Chad: Difference between revisions

Republic of Chad
[*République du Tchad*] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
جمهورية تشاد
*Ǧumhūriyyat Tšād*
Republic of Chad [République du Tchad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); جمهورية تشاد; Ǧumhūriyyat Tšād;
	Flag Coat of arms
	Motto: "Unité, Travail, Progrès" (French); "Unity, Work, Progress";
	Anthem: [La Tchadienne] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); The Chadian Hymn;
Capital and largest city	N'Djamena
Official languages	French; Arabic;
Ethnic groups (1993)	27.7% Sara; 12.3% Arab; 11.5% Mayo-Kebbi; 9.0% Kanem-Bornou; 8.7% Ouaddaï; 6.7% Hadjarai; 6.5% Tandjilé; 6.3% Daza; 4.7% Fitri-Batha; 6.4% other; 0.3% unknown;
Demonym(s)	Chadian
Government	Presidential republic
• President	Idriss Déby
• Prime Minister	Kalzeubet Pahimi Deubet
Legislature	National Assembly
Independence
• from France	11 August 1960
Area
• Total	1,284,000 km2 (496,000 sq mi) (21st)
• Water (%)	1.9
Population
• 2009 estimate	10,329,208 (73rd)
• 1993 census	6,279,921
• Density	8.0/km2 (20.7/sq mi) (212th)
GDP (PPP)	2011 estimate
• Total	$19.543 billion (123rd)
• Per capita	$1,865 (150th)
GDP (nominal)	2011 estimate
• Total	$9.344 billion (130th)
• Per capita	$891 (151st)
HDI (2011)	0.328; low (183rd)
Currency	Central African CFA franc (XAF)
Time zone	UTC+1 (WAT)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+1 (not observed)
Drives on	right
Calling code	+235
ISO 3166 code	TD
Internet TLD	.td

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Chad (Arabic: تشاد Tšād; French: Tchad /ˈtʃæd/ ^ⓘ), officially the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest and Niger to the west.

Chad is divided into multiple regions: a desert zone in the north, an arid Sahelian belt in the centre and a more fertile Sudanese savanna zone in the south. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the largest wetland in Chad and the second-largest in Africa. Chad's highest peak is the Emi Koussi in the Sahara, and N'Djamena, (formerly Fort-Lamy), the capital, is the largest city. Chad is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. Arabic and French are the official languages. Islam and Christianity are the most widely practiced religions.

Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium BC, a series of states and empires rose and fell in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa. In 1960, Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lasting civil war in 1965. In 1978, the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the south's hegemony. However, the rebel commanders fought amongst themselves until Hissène Habré defeated his rivals. He was overthrown in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby. Since 2003, the Darfur crisis in Sudan has spilt over the border and destabilised the nation, with hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees living in and around camps in eastern Chad.

Chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted coups d'état (see Battle of N'Djamena (2006) and Battle of N'Djamena (2008)). Chad is one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world; most inhabitants live in poverty as subsistence herders and farmers. Since 2003, crude oil has become the country's primary source of export earnings, superseding the traditional cotton industry. Chad is considered a failed state by the Fund for Peace.

History

In the 7th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favored human settlement, and the region experienced a strong population increase. Some of the most important African archaeological sites are found in Chad, mainly in the Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region; some date to earlier than 2000 BC.^[3]^[4]

For more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people. The region became a crossroads of civilisations. The earliest of these were the legendary Sao, known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to the Kanem Empire,^[5]^[6] the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region.^[4] These states, at least tacitly Muslim, never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves.^[7] In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves.^[8]

French colonial expansion led to the creation of the [Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa.^[10] French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies.^[11]

The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the Sara of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal. The educational system suffered from this neglect.^[4]^[12]

After World War II, France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the French National Assembly and a Chadian assembly. The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT's leader, a Sara people François Tombalbaye, as its first president.^[4]^[13]^[14]

Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated interethnic tensions. In 1965 Muslims began a civil war. Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975,^[15] but the insurgency continued. In 1979 the rebel factions conquered the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power.^[16]^[17]

The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad's civil war.^[18] Libya's adventure ended in disaster in 1987; the French-supported president, Hissène Habré, evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before^[19] and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil.^[20]

Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule.^[21]^[22] The president favoured his own Daza ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the Zaghawa. His general, Idriss Déby, overthrew him in 1990.^[23] Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest in Senegal in 2005; in 2013, Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule.^[24]

Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum, and in 1996, Déby easily won a competitive presidential election. He won a second term five years later.^[25] Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a new civil war broke out. Déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.^[26]

In 2006 Déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad.^[27] In 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces have attempted to take the capital by force, but have on both occasions failed.^[28] An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war.^[29] The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against the President Idriss Deby that had been in preparation for several months.^[30]

Geography, climate and environment

Lake Chad in a 2001 satellite image. On the top, the changes from 1973 to 1997 are shown, with the lake shrinking.

At 1,284,000 square kilometres (496,000 sq mi), Chad is the world's 21st-largest country. It is slightly smaller than Peru and slightly larger than South Africa.^[1]^[31] Chad is in north central Africa, lying between latitudes 7° and 24°N, and 13° and 24°E.^[32]

Chad is bounded to the north by Libya, to the east by Sudan, to the west by Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon, and to the south by the Central African Republic. The country's capital is 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) from the nearest seaport, Douala, Cameroon.^[32]^[33] Because of this distance from the sea and the country's largely desert climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa".^[34]

The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north, east and south by mountain ranges such as the Ennedi Plateau in the north-east. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the remains of an immense lake that occupied 330,000 square kilometres (130,000 sq mi) of the Chad Basin 7,000 years ago.^[32] Although in the 21st century it covers only 17,806 square kilometres (6,875 sq mi), and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations,^[35] the lake is Africa's second largest wetland.^[36] The Emi Koussi, a dormant volcano in the Tibesti Mountains that reaches 3,414 metres (11,201 ft) above sea level, is the highest point in Chad and the Sahara.^{[citation needed]}

The region's tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds, reptiles, and large mammals. Chad's major rivers—the Chari, Logone and their tributaries—flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad.^[32]^[37]

The Agriculture in Chad includes the raising of peanuts, wheat, rice, livestock, and corn.^{[citation needed]}

Climate

Each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a wet season that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel.^[38] Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. The Sahara lies in the country's northern third. Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under 50 millimetres (2.0 in); only the occasional spontaneous palm grove survives, and the only ones to do so are south of the Tropic of Cancer.^[33]

The Sahara gives way to a Sahelian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from 300 to 600 mm (11.8 to 23.6 in) per year. In the Sahel, a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly acacias) gradually gives way to the south to East Sudanian savanna in Chad's Sudanese zone. Yearly rainfall in this belt is over 900 mm (35.4 in).^[33]

Wildlife

Chad's animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones. In the Saharan region, the only flora is the date-palm groves of the oasis. Palms and acacia trees grow in the Sahelian region. The southern, or Sudanic, zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing. As of 2002, there were at least 134 species of mammals, 532 species of birds (354 species of residents and 155 migrants), and over 1,600 species of plants throughout the country.^[39]^[40]

Elephants, lions, buffalo, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, giraffes, antelopes, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and many species of snakes are found here, although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century.^[39]^[41] Elephant poaching, particularly in the south of the country in areas such as Zakouma National Park, is a severe problem.

Extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias, baobab, dates and palm trees. This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals; one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements. Animals like lions, leopards and rhino have been almost decimated.^[42]

Efforts have been made by the Food and Agricultural Organization to improve relations between farmers, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park (ZNP), Siniaka-Minia, and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development.^[43] As part of the national conservation effort, more than 1.2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert, which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees, which produce gum arabic, and also from fruit trees.^[42]

Poaching is a serious problem in the country, particularly of elephants for the profitable ivory industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks such as Zakouma. Elephants are often massacred in herds in and around the parks by organized poaching.^[44] The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers.^[45]

Demographics

2005 estimates place Chad's population at 10,146,000; 25.8% live in urban areas and 74.8% in rural ones.^[46] The country's population is young: an estimated 47.3% is under 15. The birth rate is estimated at 42.35 births per 1,000 people, the mortality rate at 16.69. The life expectancy is 47.2 years.^[1]

Chad's population is unevenly distributed. Density is 0.1/km² (0.26/sq mi) in the Saharan Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region but 52.4/km² (136/sq mi) in the Logone Occidental Region. In the capital, it is even higher.^[33] About half of the nation's population lives in the southern fifth of its territory, making this the most densely populated region.^[47]

Urban life is virtually restricted to the capital, whose population is mostly engaged in commerce. The other major towns are Sarh, Moundou, Abéché and Doba, which are less urbanised but are growing rapidly and joining the capital as decisive factors in economic growth.^[32] Since 2003, 230,000 Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war-ridden Darfur. With the 172,600 Chadians displaced by the civil war in the east, this has generated increased tensions among the region's communities.^[48]^[49]

Polygamy is common, with 39% of women living in such unions. This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage.^[50] Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common. Female genital mutilation is also prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates among Arabs, Hadjarai, and Ouaddaians (90% or more). Lower percentages were reported among the Sara (38%) and the Toubou (2%). Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs. Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice.^[51]

Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups,^[52] which create diverse social structures. The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society, but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family. Nevertheless, Chad's peoples may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live. In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara, the nation's main ethnic group, whose essential social unit is the lineage. In the Sahel sedentary peoples live side-by-side with nomadic ones, such as the Arabs, the country's second major ethnic group. The north is inhabited by nomads, mostly Toubous.^[4]^[32] The nation's official business languages are French and Arabic, but over 100 languages and dialects are spoken. Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities, Chadian Arabic has become a lingua franca.^[4]

Religion

Chad is a religiously diverse country. The 1993 census found that 54% of Chadians were Muslim, 20% Roman Catholic, 14% Protestant, 10% animist and 3% atheist.^[33] None of these religious traditions are monolithic. Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific. Islam is expressed in diverse ways. Christianity arrived in Chad with the French and American missionaries; as with Chadian Islam, it syncretises aspects of pre-Christian religious beliefs.^[4] Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad, and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and Guéra.^[32] The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom; different religious communities generally co-exist without problems.^[53]

Religion in Chad (Pew Research)^[1]^[54]
religion			percent
Muslim			55%
Catholic			22%
Protestant			18%
None			3%
Folk			1%
Other			1%

The vast majority of Muslims in the country are adherents of a moderate branch of mystical Islam (Sufism) known locally as Tijaniyah, which incorporates some local African religious elements. A small minority of the country's Muslims hold more fundamentalist practices, which, in some cases, may be associated with Saudi-oriented Salafi-movement.

Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country. Most Protestants, including the Nigeria-based "Winners Chapel," are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups. Members of the Bahá'í and Jehovah's Witnesses religious communities also are present in the country. Both faiths were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be "new" religions in the country.

Chad is home to foreign missionaries representing both Christian and Islamic groups. Itinerant Muslim preachers primarily from Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan, also visit. Saudi Arabian funding generally supports social and educational projects and extensive mosque construction.^[55]

Government and politics

Chad's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the cabinet, and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad's para-statal firms. In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly, may declare a state of emergency. The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term; in 2005 constitutional term limits were removed,^[56] allowing a president to remain in power beyond the previous two-term limit.^[56] Most of Déby's key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group, although southern and opposition personalities are represented in government.^[52]^[57]

Chad is listed as a failed state by the Fund for Peace (FFP). In 2007 Chad had the seventh highest score on the failed state index. Since then the trend has been upwards each year. Chad had the fourth highest score (behind Sudan) on the Failed State Index of 2012.^[58]

Corruption is rife at all levels; Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2005 named Chad (tied with Bangladesh) as the most corrupt country in the world.^[59] Chad's ranking on the index has improved only marginally in recent years. Since its first inclusion on the index in 2004, Chad's best score has been 2/10 for 2011.^[60] Critics of President Déby have accused him of cronyism and tribalism.^[61]

Chad's legal system is based on French civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality. Despite the constitution's guarantee of judicial independence, the president names most key judicial officials. The legal system's highest jurisdictions, the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council, have become fully operational since 2000. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councillors, appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly. The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine-year terms. It has the power to review legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption.^[52]^[57]

The National Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 155 members elected for four-year terms who meet three times per year. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years. The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister's plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch's programme twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS), which holds a large majority.^[52]

Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992, Déby's MPS was the sole legal party in Chad.^[52] Since, 78 registered political parties have become active.^[51] In 2005, opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re-election for a third term^[62] amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign.^[63] Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality, as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted them.^[64]

Déby faces armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but united in their intention to overthrow him.^[65] These forces stormed the capital on 13 April 2006, but were ultimately repelled. Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 soldiers in the country. Déby relies on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives the Chadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability.^[66] Nevertheless, Franco-Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American Exxon company in 1999.^[67]

Administrative divisions

Chad has been divided since February 2008 into 22 regions.^[68]^[69] The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous 14 prefectures. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the 61 departments within the regions.^[69] The departments are divided into 200 sub-prefectures, which are in turn composed of 446 cantons.^[70]^[71]

The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by communautés rurales, but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed.^[72] The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development.^[73] To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivisions be governed by elected local assemblies,^[74] but no local elections have taken place,^[75] and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.^[51]

The regions are:^[69]

2

Military

As of 2011, Chad currently spends 1.6% of GDP on its army, a drastic drop from the level of 2009 (4.2% of GDP), when the country was engaged in a civil war, with rebels supported by neighboring Sudan.^[76] This then increased to 2.0% of GDP in 2013, when Chad began its military intervention in Northern Mali, to help France and other African nations in bringing back Mali's sovereignty over the North. The army has over 30,350 active personnel and 3,000,000 fit for military service, making it the most efficient force in the region besides the armies of Libya and Sudan.

Rebel groups

There have been numerous rebel groups in Chad throughout the last few decades. In 2007, a peace treaty was signed that integrated United Front for Democratic Change or FUC soldiers into the Chadian Army.^[77] The Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad or MDJT also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow President Idriss Déby. In addition, there have been various conflicts with Khartoum's Janjaweed rebels in Eastern Chad who killed civilians by use of helicopter gunships.^[78] Presently, the Union of Resistance Forces or UFR are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad. In 2010, the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6,000 men and 300 vehicles.^[79]

Law enforcement

In Chad, the Gendarmerie Nationale serves as the national police force for the country.

Economy

The United Nations' Human Development Index ranks Chad as the seventh poorest country in the world, with 80% of the population living below the poverty line. The GDP (Purchasing power parity) per capita was estimated as US$1,651 in 2009.^[2] Chad is part of the Bank of Central African States, the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).^[80]

Chad's currency is the CFA franc. In the 1960s, the Mining industry of Chad produced sodium carbonate, or natron. There have also been reports of gold-bearing quartz in the Biltine Prefecture. However, years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects.^[1]^[52]

Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood.^[1] The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate. In the southernmost 10% of the territory lies the nation's most fertile cropland, with rich yields of sorghum and millet. In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow, and these with much lower yields than in the south. On the other hand, the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats, sheep, donkeys and horses. The Sahara's scattered oases support only some dates and legumes.^[4] Chad's cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure; only 48% of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2% to basic sanitation.^[32]^[72]

Before the development of oil industry, cotton dominated industry and the labour market and accounted for approximately 80% of export earnings.^[81] Cotton remains a primary export, although exact figures are not available. Rehabilitation of Cotontchad, a major cotton company that suffered from a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Union, and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). The parastatal is now expected to be privatised.^[52]

Humanitarian situation

According to the United Nations, Chad has been affected by a humanitarian crisis since at least 2001. As of 2008, the country of Chad hosts over 280,000 refugees from the Sudan's Darfur region, over 55,000 from the Central African Republic, as well as over 170,000 internally displaced persons.^[82]

In February 2008 in the aftermath of the battle of N'Djamena, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes expressed "extreme concern" that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life-saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries, most of whom – according to him – heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival.^[83] UN spokesperson Maurizio Giuliano stated to The Washington Post: "If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels, the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe".^[84] In addition, organizations such as Save the Children have suspended activities due to killings of aid workers.^[85]

Infrastructure

Transport

Civil war crippled the development of transport infrastructure; in 1987, Chad had only 30 kilometres (19 mi) of paved roads. Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network^[86] to 550 kilometres (340 mi) by 2004.^[87] Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year. With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of Douala.^[88]

Airports

An international airport serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities.

Railways

At the beginning of the 20th century, a railway system was in development near Lake Chad. In the 21st century, Chad and the China Civil Engineering Construction Corp agreed to a $7 billion contract to build additional railway infrastructure. Presently, there are rail links to Libya and Sudan.

Energy

Chad's energy sector has suffered from years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society (STEE), which provides power for 15% of the capital's citizens and covers only 1.5% of the national population.^[89] Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power.^[90]

ExxonMobil leads a consortium of Chevron and Petronas that has invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad. Oil production began in 2003 with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the World Bank) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon. As a condition of its assistance, the World Bank insisted that 80% of oil revenues be spent on development projects. In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount.^[75]^[52] On 14 July 2006, the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 70% of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes.^[91]

Science and technology

The telecommunication system is basic and expensive, with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company SotelTchad. Only 14,000 fixed telephone lines serve all of Chad, one of the lowest telephone density rates in the world. The country's television audience is limited to N'Djamena. The only television station is the state-owned TeleTchad. Radio has a far greater reach, with 13 private radio stations.^[92] Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution, and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs, low literacy rates, and poverty.^[63]^[90]^[93] While the constitution defends liberty of expression, the government has regularly restricted this right, and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media.^[94] Gateway Communications, a pan-African wholesale connectivity and telecommunications provider also has a presence in Chad.^[95] In September 2013, Chad's Ministry for Posts and Information & Communication Technologies (PNTIC) announced that the country will be seeking a partner for fiber optic technology.^[96]

Mobile phones

In September 2010 the penetration rate was estimated at 24.3% over a population estimate of 10.7 million.^[97]

Rank	Operator	Technology	Subscribers (in millions)	Ownership
1	Tigo	GSM-900	1.257^[98] (Oct 2010)	MIC (100%)
2	Airtel	GSM-900	1.199 (June 2009)	Bharti Airtel (100%)
3	salam	GSM	0.120 (December 2008)	Salam
4	Celtel^[99]			Zain

Education

Educators face considerable challenges due to the nation's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school. Although attendance is compulsory, only 68 per cent of boys attend primary school, and more than half of the population is illiterate. Higher education is provided at the University of N'Djamena.^[32]^[52] At 33 per cent, Chad has one of the lowest literacy rates of Sub-Saharan Africa.^[100]

Health

In Chad, there is a hospital in Abéché and there were an estimated 239 other clinics reported in 1987.^[101]

