Jump to content

Opioid overdose: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
No edit summary
Dayakgill (talk | contribs)
47 edits
adding citations & hyperlinks
Line 66: Line 66:


=== Mental Health ===
=== Mental Health ===
Evidence suggests that mental health can be a significant facilitator for opioid abuse. Given that opioids are prescribed for pain management, mental health disorders, such as depression, have been shown to increase use of opioids when treating conditions associated with chronic pain. Evidence has shown that individuals with mood and anxiety disorders have an increased likelihood of being prescribed opioids and continuing usage for lengthy periods of time, consequently increasing likelihood for dependence. As such, affected individuals have almost double the risk of using opioids for pain relief in the long-term. Additionally, mental health challenges associated with trauma, economic depression, social environments conducive to substance abuse and risk-taking behaviours have been shown to increase opioid misuse. Furthermore, mental health challenges associated with cardiovascular disease, sleep disorders, and HIV can cause opioid dependence and subsequent overdose. Notably, cyclic behaviours can be observed between mental illness and opioid abuse where individuals with mental health diagnoses engage in opioid use which further perpetuates mental health challenges and increased drug usage.
Evidence suggests that mental health can be a significant facilitator for opioid abuse.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Grattan|first=Alicia|last2=Sullivan|first2=Mark D.|last3=Saunders|first3=Kathleen W.|last4=Campbell|first4=Cynthia I.|last5=Von Korff|first5=Michael R.|date=2012|title=Depression and Prescription Opioid Misuse Among Chronic Opioid Therapy Recipients With No History of Substance Abuse|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3392289/|journal=Annals of Family Medicine|volume=10|issue=4|pages=304–311|doi=10.1370/afm.1371|issn=1544-1709|pmc=3392289|pmid=22778118|via=}}</ref> Given that opioids are prescribed for pain management, mental health disorders, such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]], have been shown to increase use of opioids when treating conditions associated with [[chronic pain]].<ref name=":10" /> Evidence has shown that individuals with [[Mood disorder|mood]] and [[Anxiety disorder|anxiety disorders]] have an increased likelihood of being prescribed opioids and continuing usage for lengthy periods of time, consequently increasing likelihood for [[Substance dependence|dependence]].<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=Matthew A.|last2=Lin|first2=Lewei A.|last3=Liu|first3=Haiyin|last4=Sites|first4=Brian D.|date=2017-07-01|title=Prescription Opioid Use among Adults with Mental Health Disorders in the United States|url=https://www.jabfm.org/content/30/4/407|journal=The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine|language=en|volume=30|issue=4|pages=407–417|doi=10.3122/jabfm.2017.04.170112|issn=1557-2625|pmid=28720623}}</ref> As such, affected individuals have almost double the risk of using opioids for pain relief in the long-term.<ref name=":11" /> Additionally, mental health challenges associated with trauma, economic depression, social environments conducive to substance abuse and risk-taking behaviours have been shown to increase opioid misuse.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Webster|first=Lynn R.|date=2017|title=Risk Factors for Opioid-Use Disorder and Overdose|url=https://journals.lww.com/anesthesia-analgesia/Fulltext/2017/11000/Risk_Factors_for_Opioid_Use_Disorder_and_Overdose.41.aspx|journal=Anesthesia & Analgesia|language=en-US|volume=125|issue=5|pages=1741–1748|doi=10.1213/ANE.0000000000002496|issn=0003-2999|via=}}</ref> Furthermore, mental health challenges associated with [[cardiovascular disease]], [[Sleep disorder|sleep disorders]], and [[HIV]] can cause opioid dependence and subsequent overdose.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Chiappini|first=Stefania|last2=Guirguis|first2=Amira|last3=John|first3=Ann|last4=Corkery|first4=John Martin|last5=Schifano|first5=Fabrizio|date=2020-07-29|title=COVID-19: The Hidden Impact on Mental Health and Drug Addiction|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7403495/|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|volume=11|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00767|issn=1664-0640|pmc=7403495|pmid=32848937}}</ref> Notably, cyclic behaviours can be observed between mental illness and opioid abuse where individuals with mental health diagnoses engage in opioid use which further perpetuates mental health challenges and increased drug usage.<ref name=":12" />


