Islamic Golden Age: Difference between revisions
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===Capitalist market economy=== |
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{{main|Islamic economic jurisprudence}} |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Capitalist market economy|Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Capitalist market economy]] and [[Early Muslim sociology#Economic thought|Early Muslim sociology: Economic thought]]'' |
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The origins of [[capitalism]] and [[free market]]s can be traced back to the Caliphate,<ref>''The Cambridge economic history of Europe'', p. 437. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521087090.</ref> where the first [[market economy]] and earliest forms of [[merchant capitalism]] took root between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96].</ref> A vigorous [[monetary economy]] was created on the basis of the expanding levels of [[List of circulating currencies|circulation]] of a stable high-value [[currency]] (the [[dinar]]) and the integration of [[monetary]] areas that were previously independent. Innovative new [[business]] techniques and forms of [[business organisation]] were introduced by [[economist]]s, [[merchant]]s and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest [[Trading company|trading companies]], credit cards, [[big business]]es, [[contract]]s, [[bills of exchange]], long-distance [[international trade]], the first forms of [[partnership]] (''mufawada'') such as [[limited partnership]]s (''mudaraba''), and the earliest forms of [[Credit (finance)|credit]], [[debt]], [[profit]], [[loss]], [[Capital (economics)|capital]] (''al-mal''), [[capital accumulation]] (''nama al-mal''),<ref name=Banaji/> [[circulating capital]], [[capital expenditure]], [[revenue]], [[cheque]]s, [[promissory note]]s,<ref>Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), ''Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents'', [[Columbia University Press]], ISBN 0231123574.</ref> [[trusts]] (''waqf''), [[startup companies]],<ref>Timur Kuran (2005), "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence", ''American Journal of Comparative Law'' '''53''', p. 785-834 [798-799].</ref> [[savings account]]s, [[transactional account]]s, [[pawn]]ing, [[loan]]ing, [[exchange rate]]s, [[bank]]ers, [[money changer]]s, [[ledger]]s, [[deposit]]s, [[Assignment (law)|assignments]], the [[double-entry bookkeeping system]],<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [92-93].</ref> and [[lawsuit]]s.<ref>Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", ''Trends in Biotechnology'' '''20''' (8), p. 357-358 [357].</ref> [[Organization]]al [[enterprise]]s similar to [[corporation]]s independent from the [[state]] also existed in the medieval Islamic world.<ref>Said Amir Arjomand (1999), "The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' '''41''', p. 263-293. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref><ref>Samir Amin (1978), "The Arab Nation: Some Conclusions and Problems", ''MERIP Reports'' '''68''', p. 3-14 [8, 13].</ref> Many of these early capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in [[medieval Europe]] from the 13th century onwards.<ref name=Banaji>Jairus Banaji (2007), "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism", ''Journal Historical Materialism'' '''15''' (1), p. 47-74, [[Brill Publishers]].</ref> |
The origins of [[capitalism]] and [[free market]]s can be traced back to the Caliphate,<ref>''The Cambridge economic history of Europe'', p. 437. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521087090.</ref> where the first [[market economy]] and earliest forms of [[merchant capitalism]] took root between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96].</ref> A vigorous [[monetary economy]] was created on the basis of the expanding levels of [[List of circulating currencies|circulation]] of a stable high-value [[currency]] (the [[dinar]]) and the integration of [[monetary]] areas that were previously independent. Innovative new [[business]] techniques and forms of [[business organisation]] were introduced by [[economist]]s, [[merchant]]s and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest [[Trading company|trading companies]], credit cards, [[big business]]es, [[contract]]s, [[bills of exchange]], long-distance [[international trade]], the first forms of [[partnership]] (''mufawada'') such as [[limited partnership]]s (''mudaraba''), and the earliest forms of [[Credit (finance)|credit]], [[debt]], [[profit]], [[loss]], [[Capital (economics)|capital]] (''al-mal''), [[capital accumulation]] (''nama al-mal''),<ref name=Banaji/> [[circulating capital]], [[capital expenditure]], [[revenue]], [[cheque]]s, [[promissory note]]s,<ref>Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), ''Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents'', [[Columbia University Press]], ISBN 0231123574.</ref> [[trusts]] (''waqf''), [[startup companies]],<ref>Timur Kuran (2005), "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence", ''American Journal of Comparative Law'' '''53''', p. 785-834 [798-799].</ref> [[savings account]]s, [[transactional account]]s, [[pawn]]ing, [[loan]]ing, [[exchange rate]]s, [[bank]]ers, [[money changer]]s, [[ledger]]s, [[deposit]]s, [[Assignment (law)|assignments]], the [[double-entry bookkeeping system]],<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 [92-93].</ref> and [[lawsuit]]s.<ref>Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", ''Trends in Biotechnology'' '''20''' (8), p. 357-358 [357].</ref> [[Organization]]al [[enterprise]]s similar to [[corporation]]s independent from the [[state]] also existed in the medieval Islamic world.<ref>Said Amir Arjomand (1999), "The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' '''41''', p. 263-293. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref><ref>Samir Amin (1978), "The Arab Nation: Some Conclusions and Problems", ''MERIP Reports'' '''68''', p. 3-14 [8, 13].</ref> Many of these early capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in [[medieval Europe]] from the 13th century onwards.<ref name=Banaji>Jairus Banaji (2007), "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism", ''Journal Historical Materialism'' '''15''' (1), p. 47-74, [[Brill Publishers]].</ref> |