Culture

Holidays^[89]
Date	English Name
1 January	New Year's Day
1 May	Labour Day
25 May	African Liberation Day
11 August	Independence Day
1 November	All Saints' Day
28 November	Republic Day
1 December	Freedom and Democracy Day
25 December	Christmas

Because of its great variety of peoples and languages, Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage. The Chadian government has actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening the Chad National Museum and the Chad Cultural Centre.^[32] Six national holidays are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holiday of Easter Monday and the Muslim holidays of Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, and Eid Milad Nnabi.^[89]

Music

The music of Chad includes a number of unusual instruments such as the kinde, a type of bow harp; the kakaki, a long tin horn; and the hu hu, a stringed instrument that uses calabashes as loudspeakers. Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups: the Sara prefer whistles, balafones, harps and kodjo drums; and the Kanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments.^[102]

The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on sai, a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry.^[102]^[103]

Cuisine

Millet is the staple food throughout Chad. It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces. In the north this dish is known as alysh; in the south, as biya. Fish is popular, which is generally prepared and sold either as salanga (sun-dried and lightly smoked Alestes and Hydrocynus) or as banda (smoked larger fish).^[104] Carcaje is a popular sweet drink extracted from hibiscus leaves. Alcoholic beverages, though absent in the north, are popular in the south, where people drink millet beer, known as billi-billi when brewed from red millet and as coshate when from white millet.^[102]

Literature

As in other Sahelian countries, literature in Chad has suffered from an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers. Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse. Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction. Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seïd, Baba Moustapha, Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko. In 2003 Chad's sole literary critic, Ahmat Taboye, published his [Anthologie de la littérature tchadienne] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) to further knowledge of Chad's literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad's lack of publishing houses and promotional structure.^[102]^[105]^[106]

Film

The development of a Chadian film industry has suffered from the devastations of civil war and from the lack of cinemas, of which there is only one in the whole country. The first Chadian feature film, the docudrama Bye Bye Africa, was made in 1999 by Mahamat Saleh Haroun. His later film Abouna was critically acclaimed, and his Daratt won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival. The 2010 feature film A Screaming Man won the Jury Prize at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, making Haroun the first Chadian director to enter, as well as win, an award in the main Cannes competition^[107]. Issa Serge Coelo directed Chad's two other films, Daresalam and DP75: Tartina City.^[108]^[109]^[110]^[111] The North Face also sponsored an expeditionary film called "Towers of the Ennedi" in which climbers explored the desert. The expedition was a four day journey away from the nearest hospital.^[112]

Sports

Football (Soccer) is Chad's most popular sport.^[113] The country's national team compete at the Stade Omnisports Idriss Mahamat Ouya and are closely followed during international competitions.^[102] Chadian footballers have played for French teams. Basketball and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced, the latter in a form in which the wrestlers don traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust.^[102] In addition, Chad has participated in the Summer Olympics since 1964.

Tourism

In 2007, Hilton and Selim Group Inc developed Chad's first hotel in N'Djamena.^[114] There is also a Kempinski Hotel located in the same city.^[115] Chad also has a 3000 km² park called Zakhouma National Park.^[116]

References

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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Chad". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
^ Decalo, pp. 44–45
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h S. Collelo, Chad
^ Lange, Dierk (1988). "The Chad region as a crossroad" (PDF), in UNESCO General History of Africa – Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, vol. 3: 436–460. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03914-8
^ Decalo, p. 6
^ Decalo, pp. 7–8
^ Slavery. Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History.
^ Decalo, p. 53
^ Decalo, pp. 8, 309
^ Decalo, pp. 8–9
^ Decalo, pp. 8–9
^ Decalo, pp. 248–249
^ Nolutshungu, p. 17
^ "Death of a Dictator", Time, (28 April 1975). Accessed on 3 September 2007.
^ Decalo, pp. 12–16
^ Nolutshungu, p. 268
^ Nolutshungu, p. 150
^ Nolutshungu, p. 230
^ Pollack, Kenneth M. (2002); Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3733-2, pp. 391–397
^ Macedo, Stephen (2006); Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1950-3, pp. 133–134
^ "Chad: the Habré Legacy". Amnesty International. 16 October 2001.
^ Nolutshungu, pp. 234–237
^ "Chad ex-leader Habre charged in Senegal with war crimes". BBC. 2 July 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013.
^ East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders. Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-126-X, p. 100
^ IPS, "Le pétrole au cœur des nouveaux soubresauts au Tchad"
^ Chad may face genocide, UN warns. BBC News, 16 February 2007
^ "Chad's leader asserts he is control". USA Today. Associated Press. 6 February 2008.
^ "World Report 2011: Chad". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
^ "Chad government foils coup attempt – minister". Reuters. 2013.
^ "Rank Order – Area". The World Factbook. United States Central Intelligence Agency.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j "Chad". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2000)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Chad". Human Rights Instruments. United Nations Commission on Human Rights. 12 December 1997.
^ Botha, D.J.J. (December 1992). "S.H. Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist (Review Article)". South African Journal of Economics. 60 (4): 246–255. doi:10.1111/j.1813-6982.1992.tb01049.x.
^ "Chad, Lake". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2000).
^ Dinar, Ariel (1995); Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs. World Bank Publications. ISBN 0-8213-3321-6, p. 57
^ Template:Fr icon Chapelle, Jean (1981) Le Peuple Tchadien: ses racines et sa vie quotidienne. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-85802-169-4, pp. 10–16
^ Decalo, p. 3
^ ^a ^b "Important Bird Areas in Africa and associated islands – Chad" (pdf). Birdlife International Organization. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
^ "The Flora of Chad: a checklist and brief analysis". Pensoft.net. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
^ Cite error: The named reference LTQ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ ^a ^b Cite error: The named reference Our was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ "Livestock-wildlife-environment interactions in Chad". Food and Agricultural Organization. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
^ "African Elephants Slaughtered in Herds Near Chad Wildlife Park". National Geographic. 30 August 2006. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
^ "Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife". The New York Times. 31 December 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2013. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
^ World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database. 2006. United Nations Population Division.
^ "Chad Livelihood Profiles" (PDF). March 2005. United States Agency for International Development.
^ "COMMISSION DECISION of on the financing of a Global Plan for humanitarian operations from the budget of the European Union in CHAD" (PDF). European Commission. 2008.
^ "Chad: Humanitarian Profile – 2006/2007" (PDF). 8 January 2007. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.
^ "Chad" (PDF). Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives – Francophone Africa. Center for Reproductive Rights. 2000
^ ^a ^b ^c "Chad". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2006, 6 March 2007. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "Background Note: Chad". September 2006. United States Department of State.
^ "Chad". International Religious Freedom Report 2006. 15 September 2006. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
^ Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Chad. Pew Research Center. 2010.
^ "U.S. Department of State". State.gov. 11 February 2006. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b "Chad votes to end two-term limit". BBC News. 22 June 2005. Retrieved 20 September 2007.
^ ^a ^b "Republic of Chad – Public Administration Country Profile" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. November 2004.
^ "2012 Failed State Index". Fund for Peace. Retrieved 16 December 2012.
^ "Worst Corruption Offenders Named". BBC News. 18 October 2005.
^ "Corruption Perceptions Index 2011 Transparency International.
^ "Isolated Deby clings to power". BBC News. 13 April 2006. Retrieved 4 September 2007.
^ "Chad". Amnesty International Report 2006. Amnesty International Publications.
^ ^a ^b Archived 2011-06-04 at the Wayback Machine. Freedom of the Press: 2007 Edition. Freedom House, Inc.
^ "Chad leader's victory confirmed", BBC News, 14 May 2006.
^ Template:Fr icon "Tchad: vers le retour de la guerre?" (PDF). International Crisis Group. 1 June 2006.
^ Wolfe, Adam; Archived 2007-01-05 at the Wayback Machine, PINR, 6 December 2006.
^ Manley, Andrew; "Chad's vulnerable president", BBC News, 15 March 2006.
^ Ordonnance n° 002/PR/08 portant restructuration de certaines collectivités territoriales décentralisées
^ ^a ^b ^c "Tableau des codes des circonscritions – Ministère de l'Intérieur", April 2008. Template:Fr icon
^ "Chad". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, 28 February 2005. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
^ Template:Fr icon Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005) "A qui Profitent les Dépenses Sociales au Tchad? Une Analyse d'Incidence à Partir des Données d'Enquête" (PDF). 4th PEP Research Network General Meeting. Poverty and Economic Policy.
^ ^a ^b "Chad – Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project" (PDF). 24 September 2002. World Bank.
^ Template:Fr icon "Tchad". L'évaluation de l'éducation pour tous à l'an 2000: Rapport des pays. UNESCO, Education for All.
^ Template:Fr icon Dadnaji, Dimrangar (1999); Archived 2008-03-08 at the Wayback Machine
^ ^a ^b "Chad" (PDF). African Economic Outlook 2007. OECD. May 2007. ISBN 978-92-64-02510-3
^ Country Comparison: Military expenditures: 2011 vs. Archived 2010-03-25 at the Wayback Machine. CIA.gov
^ Human Rights Watch (2007). Early to War: Child Soldiers in the Chad Conflict. Human Rights Watch. pp. 13–.
^ Reeves, Eric (9 August 2008) Victims of Genocide in Darfur: Past, Present, and Future – Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan. Sudan Tribune. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.
^ Chad rebels say to resume fight, Deby's promises unmet. Reuters. 21 March 2013
^ "OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa". Retrieved 22 March 2009.
^ Decalo, p. 11
^ Humanitarian Action in Chad: Facts and Figures – Snapshot Report, UN, 6 March 2008
^ Eastern Chad: Concerns over vital humanitarian needs (press release), UN, 7 February 2008
^ Timberg, Craig (6 February 2008) Chadian Rebels Urge Cease-Fire As Push Falters, The Washington Post
^ Crisis in Chad | Save the Children UK. Savethechildren.org.uk. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.
^ "Chad Poverty Assessment: Constraints to Rural Development" (PDF). World Bank. 21 October 1997.
^ Template:Fr icon Lettre d'information (PDF). Délégation de la Commission Européenne au Tchad. N. 3. September 2004
^ Chowdhury, Anwarul Karim & Sandagdorj Erdenbileg (2006); Archived 2009-02-05 at the Wayback Machine. New York: United Nations. ISBN 92-1-104540-1
^ ^a ^b ^c Spera, Vincent (8 February 2004); Archived 2007-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. United States Department of Commerce.
^ ^a ^b Archived 2009-01-13 at the Wayback Machine. Country Analysis Briefs. January 2007. Energy Information Administration.
^ World Bank (14 July 2006). World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction
^ Radio Stations | Embassy of the United States Ndjamena, Chad. Ndjamena.usembassy.gov (25 February 2013). Retrieved on 28 September 2013.
^ Newspapers | Embassy of the United States Ndjamena, Chad. Ndjamena.usembassy.gov (25 February 2013). Retrieved on 28 September 2013.
^ "Chad – 2006". Freedom Press Institute.
^ Gateway expands presence in Guinea and Senegal. IT News Africa. 22 April 2010.
^ Chad in search of partners to develop fiber optic network – WORLD. Globaltimes.cn (11 September 2013). Retrieved on 28 September 2013.
^ "Chad Mobile Market (Q1 2008 – Q3 2010)". mnodirectory.com. Archived from the original on 4 December 2011.
^ RESULTS FOR THE 3 MONTH PERIOD ENDED SEPTEMBER 30, 2010. Millicom International Cellular S.A. 19 October 2010
^ Malakata, Michael (3 March 2008) Security claims blocking Africa telecom deregulation. itworldcanada.com
^ "50 Things You Didn't Know About Africa" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
^ Hospitals in Fada, Chad | Cybo. En.cybo.com. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Archived 2006-10-01 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. ISBN 0-7727-9102-3
^ * Template:Fr icon Gondjé, Laoro (2003); "La musique recherche son identité", [Tchad et Culture] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) 214.
^ "Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources in the development and management of inland fisheries". CIFA Technical Paper No. 2. FAO. 29 November – 1 December 1972.
^ Template:Fr icon Malo, Nestor H. (2003); "Littérature tchadienne : Jeune mais riche", Tchad et Culture 214.
^ Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999); Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures. Lawrenceville: Africa World Press. ISBN 0-86543-757-2, pp. 12, 132, 135
^ Chang, Justin (23 May 2010). "'Uncle Boonmee' wins Palme d'Or". Variety. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
^ Template:Fr icon Bambé, Naygotimti (April 2007); "Issa Serge Coelo, cinéaste tchadien: On a encore du travail à faire", Tchad et Culture 256.
^ Young, Neil (23 March 2004) An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun, writer and director of Abouna ("Our Father"). jigsawlounge.co.uk
^ "Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice", BBC News, 9 September 2006.
^ Template:Fr icon Alphonse, Dokalyo (2003) "Cinéma: un avenir plein d'espoir", Tchad et Culture 214.
^ Enders, Caty (23 November 2011) The Top 10 Films from the Banff Mountain Film Festival: Towers of the Ennedi | Rock Climbing. OutsideOnline.com. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.
^ "Chad". FIFA, Goal Programme. 2 July 2007. Retrieved 10 August 2006.
^ Hilton Worldwide Announces First Hotel In Chad. Hospitalitynet.org. 11 August 2011.
^ Kempinski regional expansion brings new executive | Appointments. AMEinfo.com. 17 July 2013.
^ Hilton Worldwide Announces First Hotel In Chad | Hilton Worldwide Global Media Center. News.hiltonworldwide.com. 10 August 2011.

