡˌnoʊliˈɒfətə, -əˈfaɪtə/).

Angiosperms are distinguished from the other seed-producing plants, the gymnosperms, by having flowers, xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids, endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds.

The ancestors of flowering plants probably diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago, but the earliest angiosperm fossils are in the form of pollen around 134 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous. Over the course of the Cretaceous, angiosperms diversified explosively, becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet by the end of the period, corresponding with the decline and extinction of previously widespread gymnosperm groups.

Diversity

Ecological diversity

• Largest and smallest
• 
  Eucalyptus regnans, a tropical dipterocarp tree almost 100 m tall
• 
  Wolffia arrhiza, a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm across

The largest angiosperms are Eucalyptus gum trees of Australia, and Shorea faguetiana, dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach around 100 metres (330 ft) in height. The smallest are Wolffia duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.079 in) across; they have a cosmopolitan distribution.

• Photosynthetic and parasitic
• 
  Gunnera captures sunlight for photosynthesis over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins.
• 
  Orobanche purpurea, a parasitic broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants.

Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as sugars. The remainder are parasitic, either wholly like the broomrapes, Orobanche, or partially like the witchweeds, Striga.

• Hot, cold, wet, dry, fresh, salt
• 
  Carnegiea gigantea, the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry deserts in Mexico and the southern United States.
• 
  Dryas octopetala, the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia.
• 
  Nelumbo nucifera, the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia.
• 
  Zostera seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters.

In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of habitats on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen tundra and coniferous forest. The seagrasses in the Alismatales grow in marine environments, spreading with rhizomes that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters.

• Herbaceous, woody, climbing
• 
  Geranium robertianum, herb-Robert, is an annual or biennial herb of Europe and North America.
• 
  Betula pendula, the silver birch, is a perennial deciduous tree of Eurasia.
• 
  Lianas Austrosteenisia, Parsonsia, and Sarcopetalum climbing trees in Australia

As for their growth habit, the flowering plants range from small, soft herbaceous plants, often living as annuals or biennials that set seed and die after one growing season, to large perennial woody trees that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by climbing on other plants in the manner of vines or lianas.

Number of species

The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. This compares to around 12,000 species of moss and 11,000 species of pteridophytes. The APG system seeks to determine the number of families, mostly by molecular phylogenetics. In the 2009 APG III there were 415 families. The 2016 APG IV added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, making a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families.

The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families, containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are:

The 25 largest angiosperm families

Group	Family	English name	No. of species
Eudicot	Asteraceae or Compositae	daisy	22,750
Monocot	Orchidaceae	orchid	21,950
Eudicot	Fabaceae or Leguminosae	bean	19,400
Eudicot	Rubiaceae	madder	13,150
Monocot	Poaceae or Gramineae	grass	10,035
Eudicot	Lamiaceae or Labiatae	mint	7,175
Eudicot	Euphorbiaceae	spurge	5,735
Eudicot	Melastomataceae	melastome	5,005
Eudicot	Myrtaceae	myrtle	4,625
Eudicot	Apocynaceae	dogbane	4,555
Monocot	Cyperaceae	sedge	4,350
Eudicot	Malvaceae	mallow	4,225
Monocot	Araceae	arum	4,025
Eudicot	Ericaceae	heath	3,995
Eudicot	Gesneriaceae	gesneriad	3,870
Eudicot	Apiaceae or Umbelliferae	parsley	3,780
Eudicot	Brassicaceae or Cruciferae	cabbage	3,710
Magnoliid dicot	Piperaceae	pepper	3,600
Monocot	Bromeliaceae	bromeliad	3,540
Eudicot	Acanthaceae	acanthus	3,500
Eudicot	Rosaceae	rose	2,830
Eudicot	Boraginaceae	borage	2,740
Eudicot	Urticaceae	nettle	2,625
Eudicot	Ranunculaceae	buttercup	2,525
Magnoliid dicot	Lauraceae	laurel	2,500

Distinguishing features

Angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways.

Distinctive features of angiosperms

Feature	Description
Flowers	The reproductive organs of flowering plants, not found in any other seed plants.
Reduced gametophytes, three cells in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female	The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms. The smaller size of the pollen reduces the amount of time between pollination (the pollen grain reaching the female plant) and fertilization. In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas in angiosperms, fertilization begins very soon after pollination.
Closed carpel enclosing the ovules.	Once the ovules are fertilised, the carpels, often with surrounding tissues, develop into fruits. Gymnosperms have unenclosed seeds.
Endosperm	Endosperm forms after fertilization but before the zygote divides. It provides food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling.
Xylem made of vessel elements	Open vessel elements are stacked end to end to form continuous tubes, whereas gymnosperm xylem is made of tracheids, interdigitating tapered cells connected by numerous small pits in adjacent cell walls.