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===Commerce=== |
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:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Commerce|Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Commerce]] |
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[[Guilds]] were officially unrecognized by the medieval Islamic city, but trades were supervised by an official recognized by the city. Each trade developed its own identity, whose members would attend the same mosque, and serve together in the militia. Slaves were often employed on sugar plantations and salt mines, but more likely as domestic house servants or professional soldiers. |
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The systems of [[contract]] relied upon by [[merchant]]s was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on [[Commission (remuneration)|commission]], with money [[loan]]ed to them by wealthy [[investor]]s, or a joint [[investment]] of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an [[Egypt]]ian [[synagogue]] shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business [[partnership]]s would be made for many [[Joint venture|commercial ventures]], and bonds of [[kinship]] enabled trade [[network]]s to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which [[money]] could be promised by a [[bank]] in [[Baghdad]] and cashed in [[Spain]], creating the [[cheque]] system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a [[tax]], resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern [[economic system]]. |
The systems of [[contract]] relied upon by [[merchant]]s was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on [[Commission (remuneration)|commission]], with money [[loan]]ed to them by wealthy [[investor]]s, or a joint [[investment]] of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an [[Egypt]]ian [[synagogue]] shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business [[partnership]]s would be made for many [[Joint venture|commercial ventures]], and bonds of [[kinship]] enabled trade [[network]]s to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which [[money]] could be promised by a [[bank]] in [[Baghdad]] and cashed in [[Spain]], creating the [[cheque]] system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a [[tax]], resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern [[economic system]]. |
Revision as of 06:00, 19 November 2007
The Islamic Golden Age is usually dated from the 8th century to the 13th century,[1] though some extend it to the 14th or 15th centuries.[2] During this period, engineers, scholars and traders of the Islamic world contributed enormously to the arts, agriculture, economics, industry, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, and technology, both by preserving and building upon earlier traditions and by adding many inventions and innovations of their own.[3] Muslim philosophers and poets, artists and scientists, and princes and laborers, created a unique culture that has influenced societies on every continent.[3]
Foundations
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Age-of-caliphs.png/300px-Age-of-caliphs.png)
During the Muslim conquests of the 7th and early 8th centuries, nomadic Arab armies established the Islamic Empire, the largest empire the world had yet seen. The Islamic Golden Age was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad.[4] The Abbassids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "the ink of scientists is equal to the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.[4] During this period the Muslim world became the unrivaled intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established a "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic.[4] Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish, Persian, Hebrew and Latin.[4] During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and advanced the works collected from the Chinese, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek, Spanish, Sicilian and Byzantine civilizations.[4] Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt, the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centers with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.[4] Religious freedom, though limited, helped create cross-cultural networks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages during the 12th and 13th centuries.[4]
A major innovation of this period was paper - originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese.[5] The art of papermaking was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas (751), resulting in paper mills being built in Samarkand and Baghdad.[5] The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes.[5] By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and even public libraries began to become established,[5] including the first lending libraries. From here paper-making spread west to Fez and then to al-Andalus and from there to Europe in the 13th century.[5]
Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of Mecca served as a center of trade in Arabia and the Islamic prophet Muhammad was a merchant. The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca became a center for exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India (the Indian subcontinent now has over 450 million followers), Southeast Asia (which now has over 230 million followers), and the kingdoms of Western Africa and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations.