Bibliography

Decalo, Samuel (1987). Historical Dictionary of Chad (2 ed. ed.). Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-1937-6. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
Nolutshungu, Sam C. (1995). Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-1628-3.

External links

Government

General

"Chad". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
Chad country study from Library of Congress
Chad web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Chad at Curlie
Chad profile from the BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of Chad
Key Development Forecasts for Chad from International Futures

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link GA Template:Link GA Template:Link GA

[cia-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Central Intelligence Agency (2009). "Chad". The World Factbook. Retrieved 28 January 2010.

[imf2-2] "Chad". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 18 April 2012.

[3] Decalo, pp. 44–45

[Collelo-4] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h S. Collelo, Chad

[Lange-5] Lange, Dierk (1988). "The Chad region as a crossroad" (PDF), in UNESCO General History of Africa – Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, vol. 3: 436–460. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03914-8

[6] Decalo, p. 6

[7] Decalo, pp. 7–8

[8] Slavery. Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History.

[9] Decalo, p. 53

[10] Decalo, pp. 8, 309

[11] Decalo, pp. 8–9

[12] Decalo, pp. 8–9

[13] Decalo, pp. 248–249

[14] Nolutshungu, p. 17

[15] "Death of a Dictator", Time, (28 April 1975). Accessed on 3 September 2007.

[16] Decalo, pp. 12–16

[17] Nolutshungu, p. 268

[18] Nolutshungu, p. 150

[19] Nolutshungu, p. 230

[20] Pollack, Kenneth M. (2002); Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3733-2, pp. 391–397

[21] Macedo, Stephen (2006); Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1950-3, pp. 133–134

[22] "Chad: the Habré Legacy". Amnesty International. 16 October 2001.

[23] Nolutshungu, pp. 234–237

[24] "Chad ex-leader Habre charged in Senegal with war crimes". BBC. 2 July 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013.

[25] East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders. Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-126-X, p. 100

[26] IPS, "Le pétrole au cœur des nouveaux soubresauts au Tchad"

[27] Chad may face genocide, UN warns. BBC News, 16 February 2007

[28] "Chad's leader asserts he is control". USA Today. Associated Press. 6 February 2008.

[29] "World Report 2011: Chad". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 6 June 2011.

[30] "Chad government foils coup attempt – minister". Reuters. 2013.

[31] "Rank Order – Area". The World Factbook. United States Central Intelligence Agency.

[EB-32] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j "Chad". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2000)

[UNHCHR-33] "Chad". Human Rights Instruments. United Nations Commission on Human Rights. 12 December 1997.

[34] Botha, D.J.J. (December 1992). "S.H. Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist (Review Article)". South African Journal of Economics. 60 (4): 246–255. doi:10.1111/j.1813-6982.1992.tb01049.x.

[35] "Chad, Lake". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2000).

[36] Dinar, Ariel (1995); Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs. World Bank Publications. ISBN 0-8213-3321-6, p. 57

[37] Template:Fr icon Chapelle, Jean (1981) Le Peuple Tchadien: ses racines et sa vie quotidienne. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-85802-169-4, pp. 10–16

[38] Decalo, p. 3

[Bird-39] "Important Bird Areas in Africa and associated islands – Chad" (pdf). Birdlife International Organization. Retrieved 16 October 2013.

[Flora-40] "The Flora of Chad: a checklist and brief analysis". Pensoft.net. Retrieved 17 October 2013.

[LTQ-41] Cite error: The named reference LTQ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[Our-42] Cite error: The named reference Our was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[43] "Livestock-wildlife-environment interactions in Chad". Food and Agricultural Organization. Retrieved 17 October 2013.

[44] "African Elephants Slaughtered in Herds Near Chad Wildlife Park". National Geographic. 30 August 2006. Retrieved 17 October 2013.

[NYT-45] "Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife". The New York Times. 31 December 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2013. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)

[PopulationProspects-46] World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database. 2006. United Nations Population Division.

[47] "Chad Livelihood Profiles" (PDF). March 2005. United States Agency for International Development.

[48] "COMMISSION DECISION of on the financing of a Global Plan for humanitarian operations from the budget of the European Union in CHAD" (PDF). European Commission. 2008.

[49] "Chad: Humanitarian Profile – 2006/2007" (PDF). 8 January 2007. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.

[50] "Chad" (PDF). Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives – Francophone Africa. Center for Reproductive Rights. 2000

[HRP-51] "Chad". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2006, 6 March 2007. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.

[BGN-52] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "Background Note: Chad". September 2006. United States Department of State.

[53] "Chad". International Religious Freedom Report 2006. 15 September 2006. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.

[pew-54] Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Chad. Pew Research Center. 2010.

[55] "U.S. Department of State". State.gov. 11 February 2006. Retrieved 6 March 2011.

[Term2-56] "Chad votes to end two-term limit". BBC News. 22 June 2005. Retrieved 20 September 2007.

[UNPACP-57] "Republic of Chad – Public Administration Country Profile" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. November 2004.

[fundforpeace.org-58] "2012 Failed State Index". Fund for Peace. Retrieved 16 December 2012.

[59] "Worst Corruption Offenders Named". BBC News. 18 October 2005.

[60] "Corruption Perceptions Index 2011 Transparency International.

[tribe-61] "Isolated Deby clings to power". BBC News. 13 April 2006. Retrieved 4 September 2007.

[62] "Chad". Amnesty International Report 2006. Amnesty International Publications.