Evolution

History of classification

Main article: Plant taxonomy

From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification

The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words angeíon (ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and spérma (σπέρμα 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules. The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with Robert Brown, when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules. In 1851, with Wilhelm Hofmeister's work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The APG system treata the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae. The Cronquist system, proposed in 1968 and published in full in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. From 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016. Traditionally, the flowering plants were divided into the Dicotyledoneae or Magnoliopsida, and the Monocotyledoneae or Liliopsida. The dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one. The APG showed that the monocots are a clade, but that the dicots are paraphyletic.

Phylogeny

Monocot (left) and dicot seedlings

There are eight groups of living angiosperms:

• Basal angiosperms (ANA: Amborella, Nymphaeales, Austrobaileyales)
  • Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia;
  • Nymphaeales, about 80 species, water lilies and Hydatellaceae;
  • Austrobaileyales, about 100 species of woody plants from various parts of the world
• Core angiosperms (Mesangiospermae)
  • Chloranthales, 77 known species of aromatic plants with toothed leaves;
  • Magnoliids, about 10,000 species, characterised by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leaves—for example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper;
  • Monocots, about 70,000 species, characterised by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leaves—for example grasses, orchids, and palms;
  • Ceratophyllum, about 6 species of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants;
  • Eudicots, about 175,000 species, characterised by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leaves—for example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks.

The first three to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales, the basal angiosperms. The eudicots and monocots are the largest and most diversified groups, with ~75% and 20% of angiosperm species, respectively. APG IV retained the same higher order relationships as APG III. Using the first sequencing of the Chloranthus genome, Guo 2021 has resolved the place of the Chloranthales as sister to the magnoliids.

Angiosperms	Amborellales Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales magnoliids Chloranthales monocots Ceratophyllales eudicots

Detailed Cladogram of the 2016 Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) IV classification.

Angiosperms Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999 Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 Mesangiosperms Chloranthales Mart. 1835 Magnoliids Canellales Cronquist 1957 Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Monocots Acorales Link 1835 Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997 Dioscoreales Brown 1835 Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Liliales Perleb 1826 Asparagales Link 1829 Commelinids Arecales Bromhead 1840 Poales Small 1903 Zingiberales Grisebach 1854 Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Ceratophyllales Link 1829 Eudicots Ranunculales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Proteales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Trochodendrales Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981 Buxales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996 Core eudicots Gunnerales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 Dilleniales de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Superrosids Saxifragales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Rosids Vitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Fabids Zygophyllales Link 1829 Celastrales Link 1829 Oxalidales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Malpighiales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Fabales Bromhead 1838 Rosales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Cucurbitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Fagales Engler 1892 (eurosids I) Malvids Geraniales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Myrtales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Crossosomatales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1993 Picramniales Doweld 2001 Sapindales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Huerteales Doweld 2001 Malvales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Brassicales Bromhead 1838 (eurosids II) Superasterids Berberidopsidales Doweld 2001 Santalales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Caryophyllales Asterids Cornales Link 1829 Ericales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Lamiids Icacinales Van Tieghem 1900 Metteniusales Takhtajan 1997 Garryales Mart. 1835 Gentianales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Solanales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Boraginales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Vahliales Doweld 2001 Lamiales Bromhead 1838 (euasterids I) Campanulids Aquifoliales Senft 1856 Escalloniales Mart. 1835 Asterales Link 1829 Bruniales Dumortier 1829 Apiales Nakai 1930 Paracryphiales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 Dipsacales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 (euasterids II)

Fossil history

Main article: Fossil history of flowering plants

Adaptive radiation in the Cretaceous created many flowering plants, such as Sagaria in the Ranunculaceae.

Fossilised spores suggest that land plants (embryophytes) have existed for at least 475 million years. However, angiosperms appear suddenly and in great diversity in the fossil record in the Early Cretaceous. This poses such a problem for the theory of gradual evolution that Charles Darwin called it an "abominable mystery".

Several disputed claims of pre-Cretaceous angiosperm fossils have been made, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia lewisi. Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids, extinct seed plants that share many features with flowering plants. Molecular evidence suggests that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late Devonian, about 365 million years ago. Pollen that looks much like that of angiosperms has been found in the Middle Triassic (247.2–242.0 Ma).