==Mechanism==
==Mechanism==
Opioids bind with neurological opioid receptors to provoke [[analgesic]], [[sedative]], and [[Euphoria|euphoric]] effects.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Shaocheng|date=2019|title=Historical Review: Opiate Addiction and Opioid Receptors|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6425114/|journal=Cell Transplantation|volume=28|issue=3|pages=233–238|doi=10.1177/0963689718811060|issn=0963-6897|pmc=6425114|pmid=30419763|via=}}</ref> Opioid’s function by stimulating specific [[G protein-coupled receptor|G-protein coupled receptors]] distributed throughout the body—including the brain, skin and spinal cord.<ref name=":3" /> Three of the major opioid receptors include mu, kappa, delta, and nociception, each playing a role in eliciting the effects associated with opioids.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Corder|first=Gregory|last2=Castro|first2=Daniel C.|last3=Bruchas|first3=Michael R.|last4=Scherrer|first4=Grégory|date=2018-07-08|title=Endogenous and Exogenous Opioids in Pain|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6428583/|journal=Annual review of neuroscience|volume=41|pages=453–473|doi=10.1146/annurev-neuro-080317-061522|issn=0147-006X|pmc=6428583|pmid=29852083}}</ref> An opioid overdose results from over-activation of these receptors, which can cause permanent brain damage from cerebral hypoxia or neurotoxicity.<ref name="NIH2017Her" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cunha-Oliveira|first=Teresa|last2=Rego|first2=Ana Cristina|last3=Oliveira|first3=Catarina R.|date=2008-06-01|title=Cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the neurotoxicity of opioid and psychostimulant drugs|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165017308000295|journal=Brain Research Reviews|language=en|volume=58|issue=1|pages=192–208|doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.03.002|issn=0165-0173}}</ref>
Opioids bind with neurological opioid receptors to provoke [[analgesic]], [[sedative]], and [[Euphoria|euphoric]] effects.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Shaocheng|date=2019|title=Historical Review: Opiate Addiction and Opioid Receptors|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6425114/|journal=Cell Transplantation|volume=28|issue=3|pages=233–238|doi=10.1177/0963689718811060|issn=0963-6897|pmc=6425114|pmid=30419763|via=}}</ref> Opioid’s function by stimulating specific [[G protein-coupled receptor|G-protein coupled receptors]] distributed throughout the body—including the brain, skin and spinal cord.<ref name=":3" /> Three of the major opioid receptors include mu, kappa, delta, and nociception, each playing a role in eliciting the effects associated with opioids.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Corder|first=Gregory|last2=Castro|first2=Daniel C.|last3=Bruchas|first3=Michael R.|last4=Scherrer|first4=Grégory|date=2018-07-08|title=Endogenous and Exogenous Opioids in Pain|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6428583/|journal=Annual review of neuroscience|volume=41|pages=453–473|doi=10.1146/annurev-neuro-080317-061522|issn=0147-006X|pmc=6428583|pmid=29852083}}</ref> An opioid overdose results from over-activation of these receptors, which can cause permanent brain damage from cerebral hypoxia or neurotoxicity.<ref name="NIH2017Her" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cunha-Oliveira|first=Teresa|last2=Rego|first2=Ana Cristina|last3=Oliveira|first3=Catarina R.|date=2008-06-01|title=Cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the neurotoxicity of opioid and psychostimulant drugs|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165017308000295|journal=Brain Research Reviews|language=en|volume=58|issue=1|pages=192–208|doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.03.002|issn=0165-0173}}</ref>

Revision as of 23:16, 13 November 2020

Opioid overdose
Other namesNarcotic overdose, opioid poisoning
A naloxone kit as distributed in British Columbia, Canada
SpecialtyEmergency medicine
SymptomsInsufficient breathing, small pupils, unconsciousness[1]
ComplicationsRhabdomyolysis, pulmonary edema, compartment syndrome, permanent brain damage[2][3]
CausesOpioids (morphine, heroin, fentanyl, tramadol, methadone)[1][4]
Risk factorsOpioid dependence, use of high doses of opioids, injection of opioids, use with alcohol, benzodiazepines, or cocaine.[1][5]
Diagnostic methodBased on symptoms[3]
Differential diagnosisLow blood sugar, alcohol intoxication, head trauma, stroke[6]
PreventionImproved access to naloxone, treatment of opioid dependence[1]
TreatmentSupporting a person's breathing, naloxone[7]
Deaths122,100 (2015)[8]

An opioid overdose is toxicity due to excessive opioids.[9][3] Examples of opioids include morphine, heroin, fentanyl, tramadol, and methadone.[1][4] Symptoms include insufficient breathing, small pupils, and unconsciousness.[1] Onset of symptoms depends in part on the route by which the opioids are taken.[10] Among those who initially survive, complications can include rhabdomyolysis, pulmonary edema, compartment syndrome, and permanent brain damage.[2][3]