[FH-63] Archived 2011-06-04 at the Wayback Machine. Freedom of the Press: 2007 Edition. Freedom House, Inc.

[64] "Chad leader's victory confirmed", BBC News, 14 May 2006.

[65] Template:Fr icon "Tchad: vers le retour de la guerre?" (PDF). International Crisis Group. 1 June 2006.

[PINR-66] Wolfe, Adam; Archived 2007-01-05 at the Wayback Machine, PINR, 6 December 2006.

[67] Manley, Andrew; "Chad's vulnerable president", BBC News, 15 March 2006.

[68] Ordonnance n° 002/PR/08 portant restructuration de certaines collectivités territoriales décentralisées

[circonscritions-69] "Tableau des codes des circonscritions – Ministère de l'Intérieur", April 2008. Template:Fr icon

[70] "Chad". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, 28 February 2005. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.

[71] Template:Fr icon Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005) "A qui Profitent les Dépenses Sociales au Tchad? Une Analyse d'Incidence à Partir des Données d'Enquête" (PDF). 4th PEP Research Network General Meeting. Poverty and Economic Policy.

[WB1-72] "Chad – Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project" (PDF). 24 September 2002. World Bank.

[73] Template:Fr icon "Tchad". L'évaluation de l'éducation pour tous à l'an 2000: Rapport des pays. UNESCO, Education for All.

[decentralisation-74] Template:Fr icon Dadnaji, Dimrangar (1999); Archived 2008-03-08 at the Wayback Machine

[OECD-75] "Chad" (PDF). African Economic Outlook 2007. OECD. May 2007. ISBN 978-92-64-02510-3

[76] Country Comparison: Military expenditures: 2011 vs. Archived 2010-03-25 at the Wayback Machine. CIA.gov

[77] Human Rights Watch (2007). Early to War: Child Soldiers in the Chad Conflict. Human Rights Watch. pp. 13–.

[78] Reeves, Eric (9 August 2008) Victims of Genocide in Darfur: Past, Present, and Future – Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan. Sudan Tribune. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.

[79] Chad rebels say to resume fight, Deby's promises unmet. Reuters. 21 March 2013

[ohada.com-80] "OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa". Retrieved 22 March 2009.

[81] Decalo, p. 11

[82] Humanitarian Action in Chad: Facts and Figures – Snapshot Report, UN, 6 March 2008

[83] Eastern Chad: Concerns over vital humanitarian needs (press release), UN, 7 February 2008

[84] Timberg, Craig (6 February 2008) Chadian Rebels Urge Cease-Fire As Push Falters, The Washington Post

[85] Crisis in Chad | Save the Children UK. Savethechildren.org.uk. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.

[86] "Chad Poverty Assessment: Constraints to Rural Development" (PDF). World Bank. 21 October 1997.

[87] Template:Fr icon Lettre d'information (PDF). Délégation de la Commission Européenne au Tchad. N. 3. September 2004

[Geography-88] Chowdhury, Anwarul Karim & Sandagdorj Erdenbileg (2006); Archived 2009-02-05 at the Wayback Machine. New York: United Nations. ISBN 92-1-104540-1

[CCG-89] Spera, Vincent (8 February 2004); Archived 2007-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. United States Department of Commerce.

[EIA-90] Archived 2009-01-13 at the Wayback Machine. Country Analysis Briefs. January 2007. Energy Information Administration.

[91] World Bank (14 July 2006). World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction

[92] Radio Stations | Embassy of the United States Ndjamena, Chad. Ndjamena.usembassy.gov (25 February 2013). Retrieved on 28 September 2013.

[93] Newspapers | Embassy of the United States Ndjamena, Chad. Ndjamena.usembassy.gov (25 February 2013). Retrieved on 28 September 2013.

[94] "Chad – 2006". Freedom Press Institute.

[95] Gateway expands presence in Guinea and Senegal. IT News Africa. 22 April 2010.

[96] Chad in search of partners to develop fiber optic network – WORLD. Globaltimes.cn (11 September 2013). Retrieved on 28 September 2013.

[Chad_Mobile_Market_(Q1_2008_-_Q3_2010)-97] "Chad Mobile Market (Q1 2008 – Q3 2010)". mnodirectory.com. Archived from the original on 4 December 2011.

[shareholder1-98] RESULTS FOR THE 3 MONTH PERIOD ENDED SEPTEMBER 30, 2010. Millicom International Cellular S.A. 19 October 2010

[99] Malakata, Michael (3 March 2008) Security claims blocking Africa telecom deregulation. itworldcanada.com

[100] "50 Things You Didn't Know About Africa" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 7 May 2012.

[101] Hospitals in Fada, Chad | Cybo. En.cybo.com. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.

[culture-102] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Archived 2006-10-01 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. ISBN 0-7727-9102-3

[103] * Template:Fr icon Gondjé, Laoro (2003); "La musique recherche son identité", [Tchad et Culture] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) 214.

[104] "Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources in the development and management of inland fisheries". CIFA Technical Paper No. 2. FAO. 29 November – 1 December 1972.

[105] Template:Fr icon Malo, Nestor H. (2003); "Littérature tchadienne : Jeune mais riche", Tchad et Culture 214.

[106] Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999); Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures. Lawrenceville: Africa World Press. ISBN 0-86543-757-2, pp. 12, 132, 135

[107] Chang, Justin (23 May 2010). "'Uncle Boonmee' wins Palme d'Or". Variety. Retrieved 23 May 2010.

[108] Template:Fr icon Bambé, Naygotimti (April 2007); "Issa Serge Coelo, cinéaste tchadien: On a encore du travail à faire", Tchad et Culture 256.

[109] Young, Neil (23 March 2004) An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun, writer and director of Abouna ("Our Father"). jigsawlounge.co.uk

[110] "Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice", BBC News, 9 September 2006.

[111] Template:Fr icon Alphonse, Dokalyo (2003) "Cinéma: un avenir plein d'espoir", Tchad et Culture 214.

[112] Enders, Caty (23 November 2011) The Top 10 Films from the Banff Mountain Film Festival: Towers of the Ennedi | Rock Climbing. OutsideOnline.com. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.

[113] "Chad". FIFA, Goal Programme. 2 July 2007. Retrieved 10 August 2006.

[114] Hilton Worldwide Announces First Hotel In Chad. Hospitalitynet.org. 11 August 2011.

[115] Kempinski regional expansion brings new executive | Appointments. AMEinfo.com. 17 July 2013.

[116] Hilton Worldwide Announces First Hotel In Chad | Hilton Worldwide Global Media Center. News.hiltonworldwide.com. 10 August 2011.