Aside from traders, Sufi missionaries also played a large role in the spread of Islam, by bringing their message to various regions around the world. The principal locations included: Persia, Ancient Mesopotamia, Central Asia and North Africa. Although, the mystics also had a significant influence in parts of Eastern Africa, Ancient Anatolia (Turkey), South Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia. [6][7]
University education
The first universities which issued diplomas were the Bimaristan medical university-hospitals of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century. Sir John Bagot Glubb wrote:[8]
"By Mamun's time medical schools were extremely active in Baghdad. The first free public hospital was opened in Baghdad during the Caliphate of Haroon-ar-Rashid. As the system developed, physicians and surgeons were appointed who gave lectures to medical students and issued diplomas to those who were considered qualified to practice. The first hospital in Egypt was opened in 872 AD and thereafter public hospitals sprang up all over the empire from Spain and the Maghrib to Persia."
The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco as the oldest university in the world with its founding in 859.[9] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the 10th century, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university.
By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had 600,000 books, while as many as 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year in al-Andalus.[10] The library of Cairo had more than 100,000 books, while the library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books. The number of important and original Arabic works on science that have survived is much larger than the combined total of Greek and Latin works on science.[11]
Muslim Agricultural Revolution
The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the "Muslim Agricultural Revolution", "Arab Agricultural Revolution", or "Green Revolution".[12] Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World, this enabled the diffusion of many plants and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops from India such as mangos, rice, and especially cotton and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.[13] Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "Globalisation of Crops",[14] which, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture (see Industrial growth below), led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover,[15] agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.[13]
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry by the Arabs, who built the first sugar refineries and sugar plantations. The Arabs and Berbers diffused sugar throughout the Islamic Empire from the 8th century.[16]
Muslims introduced cash cropping[17] and the modern crop rotation system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones, and in some cases there was in between. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in Iraq.[13] Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require. Numerous encyclopaedias on farming and botany were produced, with highly accurate precision and details.[18]
Age of discovery
- Further information: Muslim age of discovery and Muslim navigational technology
- See also: Ibn Battuta and Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories
The earliest forms of globalization began emerging during the Islamic Empire and the Islamic Golden Age, when the knowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating due to contacts with Muslim explorers, sailors, scholars, traders, and travelers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic age of discovery", in reference to the Muslim Southwest Asian and North African traders and explorers who travelled most of the Old World, and established an early global economy[19] across most of Asia and Africa and much of Europe, with their trade networks extending from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east.[20] This helped establish the Islamic Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.[19] Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports also suggest that Muslim explorers from al-Andalus and the Maghreb may have travelled in expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean, possibly even to the Americas, between the 9th and 14th centuries.[21]
Capitalist market economy
The origins of capitalism and free markets can be traced back to the Caliphate,[22] where the first market economy and earliest forms of merchant capitalism took root between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".[23] A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent. Innovative new business techniques and forms of business organisation were introduced by economists, merchants and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest trading companies, credit cards, big businesses, contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, the first forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and the earliest forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[17] circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes,[24] trusts (waqf), startup companies,[25] savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system,[26] and lawsuits.[27] Organizational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.[28][29] Many of these early capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[17]
The systems of contract relied upon by merchants was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on commission, with money loaned to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an Egyptian synagogue shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds of kinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which money could be promised by a bank in Baghdad and cashed in Spain, creating the cheque system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a tax, resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern economic system.