Risk factors for opioid overdose include opioid dependence, use of opioids by injection, use of high doses of opioids, mental disorders, and use of opioids together with alcohol, benzodiazepines, or cocaine.[1][11][5] Risk of overdose is particularly high following detoxification.[1] Dependence on prescription opioids can occur from their use to treat chronic pain.[1] Diagnosis of an opioid overdose is based on symptoms and examination.[3]

Initial treatment involves supporting the person's breathing and providing oxygen.[7] Naloxone is then recommended among those who are not breathing to reverse the opioid's effects.[7][3] Giving naloxone into the nose or as an injection into a muscle appear to be equally effective.[12] Among those who refuse to go to hospital following reversal, the risks of a poor outcome in the short term appear to be low.[12] Efforts to prevent deaths from overdose include improving access to naloxone and treatment for opioid dependence.[1][13]

Opioid use disorders resulted in 122,000 deaths globally in 2015, up from 18,000 deaths in 1990.[8][14] In the United States, over 49,000 deaths involved opioids in 2017.[5] Of those, about 20,000 involved prescription opioids and 16,000 involved heroin.[5] In 2017, opioid deaths represented more than 65% of all drug overdose related deaths in the United States.[5] The opioid epidemic is believed to be in part due to assurances in the 1990s by the pharmaceutical industry that prescription opioids were safe.[4]

Signs and symptoms

Opiate overdose symptoms and signs can be referred to as the "opioid overdose triad": decreased level of consciousness, pinpoint pupils and respiratory depression. Other symptoms include seizures and muscle spasms. Sometimes an opiate overdose can lead to such a decreased level of consciousness such that the person will not wake up.

Because of their effect on the part of the brain that regulates breathing, opioids can cause very slow or stopped breathing, during overdoses, leading to hypoxia[15] or death if left untreated.[1] Hypoxia is typically caused by respiratory depression.[16][17] The brain uses oxygen to regulate the homeostasis of the body. In animal studies, it was found that opioids act on specific regions of the central nervous system associated with respiratory regulation, including the medulla and pons.[17] During cerebral hypoxia, there is a lack of sufficient oxygen supply to the brain.[16] Prolonged lack of oxygenation from respiratory depression can lead to detrimental damage to the brain and spinal cord and can leave the person unable to walk or function normally, even if treatment with naloxone is given.[citation needed]

Alcohol also causes respiratory depression and therefore when taken with opioids can increase the risk of respiratory depression and death.[1]

In young children, opioid overdose may not be apparent right away. This is due to absorption, distribution, and metabolism differences between young children and adults, and the higher amount of opioid ingestion per kilogram of body weight.[3]

Cause

Prescription Drug Overdose Patient Information, CDC 2012
Fentanyl. 2 mg. A lethal dose in most people.[18]

Risk factors for opioid overdose include opioid dependence, injecting opioids, using high doses of opioids, and use together with alcohol, benzodiazepines, or cocaine.[1][5] The risk is particularly high following detoxification.[1] Dependence on prescription opioids can occur from their use to treat chronic pain.[1] In young children an overdose is usually due to opioids that are intended for their parents, older siblings, or grandparents.[19] In mothers who take codeine during breastfeeding, opioid overdoses have occurred in their baby.[20] Codeine is therefore not recommended in those who are breastfeeding.[20]

Co-ingestion

Opioid overdoses are often associated with benzodiazepines or alcohol use.[21][22] Other CNS depressants, muscle relaxers, pain relievers, anti-convulsants, anxiolytics, treatment drugs of a psychoactive or epileptic variety or any other such drug with its active function meant to calm or mitigate neuronal signaling (barbiturates, etc.) can additionally cause a worsened condition with less likelihood of recovery cumulative to each added drug. This includes drugs less immediately classed to a slowing of the metabolism such as with GABAergics like GHB or glutamatergic antagonists like PCP or ketamine.