The Caytoniales, a group of Triassic seed ferns, may be close relatives of angiosperms. Nanjinganthus dendrostyla from Early Jurassic China seems to share many exclusively angiosperm features, such as flower-like structures and a thickened receptacle with ovules, and thus might represent a crown-group or a stem-group angiosperm, but other researchers contend that the structures are decomposed conifer cones.

The oldest fossils definitively attributable to angiosperms are reticulated monosulcate pollen from the late Valanginian (Early or Lower Cretaceous - 140 to 133 million years ago) of Italy and Israel, likely representing basal angiosperms. The earliest macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years ago in the Cretaceous.

In 2013 flowers encased in amber were found and dated 100 million years before present. The amber had frozen the act of sexual reproduction in the process of taking place. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting it was carried by insects. A Bayesian analysis of 52 angiosperm taxa suggested that the crown group of angiosperms evolved between 178 million years ago and 198 million years ago.

The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous, approximately 100 million years ago. However, a study in 2007 estimated that the divergence of the five most recent of the eight main groups, namely the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots, occurred around 140 million years ago.

By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes. Large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees close to the end of the Cretaceous, 66 million years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Paleogene. The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.

Reproduction

Flowers

Main articles: Flower and Plant reproductive morphology

Diagram of flower parts. This flower contains both male (stamen) and female (pistil or carpel) parts; some plants have these in separate flowers.

The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Its function is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. It may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf. The flower-bearing part of the plant is usually sharply distinguished from the leaf-bearing part, and forms a branch-system called an inflorescence.

Flowers produce two kinds of reproductive cells. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells; they are borne in the stamens. The female cells, megaspores, divide to become the egg cell. They are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel; one or more carpels form the pistil.

The flower may consist only of these parts, as in wind-pollinated plants like the willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. In insect- or bird-pollinated plants, other structures protect the sporophylls and attract pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, is more delicate in structure, and attracts pollinators by colour, scent, and nectar.

Most flowers are hermaphrodite, producing both pollen and ovules in the same flower, but some use other devices to reduce self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have carpels and stamens of differing lengths, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen between them. Homomorphic flowers may use a biochemical self-incompatibility to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. Dioecious plants such as holly have male and female flowers on separate plants. Monoecious plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant; these are often wind-pollinated, as in maize, but include some insect-pollinated plants such as Cucurbita squashes.

Fertilisation and embryogenesis

Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis

Angiosperm life cycle

Double fertilization requires two sperm cells to fertilise cells in the ovule. A pollen grain sticks to the stigma at the top of the pistil, germinates, and grows a long pollen tube.A haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. The pollen tube grows from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. When it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, it digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents including the sperm cells. The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates; one sperm makes its way to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. The zygote develops into an embryo; the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, the embryo's food supply. The ovary develops into a fruit. and each ovule into a seed.

Apomixis, reproducing with unfertilized seeds, is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera. Some angiosperms, including many citrus varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called nucellar embryony.

Fruit and seed

Main articles: Fruit and Seed

The fruit of the horse chestnut tree, showing the large seed inside the fruit, which is dehiscing or splitting open.

As the embryo and endosperm develop, the wall of the embryo sac enlarges and combines with the nucellus and integument to form the seed coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with type of seed dispersal system.

Other parts of the flower often contribute to forming the fruit. For example, in the apple, the hypanthium forms the edible flesh, surrounding the ovaries which form the tough cases around the seeds.

Uses

Main article: Human uses of plants

Harvesting rice in Arkansas, 2020

Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (including potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers); the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (including pumpkins and melons); the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the many varieties of the cabbage species Brassica oleracea); and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family, including oranges, lemons, and grapefruits, and the Rosaceae, or rose family which provides apples, pears, cherries, apricots, and plums. Flowering plants provide materials in the form of wood, paper, fibers such as cotton, flax, and hemp, medicines such as digoxin and opioids, and decorative and landscaping plants. Coffee and hot chocolate are beverages from the flowering plants. Both real and fictitious plants play a wide variety of roles in literature and film. Flowers are the subjects of many poems by poets such as William Blake, Robert Frost, and Rabindranath Tagore.