Industrial growth
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth and Inventions in the Muslim world
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/220px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg)
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative industrial uses of hydropower, the first industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[30] and fossil fuels such as petroleum, and the earliest large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[31] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were first invented in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills, and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[32] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, first employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[16] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the Industrial Revolution in 18th century Europe.[33]
Many industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including the earliest industries for agribusiness, astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulfur, ammonia, lead and iron. The first large factory complexes (tiraz) were built for many of these industries. Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century, as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece.[34] The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.[20]
Labour
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Labour
The labour force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.[35] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations[36] in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.).[37] Muslim women also had a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry.[36]
Technology
- Further information: Inventions in the Muslim world and Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Al-jazari_robots.jpg/220px-Al-jazari_robots.jpg)
A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers, including inventors such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, Taqi al-Din, and especially al-Jazari, who is considered the "father of robotics"[38] and "father of modern day engineering".[39]
Some of the other inventions and discoveries from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, hang glider, flight controls, soap bar, shampoo, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, filtration, distilled alcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, crankshaft, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, programmable humanoid robot, combination lock, quilting, pointed arch, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, modern cheque, celestial globe, explosive rockets and incendiary devices, torpedo, and artificial pleasure gardens.[38]
Urbanization
- Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Urbanization
As urbanization increased, Muslim cities grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets and neighborhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major commercial centers while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, Military Training grounds were found near a main gate.
Muslim cities also had advanced domestic water systems with sewers, public baths, drinking fountains, piped drinking water supplies,[40] and widespread private and public toilet and bathing facilities.[41] By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries.[10]
Muslim Scientific Revolution
A number of modern scholars, notably Robert Briffault, Will Durant, Fielding H. Garrison, Alexander von Humboldt, Muhammad Iqbal, and Hossein Nasr, consider modern science to have begun from Muslim scientists, who were pioneers of the scientific method and introduced a modern empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. Some scholars, notably Donald Routledge Hill, Ahmad Y Hassan,[42] Abdus Salam,[43] and George Saliba,[2] have referred to their achievements as a "Muslim scientific revolution".[44][45]
Scientific method
- Further information: Islamic science: Scientific method
The modern scientific method was first developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who was the pioneer of experimental physics.[46] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics, and he is known as the father of optics for empirically proving that vision occurred because of light rays entering the eye, as well as for inventing the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.[47][48]
Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the "first scientist" for his introduction of the scientific method,[49] and some also consider him the founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology,[50] for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception.[51][52]
Peer review
The first documented description of a peer review process is found in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha, Syria, who describes the first medical peer review process. His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient.[53]
Chemistry
Geber is considered the father of chemistry,[54][55] for introducing an early experimental scientific method, as well as the alembic, still, retort, and the chemical processes of pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation, and filtration.[38]
The study of traditional alchemy and he theory of the transmutation of metals were first refuted by al-Kindi,[56] followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[57] Avicenna,[58] and Ibn Khaldun. In his Doubts about Galen, al-Razi was the first to prove both Aristotle's theory of classical elements and Galen's theory of humorism false using an experimental method.[59] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear.[60] Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant regarded the Muslim chemists as the founders of chemistry.[61][62]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/220px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg)
Experimental medicine
Muslim physicians made many significant advances and contributions to medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences (including pharmacy and pharmacology), physiology, and surgery, and they set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, including the first psychiatric hospitals.[63]
Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient's illness.[64] Al-Razi (Rhazes), the father of pediatrics,[65] recorded clinical cases of his own experience, provided very useful recordings of various diseases, and discovered measles and smallpox. In his Doubts about Galen, al-Razi was also the first to prove both Galen's theory of humorism and Aristotle's theory of classical elements false using experimentation.[59] He also introduced urinalysis and stool tests.[66]
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), the father of modern surgery,[67] wrote the Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[68] as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[69] and bone saw.[38] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics.[68]