  • The top line represents the yearly number of benzodiazepine deaths that involved opioids in the US. The bottom line represents benzodiazepine deaths that did not involve opioids.[5]
    The top line represents the yearly number of benzodiazepine deaths that involved opioids in the US. The bottom line represents benzodiazepine deaths that did not involve opioids.[5]
  • Opioid involvement in cocaine overdose deaths. Green line is cocaine and any opioid. Gray line is cocaine without any opioids. Yellow line is cocaine and other synthetic opioids.[5]
    Opioid involvement in cocaine overdose deaths. Green line is cocaine and any opioid. Gray line is cocaine without any opioids. Yellow line is cocaine and other synthetic opioids.[5]

Risk factors

Metabolic Disorders

Opioids are primarily metabolized in the liver, before being excreted through urine. Opioids are metabolized by phase 1 and/or phase 2 metabolism, which can lead to the activation or inhibition of these drugs.[23][24] Phase 1 metabolism is the CYP pathway which consists of different cytochrome P450s – a set of enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis, reduction, and oxidation reactions – to create an active metabolite.[25] In contrast, Phase 2 metabolism causes the opioids to undergo conjugation, with little to no interaction with the CYP pathway.[25] The opioids undergo phase 1 and phase 2 metabolism until they are hydrophilic enough to be renally excreted.[23]

There are various factors that play a role in how an  opioid is metabolized. In phase 1 metabolism, the CYP family has several polymorphisms, which can account for the difference in therapeutic responses within each individual.[26] This diversification leads to opioids being modified at varying rates, which can cause the drug to remain in the bloodstream for either a longer or shorter period of time.[26] Therefore these polymorphisms control opioid tolerance and facilitate overdose.

Mental Health

Evidence suggests that mental health can be a significant facilitator for opioid abuse.[27] Given that opioids are prescribed for pain management, mental health disorders, such as depression, have been shown to increase use of opioids when treating conditions associated with chronic pain.[27] Evidence has shown that individuals with mood and anxiety disorders have an increased likelihood of being prescribed opioids and continuing usage for lengthy periods of time, consequently increasing likelihood for dependence.[28] As such, affected individuals have almost double the risk of using opioids for pain relief in the long-term.[28] Additionally, mental health challenges associated with trauma, economic depression, social environments conducive to substance abuse and risk-taking behaviours have been shown to increase opioid misuse.[29] Furthermore, mental health challenges associated with cardiovascular disease, sleep disorders, and HIV can cause opioid dependence and subsequent overdose.[30] Notably, cyclic behaviours can be observed between mental illness and opioid abuse where individuals with mental health diagnoses engage in opioid use which further perpetuates mental health challenges and increased drug usage.[30]

Mechanism

Opioids bind with neurological opioid receptors to provoke analgesic, sedative, and euphoric effects.[15] Opioid’s function by stimulating specific G-protein coupled receptors distributed throughout the body—including the brain, skin and spinal cord.[15] Three of the major opioid receptors include mu, kappa, delta, and nociception, each playing a role in eliciting the effects associated with opioids.[31] An opioid overdose results from over-activation of these receptors, which can cause permanent brain damage from cerebral hypoxia or neurotoxicity.[2][32]

Mu receptors have an analgesic effect on the brain, and are found in various parts of the nervous system including the cerebral cortex and thalamus.[15] They can be found in the nucleus accumbens, the pleasure centre of the brain, as well as the amygdala.[15] Kappa receptors, in the hypothalamus, produce a similar analgesic effect. They bind with dynorphins to stimulate anti-reward effects —dysphoria— and other negative effects of withdrawal. While mu receptors are the source of addiction, kappa receptors contribute to continued abuse. They generate dysphoria in response to increasing stress levels via corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF).[15] This increases erratic shifts in mood during withdrawal period and can prompt relapse.[15] Delta receptors, found in the basal ganglia of the limbic system, have been shown to reduce anxiety by binding with enkephalins, although this requires further research.[15] The most recent addition to these receptors are nociception opioid receptors. Although they have been determined to be receptors to certain ligands from opioids, their role has not yet fully understood.[33]

When opioids are ingested, the ligand binds to these constitutively active receptors to reduce neural activity.[31] This is accomplished by inhibiting adenylyl cyclase and cyclic AMP, which are necessary for communication within the central nervous system.[31] There is research indicating that opioids reduce pain by disrupting ion channels and vesicle fusion.[31]

Prolonged exposure to opioids can cause these receptors to become internalized, leading to increased tolerance and increased opioid use.[16]