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@@ Line 98: / Line 98: @@
 For more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and [[sedentism|sedentary]] people. The region became a crossroads of civilisations. The earliest of these were the legendary [[Sao civilisation|Sao]], known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to the [[Kanem Empire]],<ref name=Lange/><ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 6</ref> the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's [[Sahel]]ian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes that passed through the region.<ref name="Collelo"/> These states, at least tacitly [[Islam in Africa|Muslim]], never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to [[Arab slave trade|raid for slaves]].<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 7–8</ref> In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Slavery]. Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History.</ref>
-[[Image:Group of Kanem-Bu warriors.jpg|thumb|left|Group of Kanem-Bu warriors. The [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]] controlled almost all of what is today Chad.]]
+[[Image:Group of Kanem-Bu warriors.jpg|thumb|Group of Kanem-Bu warriors. The [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]] controlled almost all of what is today Chad.]]
-[[File:Chadian soldier of WWII.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A Chadian soldier fighting for [[Free French Forces|Free France]] during [[World War II]]. The Free French Forces included 15,000 soldiers from Chad, among them [[François Tombalbaye]], later the 1st President of Chad.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 53</ref>]]
+[[File:Chadian soldier of WWII.jpg|thumb|A Chadian soldier fighting for [[Free French Forces|Free France]] during [[World War II]]. The Free French Forces included 15,000 soldiers from Chad, among them [[François Tombalbaye]], later the 1st President of Chad.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 53</ref>]]
-[[French colonial empires|French colonial expansion]] led to the creation of the {{lang|fr|''Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad''}} in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of [[French Equatorial Africa]].<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 8, 309</ref> [[Colonial Chad|French rule in Chad]] was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies. The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the [[Sara people|Sara]] of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal. The educational system suffered from this neglect.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 8–9</ref>
+[[French colonial empires|French colonial expansion]] led to the creation of the {{lang|fr|''Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad''}} in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of [[French Equatorial Africa]].<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 8, 309</ref> [[Colonial Chad|French rule in Chad]] was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 8–9</ref>
+The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the [[Sara people|Sara]] of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal. The educational system suffered from this neglect.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 8–9</ref>
 After [[World War II]], France granted Chad the status of [[Overseas departments and territories of France|overseas territory]] and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the [[National Assembly of France|French National Assembly]] and a [[National Assembly (Chad)|Chadian assembly]]. The largest political party was the [[Chadian Progressive Party]] (PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT's leader, a [[Sara people]] [[François Tombalbaye]], as its first [[Heads of state of Chad|president]].<ref name="Collelo"/><ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 248–249</ref><ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], p. 17</ref>
@@ Line 111: / Line 113: @@
 Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule.<ref>Macedo, Stephen (2006); ''Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law''. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1950-3, pp. 133–134</ref><ref>[http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR20/004/2001/en "Chad: the Habré Legacy"]. [[Amnesty International]]. 16 October 2001.</ref> The president favoured his own [[Daza]] ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]]. His general, [[Idriss Déby]], overthrew him in 1990.<ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], pp. 234–237</ref> Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest in Senegal in 2005; in 2013, Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chad ex-leader Habre charged in Senegal with war crimes |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23153532 |publisher=BBC |date=2 July 2013 |accessdate=2 July 2013}}</ref>
-Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a [[Constitution of Chad|new constitution]] by [[Chadian constitutional referendum, 1996|referendum]], and in 1996, Déby easily won a [[Chadian presidential election, 1996|competitive presidential election]]. He won a [[Chadian presidential election, 2001|second term]] five years later.<ref>East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); ''Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders''. Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-126-X, p. 100</ref> [[Petroleum|Oil]] exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a [[War in Chad (2005–present)|new civil war]] broke out. Déby [[Chadian constitutional referendum, 2005|unilaterally modified the constitution]] to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.<ref>IPS, "{{lang|fr|Le pétrole au cœur des nouveaux soubresauts au Tchad}}"</ref> In 2006 Déby won [[Chadian presidential election, 2006|a third mandate]] in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] has warned that a [[genocide]] like that in [[Darfur conflict|Darfur]] may yet occur in Chad.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6367545.stm Chad may face genocide, UN warns]. BBC News, 16 February 2007</ref> [[Battle of N'Djamena (2006)|In 2006]] and [[Battle of N'Djamena (2008)|in 2008]] rebel forces have attempted to take the capital by force, but have on both occasions failed.<ref>{{cite news | title=Chad's leader asserts he is control| date=6 February 2008 | agency=Associated Press | publisher=USA Today | url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-02-06-chad_N.htm}}</ref> An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Report 2011: Chad|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/chad|publisher=Human Rights Watch|accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against the President [[Idriss Deby]] that had been in preparation for several months.<ref>{{cite news| url = http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/05/02/uk-chad-coup-idUKBRE94101H20130502| title= Chad government foils coup attempt – minister| year = 2013| publisher = Reuters}}</ref>
+Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a [[Constitution of Chad|new constitution]] by [[Chadian constitutional referendum, 1996|referendum]], and in 1996, Déby easily won a [[Chadian presidential election, 1996|competitive presidential election]]. He won a [[Chadian presidential election, 2001|second term]] five years later.<ref>East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); ''Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders''. Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-126-X, p. 100</ref> [[Petroleum|Oil]] exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a [[War in Chad (2005–present)|new civil war]] broke out. Déby [[Chadian constitutional referendum, 2005|unilaterally modified the constitution]] to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.<ref>IPS, "{{lang|fr|Le pétrole au cœur des nouveaux soubresauts au Tchad}}"</ref>
+In 2006 Déby won [[Chadian presidential election, 2006|a third mandate]] in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] has warned that a [[genocide]] like that in [[Darfur conflict|Darfur]] may yet occur in Chad.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6367545.stm Chad may face genocide, UN warns]. BBC News, 16 February 2007</ref> [[Battle of N'Djamena (2006)|In 2006]] and [[Battle of N'Djamena (2008)|in 2008]] rebel forces have attempted to take the capital by force, but have on both occasions failed.<ref>{{cite news | title=Chad's leader asserts he is control| date=6 February 2008 | agency=Associated Press | publisher=USA Today | url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-02-06-chad_N.htm}}</ref> An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Report 2011: Chad|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/chad|publisher=Human Rights Watch|accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against the President [[Idriss Deby]] that had been in preparation for several months.<ref>{{cite news| url = http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/05/02/uk-chad-coup-idUKBRE94101H20130502| title= Chad government foils coup attempt – minister| year = 2013| publisher = Reuters}}</ref>
 == Geography, climate and environment ==
+{{main|Geography of Chad}}
-{{main|Geography of Chad}}
-[[File:Chari River.jpg|thumb|left|View of [[Chari River]]]]
 [[File:Chad sat.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Chad is divided into three distinct zones, the [[Sudanese savanna]] in the south, the [[Sahara Desert]] in the north, and the [[Sahelian]] belt in Chad's center.]]
+[[File:ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Lake Chad]] in a 2001 satellite image. On the top, the changes from 1973 to 1997 are shown, with the lake shrinking.]]
-At {{convert|1284000|km2|sqmi}}, Chad is the world's [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|21st-largest country]]. It is slightly smaller than [[Peru]] and slightly larger than South Africa.<ref name=cia/><ref>"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Rank Order – Area]". ''The World Factbook''. United States Central Intelligence Agency.</ref> Chad is in north central Africa, lying between latitudes [[7th parallel north|7°]] and [[24th parallel north|24°N]], and [[13th meridian east|13°]] and [[24th meridian east|24°E]]. Chad is bounded to the north by [[Libya]], to the east by [[Sudan]], to the west by [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]], and to the south by the [[Central African Republic]]. The country's capital is {{convert|1060|km|mi}} from the nearest seaport, [[Douala]], Cameroon.<ref name="EB">"Chad". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. (2000)</ref><ref name="UNHCHR">"[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/48f4be12f6c55e5a802565cd005d4e0e?Opendocument Chad]". Human Rights Instruments. [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]]. 12 December 1997.</ref> Because of this distance from the sea and the country's largely [[desert]] climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa".<ref>{{cite journal | journal = South African Journal of Economics | volume = 60 | issue= 4 | pages = 246–255 |date = December 1992 | title = S.H. Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist (Review Article) | author = Botha, D.J.J.|doi=10.1111/j.1813-6982.1992.tb01049.x }}</ref>
+At {{convert|1284000|km2|sqmi}}, Chad is the world's [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|21st-largest country]]. It is slightly smaller than [[Peru]] and slightly larger than South Africa.<ref name=cia/><ref>"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Rank Order – Area]". ''The World Factbook''. United States Central Intelligence Agency.</ref> Chad is in north central Africa, lying between latitudes [[7th parallel north|7°]] and [[24th parallel north|24°N]], and [[13th meridian east|13°]] and [[24th meridian east|24°E]].<ref name="EB">"Chad". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. (2000)</ref>
+Chad is bounded to the north by [[Libya]], to the east by [[Sudan]], to the west by [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]], and to the south by the [[Central African Republic]]. The country's capital is {{convert|1060|km|mi}} from the nearest seaport, [[Douala]], Cameroon.<ref name="EB">"Chad". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. (2000)</ref><ref name="UNHCHR">"[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/48f4be12f6c55e5a802565cd005d4e0e?Opendocument Chad]". Human Rights Instruments. [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]]. 12 December 1997.</ref> Because of this distance from the sea and the country's largely [[desert]] climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa".<ref>{{cite journal | journal = South African Journal of Economics | volume = 60 | issue= 4 | pages = 246–255 |date = December 1992 | title = S.H. Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist (Review Article) | author = Botha, D.J.J.|doi=10.1111/j.1813-6982.1992.tb01049.x }}</ref>