Avicenna, the father of modern medicine, wrote The Canon of Medicine and The Book of Healing. His contributions include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[70] the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[71] randomized controlled trials,[72][73] efficacy tests,[74][75] and clinical pharmacology,[76] the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms,[77] the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments,[63] and the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.[68]
Ibn al-Nafis was the first to describe human blood circulation and pulmonary circulation, for which he is considered the father of the theory of circulation.[78] Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement of arteries are not dependant upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body, and the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors.[79] Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body.[80] Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.[3]
Experimental physics
- Further information: Islamic science: Optics and Islamic science: Mechanics
The study of experimental physics began with Ibn al-Haytham,[81] the father of optics, who pioneered the experimental scientific method and used it to drastically transform the understanding of light and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics.[82]
The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by al-Biruni,[83] and early precursors to Newton's laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists. The law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, and the concept of momentum, part of Newton's second law of motion, were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[84][85] and Avicenna.[86][87] The proportionality between force and acceleration, a fundamental law of classical mechanics foreshadowing Newton's second law of motion, was discovered by Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi,[88] while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton's third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).[89] Theories foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir,[90] Ibn al-Haytham,[91] and al-Khazini.[92] It is known that Galileo Galilei's mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept of impetus[93] grew out of earlier medieval Muslim analyses of motion, especially those of Avicenna[86] and Ibn Bajjah.[94]
Maragha Revolution
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ghotb2.jpg/220px-Ghotb2.jpg)
Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors in astronomy as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution" or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".[2] Advances in astronomy by the Maragha school and their predecessors include the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun,[95] the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal astrolabes,[96] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[97] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology by Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[98] the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques,[99] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn al-Shatir,[100] the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham and Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, and the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji.[101]
Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth's rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system.[102][61] It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus was adapted from the geocentric model of Ibn al-Shatir and the Maragha school (including the Tusi-couple) in a heliocentric context,[103] and that his arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji.[101]
Mathematics
Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of algebra and algorithms (see Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī), the invention of spherical trigonometry,[104] the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the trigonometric functions besides sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, al-Karaji's introduction of algebraic calculus and proof by mathematical induction, the development of analytic geometry and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry.
Other sciences
Many other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, evolution, physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (anthropology, cartography, geodesy, geography and geology), psychology (experimental psychology, psychiatry, psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (demography, economics, sociology, history and historiography).
Some of the most famous scientists from the Islamic world include Geber (polymath, father of chemistry), Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (father of algebra and algorithms), al-Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim (father of modern surgery),[105] Ibn al-Haytham (polymath, father of optics, founder of experimental psychology, pioneer of scientific method, "first scientist")[50], Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (polymath, father of Indology[106] and geodesy, "first anthropologist"),[107] Avicenna (polymath, father of momentum[108] and modern medicine),[109] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (father of demography,[110] cultural history,[111] historiography,[112] the philosophy of history, sociology,[113] and the social sciences),[114] among many others.
Other achievements
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kharaghan.jpg/300px-Kharaghan.jpg)
Architecture
The Great Mosque of Xi'an in China was completed circa 740, and the Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847. The Great Mosque of Samarra combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed.
The Spanish Muslims began construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa (see Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tiles.
Another distinctive sub-style is the architecture of the Mughal Empire in India in the 15-17th centuries. Blending Islamic and Hindu elements, the emperor Akbar constructed the royal city of Fatehpur Sikri, located 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, in the late 1500s and his son Shah Jahan had constructed the mausoleum of Taj Mahal for Mumtaz Mahal in the 1650s, though this time period is well after the Islamic Golden Age.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sughrat.jpg/220px-Sughrat.jpg)
Arts
The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Lusterous glazing became the greatest Islamic contribution to ceramics. Manuscript illumination became an important and greatly respected art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.
Literature
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Cassim.jpg/220px-Cassim.jpg)
The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[115] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.[115]
This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[116] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[117] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places.