Prevention

Opioid overdoses can often be prevented.[34][35] Clear protocols for staff at emergency departments and urgent care centers can reduce opioid prescriptions for individuals presenting in these settings who engage in drug seeking behaviors or who have a history of substance abuse.[36] Drug seeking behaviors include but are not limited to obsessiveness or impatience when it comes to attaining medications, seeking multiple pain adjunct medications, and inconsistent physiological presentation.[37] A prescription monitoring program may help determine if an individual is receiving a high doses of opioids or combinations of medications such as benzodiazepines and opioids that put them at high risk.[38] Limited amount of evidence suggests opioid therapy with extended-release or long-acting formulations may increase the risk of an unintentional overdose compared to shorter-acting agents.[39] Routinely screening using tools such as the CAGE-AID and the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10) in adults and the CRAFFT in those aged 14–18 years is recommended.[34] Other “drug seeking” behaviors and physical indications of drug use should be used as clues to perform formal screenings.[34]

There are several medication-assisted treatments available for people with opioid use disorder or opioid dependence, who are at higher risk for opioid overdose.[40][41] The selection of treatment depends on various factors, such as a person's preference, accessibility, and history of treatment.[41] Examples of medication-assisted treatments are buprenorphine (with or without naloxone), naltrexone, and methadone.[42][43] Peer support groups have tentative evidence of benefit.[44] There is also some evidence indicating benefits in community-based overdose education and naloxone distribution programs.[45] Buprenorphine and methadone can help decrease drug cravings.[41] Combining pharmacologic treatments with behavioral therapy, such as support or recovery groups, can increase likelihood of overcoming addiction and reduce the risk of an opioid overdose.

Individuals diagnosed with opioid dependence should be prescribed naloxone to prevent overdose and should be directed to one of treatment options available, such as needle exchange programs and treatment centers.[34][35] A naloxone prescription is also recommended when risk factors for opioid overdose are present such as history of overdose, substance use disorder, or higher doses of opioids.[38] Brief motivational interviewing can also be performed and has been shown to improve people's motivation to change their behavior.[34][46] Despite these opportunities, the dissemination of prevention interventions in the US has been hampered by the lack of coordination and sluggish federal government response.[35]

In the United States, 49 states and the District of Columbia have expanded naloxone access at a pharmacy level via standing order, protocol order, naloxone-specific collaborative practice agreement, or pharmacist prescriptive authority.[47]

Treatment

In people who have overdosed on opioids, basic life support and naloxone are recommended as soon as possible. Naloxone is effective at reversing the cause, rather than just the symptoms, of an opioid overdose.[48] Compared to adults, children often need larger doses of naloxone per kilogram of body weight.[3]

Programs to provide drug users and their caregivers with naloxone are recommended.[49] In the United States, as of 2014, more than 25,000 overdoses have been reversed.[50][51] Programs training police and fire personnel in opioid overdose response using naloxone have also shown promise.[52] Programs have been developed in cities, such as San Francisco, to increase community awareness and engagement in prevention of opioid overdose.[53]

Epidemiology

See also: Opioid epidemic

In 2016, the World Health Organization estimates 34 million people used opioids and 19 million used opiates.[54] Of these, about 27 million people had opioid dependence, with the majority—but a decreasing number—using illicit heroin.[54] In 2015, 118,000 people died from opioid use disorders, causing almost one third of all drug related deaths.[54]

United States of America

Further information: US drug overdose death rates and totals over time

Of the 70,200 overdose deaths in the US in 2017, opioids were involved in 47,600.[5] This is an increase from 2016 where over 64,000 died from drug overdose, and opioids were involved in over 42,000.[55] In 2017, the five states with the highest rates of death due to drug overdose were West Virginia (57.8 per 100,000), Ohio (46.3 per 100,000), Pennsylvania (44.3 per 100,000), Kentucky (37.2 per 100,000), and New Hampshire (37.0 per 100,000).[56]

Concerning the 2017 data in the charts below, deaths from the various drugs add up to more than 70,200 because multiple drugs are involved in many of the deaths.[5] According to the National Safety Council, the lifetime odds of dying from an overdose in the United States is 1 in 96.[57]

  6.9–11
  11.1–13.5
  13.6–16.0
  16.1–18.5
  18.6–21.0
  21.1–52.0
Drug overdose deaths in the US per 100,000 people by state.[56]
US yearly overdose deaths, and the drugs involved. Among the 70,200 deaths estimated in 2017, the sharpest increase occurred among deaths related to fentanyl and synthetic opioids (28,466 deaths).[5]
  • Charts of deaths involving specific opioids and classes of opioids
  • US yearly deaths from all opioid drugs. Included in this number are opioid analgesics, along with heroin and illicit synthetic opioids.[5]
    US yearly deaths from all opioid drugs. Included in this number are opioid analgesics, along with heroin and illicit synthetic opioids.[5]
  • US yearly deaths involving other synthetic opioids, predominately Fentanyl.[5]
    US yearly deaths involving other synthetic opioids, predominately Fentanyl.[5]
  • US yearly deaths involving prescription opioids. Non-methadone synthetics is a category dominated by illegally acquired fentanyl, and has been excluded.[5]
    US yearly deaths involving prescription opioids. Non-methadone synthetics is a category dominated by illegally acquired fentanyl, and has been excluded.[5]
  • US yearly overdose deaths involving heroin.[5]
    US yearly overdose deaths involving heroin.[5]