-The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north, east and south by mountain ranges such as the [[Ennedi Plateau]] in the north-east. [[Lake Chad]], after which the country is named, is the remains of an immense lake that occupied {{convert|330000|km2|sqmi}} of the [[Chad Basin]] 7,000 years ago. [[File:ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg|left|thumb|[[Lake Chad]] in a 2001 satellite image. On the top, the changes from 1973 to 1997 are shown.]]<ref name="EB"/> Although in the 21st century it covers only {{convert|17806|km2|sqmi}}, and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations,<ref>"Chad, Lake". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. (2000).
+The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north, east and south by mountain ranges such as the [[Ennedi Plateau]] in the north-east. [[Lake Chad]], after which the country is named, is the remains of an immense lake that occupied {{convert|330000|km2|sqmi}} of the [[Chad Basin]] 7,000 years ago.<ref name="EB"/> Although in the 21st century it covers only {{convert|17806|km2|sqmi}}, and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations,<ref>"Chad, Lake". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. (2000).
 </ref> the lake is Africa's second largest wetland.<ref>Dinar, Ariel (1995); ''Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs''. World Bank Publications. ISBN 0-8213-3321-6, p. 57</ref> The [[Emi Koussi]], a dormant volcano in the [[Tibesti Mountains]] that reaches {{convert|3414|m|ft|0}} above sea level, is the highest point in Chad and the [[Sahara]].{{citation needed|date = November 2013}}
@@ Line 127: / Line 134: @@
 The [[Agriculture in Chad]] includes the raising of [[peanuts]], [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[livestock]], and [[corn]].{{citation needed|date = November 2013}}
+=== Climate ===
-=== Regions, departments and sub-prefectures ===
-{{main|Regions of Chad|Departments of Chad|Sub-prefectures of Chad}}
+{{main|Climate of Chad}}
+Each year a tropical weather system known as the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone|intertropical front]] crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a [[wet season]] that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 3</ref> Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. The Sahara lies in the country's northern third. Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under {{convert|50|mm|in}}; only the occasional spontaneous palm grove survives, and the only ones to do so are south of the [[Tropic of Cancer]].<ref name="UNHCHR"/>
-Chad has been divided since February 2008 into [[regions of Chad|22 regions]].<ref>Ordonnance n° 002/PR/08 portant restructuration de certaines collectivités territoriales décentralisées</ref><ref name="circonscritions">"Tableau des codes des circonscritions – Ministère de l'Intérieur", April 2008. {{fr icon}}</ref> The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous [[prefectures of Chad|14 prefectures]]. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the [[departments of Chad|61 departments]] within the regions.<ref name="circonscritions"/> The departments are divided into [[Sub-prefectures of Chad|200 sub-prefectures]], which are in turn composed of 446 cantons.<ref>"[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41595.htm Chad]". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, 28 February 2005. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.</ref><ref>{{fr icon}} Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005) "[http://www.pep-net.org/fileadmin/medias/pdf/files_events/4th_colombo/PMMA/Ndang-pa.pdf A qui Profitent les Dépenses Sociales au Tchad? Une Analyse d'Incidence à Partir des Données d'Enquête]" (PDF). ''4th PEP Research Network General Meeting''. Poverty and Economic Policy.</ref>
+The Sahara gives way to a [[Sahel]]ian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from {{convert|300|to|600|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} per year. In the Sahel, a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly [[acacia]]s) gradually gives way to the south to [[East Sudanian savanna]] in Chad's [[Sudan (region)|Sudanese]] zone. Yearly rainfall in this belt is over {{convert|900|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="UNHCHR"/>
-The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by ''communautés rurales'', but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed.<ref name=WB1>"[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/08/18/000112742_20040818161300/Rendered/PDF/298290Chad0IEM1ject0Brief10Final004.pdf Chad – Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project]" (PDF). 24 September 2002. [[World Bank]].</ref> The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development.<ref>{{fr icon}} "[http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/tchad/contents.html Tchad]". ''L'évaluation de l'éducation pour tous à l'an 2000: Rapport des pays''. [[UNESCO]], Education for All.</ref> To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivisions be governed by elected local assemblies,<ref name=decentralisation/> but no local elections have taken place,<ref name="OECD">"[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/25/62/38561813.pdf Chad]" (PDF). ''African Economic Outlook 2007''. [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]. May 2007. ISBN 978-92-64-02510-3</ref> and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.<ref name="HRP"/>
+=== Wildlife ===
-The regions are:<ref name="circonscritions"/>
+{{Main|Wildlife of Chad}}
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-[[File:Chad regions map-numbered 2008-02.svg|thumb|left|Regions of Chad]]
-{{col-break}}
-{{columns-list|2|
-# [[Batha Region|Batha]]
-# [[Chari-Baguirmi Region|Chari-Baguirmi]]
-# [[Hadjer-Lamis Region|Hadjer-Lamis]]
-# [[Wadi Fira Region|Wadi Fira]]
-# [[Bahr el Gazel Region|Bahr el Gazel]]
-# [[Borkou Region|Borkou]]
-# [[Ennedi Region|Ennedi]]
-# [[Guéra Region|Guéra]]
-# [[Kanem Region|Kanem]]
-# [[Lac Region|Lac]]
-# [[Logone Occidental Region|Logone Occidental]]
-# [[Logone Oriental Region|Logone Oriental]]
-# [[Mandoul Region|Mandoul]]
-# [[Mayo-Kebbi Est Region|Mayo-Kebbi Est]]
-# [[Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Region|Mayo-Kebbi Ouest]]
-# [[Moyen-Chari Region|Moyen-Chari]]
-# [[Ouaddaï Region|Ouaddaï]]
-# [[Salamat Region|Salamat]]
-# [[Sila Region|Sila]]
-# [[Tandjilé Region|Tandjilé]]
-# [[Tibesti Region|Tibesti]]
-# [[N'Djamena]]
-}}
-{{col-end}}
-[[Image:LakeChadBolaerialphoto.jpg|thumb|[[Bol, Chad]] in 1971. Bol is located in the Lac region near [[Lake Chad]]]]
+[[Image:African Bush Elephant Mikumi.jpg|thumb|An [[African Bush Elephant]].]]
-=== Climate ===
+Chad's animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones. In the Saharan region, the only flora is the date-palm groves of the oasis. Palms and [[acacia tree]]s grow in the Sahelian region. The southern, or Sudanic, zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing. As of 2002, there were at least 134 species of mammals, 532 species of birds (354 species of residents and 155 migrants), and over 1,600 species of plants throughout the country.<ref name=Bird/><ref name=Flora>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pensoft.net/journal_home_page.php?journal_id=3&page=article&SESID=98556166bbcb445ae7ccd99343b1434e&type=show&article_id=4752&issue_id=410&ttar=da&search=wildlife%20of%20chad&IN=&TIP=&Image100_x=-678&Image100_y=-48&|title=The Flora of Chad: a checklist and brief analysis|accessdate=17 October 2013|publisher=Pensoft.net}}</ref>
-{{main|Climate of Chad}}
-Each year a tropical weather system known as the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone|intertropical front]] crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a [[wet season]] that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 3</ref> Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. The Sahara lies in the country's northern third. Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under {{convert|50|mm|in}}; only the occasional spontaneous palm grove survives, and the only ones to do so are south of the [[Tropic of Cancer]]. The Sahara gives way to a [[Sahel]]ian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from {{convert|300|to|600|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} per year. In the Sahel, a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly [[acacia]]s) gradually gives way to the south to [[East Sudanian savanna]] in Chad's [[Sudan (region)|Sudanese]] zone. Yearly rainfall in this belt is over {{convert|900|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="UNHCHR"/>
+[[Elephant]]s, [[lion]]s, [[African Buffalo|buffalo]], [[hippopotamus]]es, [[rhinoceros]]es, [[giraffe]]s, [[antelope]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[cheetah]]s, [[hyenas]], and many species of [[snakes]] are found here, although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century.<ref name=Bird>{{Cite web|url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/IBAs/AfricaCntryPDFs/Chad.pdf|format=pdf|title=
-{{clear}}
+Important Bird Areas in Africa and associated islands – Chad|accessdate=16 October 2013|publisher=Birdlife International Organization}}</ref><ref name="LTQ"/> [[Elephant hunting in Chad|Elephant poaching]], particularly in the south of the country in areas such as [[Zakouma National Park]], is a severe problem.
+Extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias, baobab, dates and palm trees. This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals; one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements. Animals like lions, leopards and rhino have been almost decimated.<ref name=Our/>
+Efforts have been made by the [[Food and Agricultural Organization]] to improve relations between farmers, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park (ZNP), Siniaka-Minia, and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/agriculture/lead/themes0/drylands/chad1/en/|title=Livestock-wildlife-environment interactions in Chad|publisher=Food and Agricultural Organization|accessdate=17 October 2013}}</ref> As part of the national conservation effort, more than 1.2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert, which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees, which produce [[gum arabic]], and also from fruit trees.<ref name=Our/>
+Poaching is a serious problem in the country, particularly of elephants for the profitable [[ivory]] industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks such as Zakouma. Elephants are often massacred in herds in and around the parks by organized poaching.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.co.uk/news/2006/08/060830-elephants-chad.html|title=African Elephants Slaughtered in Herds Near Chad Wildlife Park|publisher=National Geographic|date=30 August 2006|accessdate=17 October 2013}}</ref> The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers.<ref name="NYT">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/01/world/africa/central-africas-wildlife-rangers-face-deadly-risks.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1382003098-yauBx4MSdHcb4DxeUgSrUw|title=Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife|publisher=''The New York Times''|date=31 December 2012|accessdate=17 October 2013}}</ref>
 == Demographics ==
@@ Line 181: / Line 166: @@
 [[Polygamy]] is common, with 39% of women living in such unions. This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage.<ref>"[http://www.reproductiverights.org/pdf/chad.pdf Chad]" (PDF). ''Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives – Francophone Africa''. Center for Reproductive Rights. 2000</ref> Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common. [[Female genital cutting|Female genital mutilation]] is also prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates among [[Arab]]s, [[Hadjarai]], and Ouaddaians (90% or more). Lower percentages were reported among the [[Sara people|Sara]] (38%) and the [[Toubou]] (2%). Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs. Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice.<ref name="HRP"/>
-[[File:Chadian delegation.jpg|thumb|left|A tribal delegation]]
+[[File:Chadian delegation.jpg|thumb|250px|A tribal delegation]]
 Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups,<ref name="BGN"/> which create diverse social structures. The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society, but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family. Nevertheless, Chad's peoples may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live. In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara, the nation's main ethnic group, whose essential [[social unit]] is the lineage. In the Sahel sedentary peoples live side-by-side with nomadic ones, such as the Arabs, the country's second major ethnic group. The north is inhabited by nomads, mostly Toubous.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref name="EB"/> The nation's official business languages are [[French language|French]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], but over 100 languages and dialects are spoken. Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities, [[Chadian Arabic]] has become a [[lingua franca]].<ref name="Collelo"/>
@@ Line 229: / Line 214: @@
 Déby faces armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but united in their intention to overthrow him.<ref>{{fr icon}} "[http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/central-africa/chad/French%20translations/Chad%20Back%20towards%20War%20French.pdf Tchad: vers le retour de la guerre?]" (PDF). [[International Crisis Group]]. 1 June 2006.</ref> These forces [[Battle of N'Djamena (2006)|stormed the capital]] on 13 April 2006, but were ultimately repelled. Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 soldiers in the country. Déby relies on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives the [[Military of Chad|Chadian army]] logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability.<ref name=PINR/> Nevertheless, Franco-Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American [[ExxonMobil|Exxon]] company in 1999.<ref>Manley, Andrew; "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4809420.stm Chad's vulnerable president]", BBC News, 15 March 2006.</ref>
+=== Administrative divisions ===
+{{main|Regions of Chad|Departments of Chad|Sub-prefectures of Chad}}
+Chad has been divided since February 2008 into [[regions of Chad|22 regions]].<ref>Ordonnance n° 002/PR/08 portant restructuration de certaines collectivités territoriales décentralisées</ref><ref name="circonscritions">"Tableau des codes des circonscritions – Ministère de l'Intérieur", April 2008. {{fr icon}}</ref> The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous [[prefectures of Chad|14 prefectures]]. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the [[departments of Chad|61 departments]] within the regions.<ref name="circonscritions"/> The departments are divided into [[Sub-prefectures of Chad|200 sub-prefectures]], which are in turn composed of 446 cantons.<ref>"[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41595.htm Chad]". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, 28 February 2005. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.</ref><ref>{{fr icon}} Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005) "[http://www.pep-net.org/fileadmin/medias/pdf/files_events/4th_colombo/PMMA/Ndang-pa.pdf A qui Profitent les Dépenses Sociales au Tchad? Une Analyse d'Incidence à Partir des Données d'Enquête]" (PDF). ''4th PEP Research Network General Meeting''. Poverty and Economic Policy.</ref>
+The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by ''communautés rurales'', but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed.<ref name=WB1>"[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/08/18/000112742_20040818161300/Rendered/PDF/298290Chad0IEM1ject0Brief10Final004.pdf Chad – Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project]" (PDF). 24 September 2002. [[World Bank]].</ref> The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development.<ref>{{fr icon}} "[http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/tchad/contents.html Tchad]". ''L'évaluation de l'éducation pour tous à l'an 2000: Rapport des pays''. [[UNESCO]], Education for All.</ref> To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivisions be governed by elected local assemblies,<ref name=decentralisation/> but no local elections have taken place,<ref name="OECD">"[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/25/62/38561813.pdf Chad]" (PDF). ''African Economic Outlook 2007''. [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]. May 2007. ISBN 978-92-64-02510-3</ref> and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.<ref name="HRP"/>
+The regions are:<ref name="circonscritions"/>
+{{col-begin}}
+{{col-break}}
+[[File:Chad regions map-numbered 2008-02.svg|thumb|left|Regions of Chad]]
+{{col-break}}
+{{columns-list|2|
+# [[Batha Region|Batha]]
+# [[Chari-Baguirmi Region|Chari-Baguirmi]]
+# [[Hadjer-Lamis Region|Hadjer-Lamis]]
+# [[Wadi Fira Region|Wadi Fira]]
+# [[Bahr el Gazel Region|Bahr el Gazel]]
+# [[Borkou Region|Borkou]]
+# [[Ennedi Region|Ennedi]]
+# [[Guéra Region|Guéra]]
+# [[Kanem Region|Kanem]]
+# [[Lac Region|Lac]]
+# [[Logone Occidental Region|Logone Occidental]]
+# [[Logone Oriental Region|Logone Oriental]]
+# [[Mandoul Region|Mandoul]]
+# [[Mayo-Kebbi Est Region|Mayo-Kebbi Est]]
+# [[Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Region|Mayo-Kebbi Ouest]]
+# [[Moyen-Chari Region|Moyen-Chari]]
+# [[Ouaddaï Region|Ouaddaï]]
+# [[Salamat Region|Salamat]]
+# [[Sila Region|Sila]]
+# [[Tandjilé Region|Tandjilé]]
+# [[Tibesti Region|Tibesti]]
+# [[N'Djamena]]
+}}
+{{col-end}}
 === Military ===
@@ Line 239: / Line 261: @@
 In 2007, a peace treaty was signed that integrated [[United Front for Democratic Change]] or '''FUC''' soldiers into the Chadian Army.<ref>{{cite book|author=Human Rights Watch |title=Early to War: Child Soldiers in the Chad Conflict |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6of6GZ1nUPAC&pg=PA13 |year=2007 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |pages=13–}}</ref> The [[Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad]] or '''MDJT''' also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow President [[Idriss Déby]]. In addition, there have been various conflicts with [[Khartoum]]'s [[Janjaweed]] rebels in Eastern Chad who killed civilians by use of [[helicopter gunship]]s.<ref>Reeves, Eric (9 August 2008) [http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?page=imprimable&id_article=28211 Victims of Genocide in Darfur: Past, Present, and Future – Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan]. Sudan Tribune. Retrieved on 28 September 2013.</ref> Presently, the [[Union of Resistance Forces]] or '''UFR''' are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad. In 2010, the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6,000 men and 300 vehicles.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/21/us-chad-rebels-idUSBRE92K17Q20130321 Chad rebels say to resume fight, Deby's promises unmet]. Reuters. 21 March 2013</ref>
-== Law enforcement ==
+=== Law enforcement ===
 {{See also|Law enforcement in Chad}}
 In Chad, the Gendarmerie Nationale serves as the national police force for the country.
@@ Line 245: / Line 267: @@
 == Economy ==
 {{main|Economy of Chad}}
-[[File:Tree map export 2009 Chad.jpeg|thumb|left|Graphical depiction of Chad's product exports in 28 color-coded categories.]]
+[[File:Tree map export 2009 Chad.jpeg|thumb|350px|Graphical depiction of Chad's product exports in 28 color-coded categories.]]
-[[File:Maternity Ward Chad.jpg|thumb|right|A Chadian maternity ward. Although improving, Chad's infrastructure remains far less developed than that of its northern neighbours.]]
 The United Nations' [[Human Development Index]] ranks Chad as the seventh poorest country in the world, with 80% of the population living below the poverty line. The [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing power parity]]) per capita was estimated as [[United States dollar|US$]]1,651 in 2009.<ref name=imf2/> Chad is part of the [[Bank of Central African States]], the [[Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa]] (UDEAC) and the [[Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa]] ([[OHADA]]).<ref name="ohada.com">
 {{cite web
@@ Line 252: / Line 274: @@
   | url = http://www.ohada.com/index.php
   | accessdate = 22 March 2009}}
+</ref>
-</ref> Its currency is the [[Central African CFA franc|CFA franc]]. In the 1960s, the [[Mining industry of Chad]] produced [[sodium carbonate]], or natron. There have also been reports of [[gold]]-bearing quartz in the [[Biltine Prefecture]]. However, years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects.<ref name=cia/><ref name="BGN"/>
+Chad's currency is the [[Central African CFA franc|CFA franc]]. In the 1960s, the [[Mining industry of Chad]] produced [[sodium carbonate]], or natron. There have also been reports of [[gold]]-bearing quartz in the [[Biltine Prefecture]]. However, years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects.<ref name=cia/><ref name="BGN"/>
-[[File:Mao Women.jpg|thumb|left|Women in [[Mao, Chad|Mao]], where [[Utilities in Chad|water in Chad]] is provided by a water tower. Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad.]]
+[[File:Mao Women.jpg|thumb|250px|Women in [[Mao, Chad|Mao]], where [[Utilities in Chad|water in Chad]] is provided by a water tower. Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad.]]
 Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood.<ref name=cia/> The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate. In the southernmost 10% of the territory lies the nation's most fertile cropland, with rich yields of [[sorghum]] and [[millet]]. In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow, and these with much lower yields than in the south. On the other hand, the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats, sheep, donkeys and horses. The Sahara's scattered [[oasis|oases]] support only some dates and legumes.<ref name="Collelo"/> Chad's cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure; only 48% of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2% to basic sanitation.<ref name="EB"/><ref name=WB1/>
@@ Line 270: / Line 294: @@
 {{See also|Transport in Chad}}
-[[File:Rebuilt bridge on Bragoto River.jpg|thumb|A bridge on the [[Bragoto River]]]]
+[[File:Rebuilt bridge on Bragoto River.jpg|thumb|250px|A bridge on the [[Bragoto River]].]]
 Civil war crippled the development of [[transport in Chad|transport infrastructure]]; in 1987, Chad had only {{convert|30|km|mi}} of paved roads. Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network<ref>"[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1997/10/21/000009265_3971229180948/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf Chad Poverty Assessment: Constraints to Rural Development]" (PDF). World Bank. 21 October 1997.</ref> to {{convert|550|km|mi}} by 2004.<ref>{{fr icon}} [http://www.deltcd.ec.europa.eu/fr/item2_info_docs/Lettre3_a4x10p.pdf Lettre d'information] (PDF). Délégation de la Commission Européenne au Tchad. N. 3. September 2004</ref> Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year. With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of [[Douala]].<ref name=Geography/>
 ==== Airports ====
 {{See also|List of airports in Chad}}
-[[Image:Aeroport abeché1.jpg|thumb|left|Airplane landing in [[Abéché]]]]
+[[Image:Aeroport abeché1.jpg|thumb|250px|An airplane landing in [[Abéché]].]]
 An [[N'Djamena International Airport|international airport]] serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities.
@@ Line 356: / Line 380: @@
 The [[music of Chad]] includes a number of unusual instruments such as the ''kinde'', a type of bow harp; the ''[[kakaki]]'', a long tin horn; and the ''hu hu'', a stringed instrument that uses [[calabash]]es as loudspeakers. Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups: the Sara prefer whistles, [[balafon]]es, harps and ''kodjo'' drums; and the [[Kanembu people|Kanembu]] combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments.<ref name="culture"/>
-[[File:Tailor in Chad.jpg|left|thumb|A Chadian tailor sells traditional dresses.]]
+[[File:Tailor in Chad.jpg|thumb|250px|A Chadian tailor sells traditional dresses.]]
 The music group [[Chari Jazz]] formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on ''sai'', a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry.<ref name="culture"/><ref>* {{fr icon}} Gondjé, Laoro (2003); "[http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article231 {{lang|fr|La musique recherche son identité}}]", {{lang|fr|''Tchad et Culture''}} '''214'''.</ref>
@@ Line 440: / Line 464: @@
 * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TD Key Development Forecasts for Chad] from [[International Futures]]
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