A number of elements from Arabic and Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc.[117] When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.[118]
The Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan. However, while written during the Islamic Golden Age, Ferdowsi was not a Muslim, and the book is largely based upon Zoroastrian history.
Philosophy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg/220px-AverroesColor.jpg)
Arab philosophers like al-Kindi, and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam.
From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and the muslim Al-Khwarzimi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.
One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, and who is regarded as a founding father of secular thought in Western Europe.[119]
Ghazali, the famous Persian jurist and philosopher, wrote a devastating critique in his Tahafut al-Falasifa on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Philosophy in the Muslim world never recovered from this critique, even though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his Tahafut al-Tahafut to many of the points Ghazali raised.
Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and natural selection; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Avicenna, a critic of Aristotelian logic; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, considered the father of the philosophy of history and sociology and a pioneer of social philosophy.
End of the Golden Age
Mongol invasion
In 1206, Genghis Khan from Central Asia established a powerful Mongol Empire. A Mongolian ambassador to the Caliph in Baghdad is said to have been murdered,[120] which may have been the cause of Hulagu Khan's sack of Baghdad in 1258.
The Mongols conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate and Islamic Khwarezm, as well as Russia and Eastern Europe in the west, and subsequent invasions of the Levant. Later Mongol leaders, such as Timur, though himself became a Muslim, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irrevocable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. These invasions transformed a civil society to a nomadic one.
Eventually, the Mongols that settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia and Russia converted to Islam and in many instances became assimilated into various Muslim Iranian or Turkic peoples (for instance, one of the greatest Muslim astronomers of the 15th century, Ulugh Beg, was a grandson of Timur). The Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, but the Golden Age was over.
Causes of decline
"The achievements of the Arabic speaking peoples between the ninth and twelfth centuries are so great as to baffle our understanding. The decadence of Islam and of Arabic is almost as puzzling in its speed and completeness as their phenomenal rise. Scholars will forever try to explain it as they try to explain the decadence and fall of Rome. Such questions are exceedingly complex and it is impossible to answer them in a simple way."
— George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East [121]
The Islamic civilization which had at the outset been creative and dynamic in dealing with issues, began to struggle to respond to the challenges and rapid changes it faced during the 12th and 13th century onwards towards the end of the Abbassid rule. Despite a brief respite with the new Ottoman rule, the decline continued until its eventual collapse and subsequent stagnation in the 20th century.
Despite a number of attempts by many writers, historical and modern, none seem to agree on the causes of decline.
The main views on the causes of decline comprise the following: political mismanagement after the early Caliphs (10th century onwards), closure of the gates of ijtihad (independent reasoning) and the institutionalisation of taqleed (imitation) rather than ijtihad or bid‘ah (innovation) by the 13th century, foreign involvement by invading forces and colonial powers (11th century Crusades, 13th century Mongol Empire, 15th century Reconquista, 19th century European empires), and the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun's famous model of Asabiyyah (the rise and fall of civilizations).
Tolerance about different ideas reduced and faded. Seminaries systematically forbade philosophical thought which comprising both natural and theological aspects of world in Islamic context. Even polemic debates were abandoned after the 13th century. Institutions of science comprising Islamic universities, libraries (including the House of Wisdom), observatories, and hospitals, had been destroyed by foreign invaders like the Mongols and never promoted again.[122] Not only wasn't new publishing equipment accepted but also wide illiteracy overwhelmed Muslim society.