Awareness

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration hosts an annual health observance known as National Prevention Week. Every third week of May, they encourage communities across the country to unite to share stories about positive mental and behavioral health and the importance of implementing prevention methods.[58] They also sponsor recovery Month every September. Recovery Month aims to raise awareness about mental and substance use disorders and to honor individuals who recover, promoting the positive message that prevention works and that treatment is effective.[59]

International Overdose Awareness Day is on August 31st to remember those who have lost their lives to overdose, to decrease stigma of drug-related deaths, and to promote prevention of overdose.[60]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Information sheet on opioid overdose". WHO. November 2014.
  2. ^ a b c "Heroin". National Institute on Drug Abuse. July 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Boyer EW (July 2012). "Management of opioid analgesic overdose". The New England Journal of Medicine. 367 (2): 146–55. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1202561. PMC 3739053. PMID 22784117.
  4. ^ a b c "Opioid Overdose Crisis". National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1 June 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Overdose Death Rates. By National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).
  6. ^ Adams, James G. (2008). Emergency Medicine: Expert Consult -- Online. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. PT4876. ISBN 978-1437721294.
  7. ^ a b c de Caen AR, Berg MD, Chameides L, Gooden CK, Hickey RW, Scott HF, et al. (November 2015). "Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care". Circulation. 132 (18 Suppl 2): S526–42. doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000000266. PMC 6191296. PMID 26473000.
  8. ^ a b GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (October 2016). "Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1459–1544. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1. PMC 5388903. PMID 27733281. {{cite journal}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ "Commonly Used Terms Drug Overdose". www.cdc.gov. 29 August 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  10. ^ Malamed, Stanley F. (2007). Medical Emergencies in the Dental Office - E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 387. ISBN 978-0323075947.
  11. ^ Park TW, Lin LA, Hosanagar A, Kogowski A, Paige K, Bohnert AS (2016). "Understanding Risk Factors for Opioid Overdose in Clinical Populations to Inform Treatment and Policy". Journal of Addiction Medicine. 10 (6): 369–381. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000245. PMID 27525471. S2CID 8871126.
  12. ^ a b Chou R, Korthuis PT, McCarty D, Coffin PO, Griffin JC, Davis-O'Reilly C, et al. (December 2017). "Management of Suspected Opioid Overdose With Naloxone in Out-of-Hospital Settings: A Systematic Review". Annals of Internal Medicine. 167 (12): 867–875. doi:10.7326/M17-2224. PMID 29181532.
  13. ^ "Opioid epidemic: 6 key steps that states should take now". American Medical Association. 9 September 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
  14. ^ GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (January 2015). "Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". Lancet. 385 (9963): 117–71. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2. PMC 4340604. PMID 25530442. {{cite journal}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h Wang, Shaocheng (2019). "Historical Review: Opiate Addiction and Opioid Receptors". Cell Transplantation. 28 (3): 233–238. doi:10.1177/0963689718811060. ISSN 0963-6897. PMC 6425114. PMID 30419763.
  16. ^ a b c Kiyatkin, Eugene A. (2019). "Respiratory depression and brain hypoxia induced by opioid drugs: morphine, oxycodone, heroin, and fentanyl". Neuropharmacology. 151: 219–226. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.02.008. ISSN 0028-3908. PMC 6500744. PMID 30735692.
  17. ^ a b Imam, Mohammad Zafar; Kuo, Andy; Ghassabian, Sussan; Smith, Maree T. (2018). "Progress in understanding mechanisms of opioid-induced gastrointestinal adverse effects and respiratory depression". Neuropharmacology. 131: 238–255. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.12.032. ISSN 1873-7064. PMID 29273520.
  18. ^ Fentanyl. Image 4 of 17. US DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration).
  19. ^ Boyer EW, McCance-Katz EF, Marcus S (January 2010). "Methadone and buprenorphine toxicity in children". The American Journal on Addictions. 19 (1): 89–95. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2009.00002.x. PMID 20132125.