See also

• List of garden plants
• List of plant orders
• List of plants by common name
• List of systems of plant taxonomy

Bibliography

Articles, books and chapters

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Angiosperms". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• APG (2003). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 141 (4): 399–436. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x.
• APG (2009). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 105–121. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x.
• APG (2016). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 181 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1111/boj.12385.
• Becker, Kenneth M. (February 1973). "A Comparison of Angiosperm Classification Systems". Taxon. 22 (1): 19–50. doi:10.2307/1218032. JSTOR 1218032.
• Bell, Adrian D. (2008) [1991]. Plant Form. An Illustrated Guide to Flowering Plant Morphology. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-850-1.
  • 1st edition published by Oxford University Press in 1991 ISBN 978-0-19854-219-3
• Bell, C.D.; Soltis, D.E.; Soltis, P.S. (2010). "The Age and Diversification of the Angiosperms Revisited". American Journal of Botany. 97 (8): 1296–1303. doi:10.3732/ajb.0900346. PMID 21616882. S2CID 207613985.
• Chase, Mark W.; Reveal, James L. (2009). "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 122–127. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x.
• De Craene, Ronse; P., Louis (2010). Floral Diagrams. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511806711. ISBN 978-0-511-80671-1.
• Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes". Harvard University Gazette.
• Cronquist, Arthur (October 1960). "The divisions and classes of plants". The Botanical Review. 26 (4): 425–482. doi:10.1007/BF02940572. S2CID 43144314.
• Cronquist, Arthur (1981). An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-231-03880-5.
• Dahlgren, R. M. T. (February 1980). "A revised system of classification of the angiosperms". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 80 (2): 91–124. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x.
• Dahlgren, Rolf (February 1983). "General aspects of angiosperm evolution and macrosystematics". Nordic Journal of Botany. 3 (1): 119–149. doi:10.1111/j.1756-1051.1983.tb01448.x.
• Dilcher, D. (2000). "Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (13): 7030–7036. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.7030D. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030. PMC 34380. PMID 10860967.
• Dilcher, David L.; Cronquist, Arthur; Zimmermann, Martin Huldrych; Stevens, Peter; Stevenson, Dennis William; Berry, Paul E. (8 March 2016). "Angiosperm". Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Heywood, V. H.; Brummitt, R. K.; Culham, A.; Seberg, O. (2007). Flowering Plant Families of the World. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55407-206-4.
• Hill, Christopher; Crane, Peter (January 1982). "Evolutionary Cladistics and the origin of Angiosperms". In Joysey, Kenneth Alan; Friday, A.E. (eds.). Problems of Phylogenetic Reconstruction. Special Volumes. Vol. 21. London: Systematics Association. pp. 269–361. ISBN 978-0-12-391250-3.
• Lersten, Nels R. (2004). Flowering plant embryology with emphasis on economic species. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 978-0-470-75267-8.
• D. Mauseth, James (2016). Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1-284-07753-7.
• Pooja (2004). Angiosperms. New Delhi: Discovery. ISBN 978-81-7141-788-9.
• Raven, P.H.; Evert, R.F.; Eichhorn, S.E. (2004). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). W.H. Freeman.
• Sattler, R. (1973). Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas. University of Toronto Press.
• Simpson, Michael G. (2010). Plant Systematics (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-092208-9.
• Soltis, Pamela S; Soltis, Douglas E (April 2016). "Ancient WGD events as drivers of key innovations in angiosperms". Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 30: 159–165. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2016.03.015. PMID 27064530.
• Takhtajan, A. (June 1964). "The Taxa of the Higher Plants above the Rank of Order". Taxon. 13 (5): 160–164. doi:10.2307/1216134. JSTOR 1216134.
• Takhtajan, A. (July–September 1980). "Outline of the Classification of Flowering Plants (Magnoliophyta)". Botanical Review. 46 (3): 225–359. doi:10.1007/bf02861558. JSTOR 4353970. S2CID 30764910.
• Zeng, Liping; Zhang, Qiang; Sun, Renran; Kong, Hongzhi; Zhang, Ning; Ma, Hong (24 September 2014). "Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times". Nature Communications. 5 (4956): 4956. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.4956Z. doi:10.1038/ncomms5956. PMC 4200517. PMID 25249442.

Websites

• Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Harmut H.; Stevens, Peter F. (2017). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster – Flowering Plant Systematics" (PDF).
• Watson, L.; Dallwitz, M.J. (1992). "The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval". 14 December 2000. Archived from the original on 2 August 2014.
• "Flowering plant" at the Encyclopedia of Life

External links

• Media related to Angiosperms at Wikimedia Commons
• Data related to Magnoliophyta at Wikispecies
• Magnoliophyta at Wikibooks