Some historians have recently come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to continued astronomical activity as a sign of a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 15th century, of which the works of Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) and Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) are considered two of the most noteworthy examples.[123][124]
Criticism of ascribing the Golden Age to Islam
The issue of Islamic Civilization being a misnomer has been raised by a number of recent scholars such as the secular Iranian historian, Dr. Shoja-e-din Shafa in his recent controversial books titled Rebirth (Persian: تولدى ديگر) and After 1400 Years (Persian: پس از 1400 سال) manifesting the intrinsic contradiction of expressions like "Islamic civilization", "Islamic science", "Islamic medicine", "Islamic astronomy", "Islamic scientists", etc. Shafa states that while religion has been a cardinal foundation for nearly all empires of antiquity to derive their legitimacy from, it does not possess adequate defining factors to advance a kingdom or domain in accumulation and furtherance of science, technology, arts, and culture in a way to justify attribution of such developments to existence and practice of a certain faith within that realm. While various empires in the course of mankind's history advocated and officialized the religion they deemed most appropriate to exercise their absolute authority over the masses, we never ascribe their achievements to the faith they practiced. Ergo, using Islamic attribute for the abovementioned terms is as impertinent as arbitrarily concocted namings such as "Christian Civilization" for the totality of "Roman Empire" as of Constantine I's reign onwards, "Byzantine Empire" and all subsequent European empires that advocated Christianity one way or another; or "Zoroastrian Architecture" for all the architectural innovations and marvels that pre-Islamic Persian Empire later loaned to its Muslim conquerors.
Shafa particularly points out that counting all scholars in the Islamic empires as muslims, can also be misleading, since with the harsh punishment and prosecution awaiting alleged heretics and Zendiqs, no sane scientist or intellectual would dare express his/her true faith and religious thoughts. To exemplify this matter, Shafa alludes to two of the most prominent physicians/philosophers of the Islamic era, namely Avicenna and Rhazes; the former being a true muslim that was charged with heresy for mere utterance of his philosophical ideas; and the latter daringly and openly criticizing revelational religions (viz. Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism) in three of his controversial treatises, exposing himself to great peril. Bearing this personality comparison in mind, factors other than Islamic thought should be considered to have contributed to the great achievements of such individuals.
Bernard Lewis states:[125]
"There have been many civilizations in human history, almost all of which were local, in the sense that they were defined by a region and an ethnic group. This applied to all the ancient civilizations of the Middle East—Egypt, Babylon, Persia; to the great civilizations of Asia—India, China; and to the civilizations of Pre-Columbian America. There are two exceptions: Christendom and Islam. These are two civilizations defined by religion, in which religion is the primary defining force, not, as in India or China, a secondary aspect among others of an essentially regional and ethnically defined civilization. Here, again, another word of explanation is necessary."
Notes
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- ^ a b c Howard R. Turner, Science in Medieval Islam, University of Texas Press, November 1, 1997, ISBN 0-292-78149-0, pg. 270 (book cover, last page) Cite error: The named reference "Turner" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d e f g Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26-38 ISBN 081573283X
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- ^ "Muslim History and the Spread of Islam from the 7th to the 21st century". The Islam Project. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
- ^ John Bagot Glubb (cf. Quotations on Islamic Civilization)
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- ^ The Globalisation of Crops, FSTC
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- ^ a b Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
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- ^ The Cambridge economic history of Europe, p. 437. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521087090.
- ^ Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79-96 [81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96].
- ^ Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0231123574.
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- ^ Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79-96 [92-93].
- ^ Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", Trends in Biotechnology 20 (8), p. 357-358 [357].
- ^ Said Amir Arjomand (1999), "The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century", Comparative Studies in Society and History 41, p. 263-293. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Samir Amin (1978), "The Arab Nation: Some Conclusions and Problems", MERIP Reports 68, p. 3-14 [8, 13].
- ^ Ahmad Y Hassan (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, p. 34-35. Instiute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
- ^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.
- ^ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30 [10].
- ^ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30.
- ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer
- ^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 6-7.
- ^ a b Maya Shatzmiller, p. 400-401.
- ^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 350-362.
- ^ a b c d Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006.
- ^ 1000 Years of Knowledge Rediscovered at Ibn Battuta Mall, MTE Studios.
- ^ Fiona MacDonald (2006), The Plague and Medicine in the Middle Ages, p. 42-43, Gareth Stevens, ISBN 0836859073.
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- ^ Ahmad Y Hassan and Donald Routledge Hill (1986), Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History, p. 282, Cambridge University Press.
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- ^ R. S. Elliott (1966). Electromagnetics, Chapter 1. McGraw-Hill.
- ^ Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.