  20. ^ a b Lazaryan M, Shasha-Zigelman C, Dagan Z, Berkovitch M (June 2015). "Codeine should not be prescribed for breastfeeding mothers or children under the age of 12". Acta Paediatrica. 104 (6): 550–6. doi:10.1111/apa.13012. PMID 25809057. S2CID 34870882.
  21. ^ "BestBets: Concomitant use of benzodiazepines in opiate overdose and the association with a poorer outcome".
  22. ^ "BestBets: Concomitant use of alcohol in opiate overdose and the association with a poorer outcome".
  23. ^ a b Smith, Howard S. (2009). "Opioid Metabolism". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 84 (7): 613–624. ISSN 0025-6196. PMC 2704133. PMID 19567715.
  24. ^ Boyer, Edward W. (2012-07-12). "Management of Opioid Analgesic Overdose". The New England journal of medicine. 367 (2): 146–155. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1202561. ISSN 0028-4793. PMC 3739053. PMID 22784117.
  25. ^ a b "Drug Metabolism - Clinical Pharmacology". Merck Manuals Professional Edition. Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  26. ^ a b Preissner, Sarah C.; Hoffmann, Michael F.; Preissner, Robert; Dunkel, Mathias; Gewiess, Andreas; Preissner, Saskia (2013-12-10). "Polymorphic Cytochrome P450 Enzymes (CYPs) and Their Role in Personalized Therapy". PLoS ONE. 8 (12). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0082562. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3858335. PMID 24340040.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  27. ^ a b Grattan, Alicia; Sullivan, Mark D.; Saunders, Kathleen W.; Campbell, Cynthia I.; Von Korff, Michael R. (2012). "Depression and Prescription Opioid Misuse Among Chronic Opioid Therapy Recipients With No History of Substance Abuse". Annals of Family Medicine. 10 (4): 304–311. doi:10.1370/afm.1371. ISSN 1544-1709. PMC 3392289. PMID 22778118.
  28. ^ a b Davis, Matthew A.; Lin, Lewei A.; Liu, Haiyin; Sites, Brian D. (2017-07-01). "Prescription Opioid Use among Adults with Mental Health Disorders in the United States". The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine. 30 (4): 407–417. doi:10.3122/jabfm.2017.04.170112. ISSN 1557-2625. PMID 28720623.
  29. ^ Webster, Lynn R. (2017). "Risk Factors for Opioid-Use Disorder and Overdose". Anesthesia & Analgesia. 125 (5): 1741–1748. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002496. ISSN 0003-2999.
  30. ^ a b Chiappini, Stefania; Guirguis, Amira; John, Ann; Corkery, John Martin; Schifano, Fabrizio (2020-07-29). "COVID-19: The Hidden Impact on Mental Health and Drug Addiction". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 11. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00767. ISSN 1664-0640. PMC 7403495. PMID 32848937.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  31. ^ a b c d Corder, Gregory; Castro, Daniel C.; Bruchas, Michael R.; Scherrer, Grégory (2018-07-08). "Endogenous and Exogenous Opioids in Pain". Annual review of neuroscience. 41: 453–473. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-080317-061522. ISSN 0147-006X. PMC 6428583. PMID 29852083.
  32. ^ Cunha-Oliveira, Teresa; Rego, Ana Cristina; Oliveira, Catarina R. (2008-06-01). "Cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the neurotoxicity of opioid and psychostimulant drugs". Brain Research Reviews. 58 (1): 192–208. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.03.002. ISSN 0165-0173.
  33. ^ Al-Hasani, Ream; Bruchas, Michael R. (2011). "Molecular Mechanisms of Opioid Receptor-Dependent Signaling and Behavior". Anesthesiology. 115 (6): 1363–1381. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e318238bba6. ISSN 0003-3022. PMC 3698859. PMID 22020140.
  34. ^ a b c d e Bowman S, Eiserman J, Beletsky L, Stancliff S, Bruce RD (July 2013). "Reducing the health consequences of opioid addiction in primary care". The American Journal of Medicine. 126 (7): 565–71. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.11.031. PMID 23664112.In press
  35. ^ a b c Beletsky L, Rich JD, Walley AY (November 2012). "Prevention of fatal opioid overdose". JAMA. 308 (18): 1863–4. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.14205. PMC 3551246. PMID 23150005.
  36. ^ "Emergency Department and Urgent Care Clinicians Use Protocol To Reduce Opioid Prescriptions for Patients Suspected of Abusing Controlled Substances". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2014-03-12. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
  37. ^ Pretorius RW, Zurick GM (April 2008). "A systematic approach to identifying drug-seeking patients". Family Practice Management. 15 (4): A3-5. PMID 18444310.