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- ^ Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
- ^ Reynor Mausfeld, "From Number Mysticism to the MauBformel: Fechner's Pyschophysics in the Tradition of Mathesis Universalis", Keynote Address International Symposium in Honour to G.Th. Fechner, International Society for Pyshophysics 19-23, October 2000, University of Leipzig.[1]
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- ^ Michael E. Marmura (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", Speculum 40 (4), p. 744-746.
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- ^ a b Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). Miracle of Islamic Science, Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
- ^ Will Durant (1980). The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002.
- ^ a b George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan. - ^ Felix Klein-Frank (2001), Al-Kindi, in Oliver Leaman and Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 172. Routledge, London.
- ^ David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
- ^ Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", Islam & Science, December 2003.
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- ^ Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L. 4 (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)
- ^ Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170.
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- ^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [449].
- ^ Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (4), p. 530–540 [536], Johns Hopkins University Press.
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- ^ The Canon of Medicine, The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.
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(cf. Salah Zaimeche, The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation) - ^ Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association 2, p. 2-9.
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- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974.
- ^ Shlomo Pines (1970). "Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī, Hibat Allah". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 26–28. ISBN 0684101149.
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 [528].) - ^ Shlomo Pines (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in Mélanges Alexandre Koyré, I, 442-468 [462, 468], Paris.
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 [543].) - ^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 191.
- ^ Nader El-Bizri (2006), "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia, Vol. II, p. 343-345, Routledge, New York, London.
- ^ Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopaedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, p. 622. London and New York: Routledge.
- ^ Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, trans. Stillman Drake, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974), pp 217, 225, 296-7.
- ^ Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)", Journal of the History of Ideas 12 (2), p. 163-193.
- ^ Nas, Peter J (1993). Urban Symbolism. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 350. ISBN 9-0040-9855-0.
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(help) - ^ Krebs, Robert E. (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Greenwood Press. p. 196. ISBN 0-3133-2433-6.
- ^ George Saliba (1994). "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", Journal for the History of Astronomy 25, p. 115-141 [116].
- ^ S. Pines (September 1964). "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", Isis 55 (3), p. 343-349.
- ^ Toby Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, p. 326. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521529948.
- ^ Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 17, p. 7-55. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ a b F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", Science in Context 14 (1-2), p. 145–163. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1964), An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, (Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press), p. 135-136
- ^ George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University.
The relationship between Copernicus and the Maragha school is detailed in Toby Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, Cambridge University Press. - ^ Syed, M. H. (2005). Islam and Science. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. p. 71. ISBN 8-1261-1345-6.
- ^ A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
- ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
- ^ Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974.
- ^ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
- ^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
- ^ Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70.
- ^ Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
- ^ Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
- ^ Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", Middle East Journal 56 (1), p. 25.
- ^ a b John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 51 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
- ^ L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
- ^ a b John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 52 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
- ^ James Thurber, "The Wizard of Chitenango", p 64 Fantasists on Fantasy edited by Robert H. Boyer and Kenneth J. Zahorski, ISBN 0-380-86553-X
- ^ Majid Fakhry (2001). Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.
- ^ [2]
- ^ George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A Geroge C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951
- ^ Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.
- ^ David A. King, "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", Isis, 74 (1983):531-555
- ^ George Saliba, "Writing the History of Arabic Astronomy: Problems and Differing Perspectives (Review Article), Journal of the American Oriental Society, 116 (1996): 709-718.
- ^ Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response
References
- Donald Routledge Hill, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
- George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A Geroge C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951
- Maya Shatzmiller (1994), Labour in the Medieval Islamic World, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004098968
- Shoja-e-din Shafa, Rebirth (1995) (Persian Title: تولدى ديگر)
- Shoja-e-din Shafa, After 1400 Years (2000) (Persian Title: پس از 1400 سال)
This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2007) |
See also
- Islamic science
- Muslim Agricultural Revolution
- Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
- List of Arab scientists and scholars
- List of Iranian scientists
- List of the Muslim Empires
- Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
- Latin translations of the 12th century
- Islamic studies
- Islamic scholars
- Muslim conquests
- Global empire
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