  38. ^ a b Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R (April 2016). "CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain--United States, 2016". JAMA. 315 (15): 1624–45. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.1464. PMC 6390846. PMID 26977696.
  39. ^ Miller M, Barber CW, Leatherman S, Fonda J, Hermos JA, Cho K, Gagnon DR (April 2015). "Prescription opioid duration of action and the risk of unintentional overdose among patients receiving opioid therapy". JAMA Internal Medicine. 175 (4): 608–15. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.8071. PMID 25686208.
  40. ^ "Information sheet on opioid overdose". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2018-11-01.
  41. ^ a b c "ASAM National Practice Guideline for the Use of Medications in the Treatment of Addiction Involving Opioid Use" (PDF).
  42. ^ "Current and Emerging Options to Combat the Opioid Epidemic". AJMC. Retrieved 2018-11-01.
  43. ^ Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M (February 2014). "Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence" (PDF). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD002207. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002207.pub4. PMID 24500948.
  44. ^ Tracy K, Wallace SP (September 2016). "Benefits of peer support groups in the treatment of addiction". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 7: 143–154. doi:10.2147/SAR.S81535. PMC 5047716. PMID 27729825.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  45. ^ Mueller SR, Walley AY, Calcaterra SL, Glanz JM, Binswanger IA (2015-03-16). "A Review of Opioid Overdose Prevention and Naloxone Prescribing: Implications for Translating Community Programming Into Clinical Practice". Substance Abuse. 36 (2): 240–53. doi:10.1080/08897077.2015.1010032. PMC 4470731. PMID 25774771.
  46. ^ Zahradnik A, Otto C, Crackau B, Löhrmann I, Bischof G, John U, Rumpf HJ (January 2009). "Randomized controlled trial of a brief intervention for problematic prescription drug use in non-treatment-seeking patients". Addiction. 104 (1): 109–17. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02421.x. PMID 19133895.
  47. ^ "PDAPS - Naloxone Overdose Prevention Laws". pdaps.org. Retrieved 2019-10-23.
  48. ^ Etherington J, Christenson J, Innes G, Grafstein E, Pennington S, Spinelli JJ, et al. (July 2000). "Is early discharge safe after naloxone reversal of presumed opioid overdose?". Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2 (3): 156–62. doi:10.1017/s1481803500004863. PMID 17621393.
  49. ^ Community management of opioid overdose (PDF). World Health Organization. 2014. ISBN 9789241548816.
  50. ^ Wheeler E, Jones TS, Gilbert MK, Davidson PJ (June 2015). "Opioid Overdose Prevention Programs Providing Naloxone to Laypersons - United States, 2014". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 64 (23): 631–5. PMC 4584734. PMID 26086633.
  51. ^ Beletsky L, Burris S, Kral AH (July 21, 2009). "Closing Death's Door: Action Steps to Facilitate Emergency Opioid Drug Overdose Reversal in the United States". doi:10.2139/ssrn.1437163. SSRN 1437163. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  52. ^ Lavoie D (April 2012). "Naloxone: Drug-Overdose Antidote Is Put In Addicts' Hands". Huffington Post.
  53. ^ https://harmreduction.org/issues/overdose-prevention/dope-sf/
  54. ^ a b c "WHO | Information sheet on opioid overdose". WHO. Retrieved 2019-10-23.
  55. ^ National Center for Health Statistics. "Provisional Counts of Drug Overdose Deaths, as of 8/6/2017" (PDF). United States: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Source lists US totals for 2015 and 2016 and statistics by state.
  56. ^ a b Drug Overdose Deaths. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Click on a map year. The data table is below the map. Number of deaths for each state, and the age-adjusted rates of death for each state. Also, place cursor on map states to get data.
  57. ^ "Odds of Dying". Injury Facts. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  58. ^ carley.heslin (2013-11-08). "About National Prevention Week". www.samhsa.gov. Retrieved 2018-11-01.
  59. ^ "Home | RecoveryMonth.gov". www.recoverymonth.gov. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
  60. ^ "International Overdose Awareness Day - August 31, 2019". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 68 (34): 737. August 2019. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6834a1. PMC 6715257. PMID 31466079.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Opioid_overdose&oldid=988566769"