Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia: Difference between revisions
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== Background == |
== Background == |
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=== 19th century === |
=== 19th century === |
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Ethnic tensions between [[Croats]] and [[Serbs]] can be traced back to the [[Great Schism of 1054]]. During the time of the [[Austrian Empire]], land privileges were granted to Serbs living in the [[Military Frontier]] of the Habsburg Monarchy.{{sfn|Mojzes|2008|p=158}} Some Serbian historians, citing a document issued by Emperor [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]] in 1690, claim that the masses were "invited" to come to Hungary. The original text in Latin shows that Serbs were actually advised to rise up against the Ottomans and "not to desert" their ancestral lands.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ramet |first1=Sabrina P. |title=Thinking about Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates about the Yugoslav Breakup and the Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52161-690-4 |page=206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jSc6lOY1M2YC&pg=PA206}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Noel Malcolm|title=Kosovo: A Chain of Causes 1225 B.C. - 1991 and Consequences 1991-1999|year=2004|publisher=Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia|pp=1-27}}</ref> As Habsburg frontier militiamen, they were exempt from communal and church autonomy as well as feudal obligations while Croats were not. Historian Carl Brown notes that this became a source of Croat resentment and Serb determination to defend their status which became articulated in nationalist sentiments and ideologies in later history. However, both Croat and Serb communities lived in peace, if not harmony until 1941.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=L. Carl |title=Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East |date=1996 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-2311-0305-3 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NxTLJpDWev4C&pg=PA85}}</ref> A politically provoking moment came with Serbian minister [[Ilija Garašanin]]'s ''[[Načertanije]]'' foreign policy programme (1844), a document that went unpublished until 1906.{{sfn|Trencsényi|Kopecek|2007|p=238–243}} The plan controversially proposed the unification of lands inhabited by Bulgarians, Macedonians, Albanians, Montenegrins, Bosnians, and Croats under a Serbian dynasty.{{sfn|Trencsényi|Kopecek|2007|p=238–243}} Garašanin's plan also included methods of spreading Serbian influence in claimed lands and onto Croats, writing: "Special attention must be paid to diverting peoples of the Roman Catholic faith from Austria and her influence, and their greater inclination towards Serbia should be fostered."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bataković |first1=Dušan T. |title=The Foreign Policy of Serbia (1844-1867): IIija Garašanin's Načertanije |date=2014 |publisher=Balkanološki institut SANU |isbn=978-8-6717-9089-5 |page=256 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5yxDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> |
Ethnic tensions between [[Croats]] and [[Serbs]] can be traced back to the [[Great Schism of 1054]]. During the time of the [[Austrian Empire]], land privileges were granted to Serbs living in the [[Military Frontier]] of the Habsburg Monarchy.{{sfn|Mojzes|2008|p=158}} Some Serbian historians, citing a document issued by Emperor [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]] in 1690, claim that the masses were "invited" to come to Hungary. The original text in Latin shows that Serbs were actually advised to rise up against the Ottomans and "not to desert" their ancestral lands.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ramet |first1=Sabrina P. |title=Thinking about Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates about the Yugoslav Breakup and the Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52161-690-4 |page=206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jSc6lOY1M2YC&pg=PA206}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Noel Malcolm|title=Kosovo: A Chain of Causes 1225 B.C. - 1991 and Consequences 1991-1999|year=2004|publisher=Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia|pp=1-27}}</ref> As Habsburg frontier militiamen, they were exempt from communal and church autonomy as well as feudal obligations while Croats were not. Historian Carl Brown notes that this became a source of Croat resentment and Serb determination to defend their status which became articulated in nationalist sentiments and ideologies in later history. However, both Croat and Serb communities lived in peace, if not harmony until 1941.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=L. Carl |title=Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East |date=1996 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-2311-0305-3 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NxTLJpDWev4C&pg=PA85}}</ref> A politically provoking moment came with Serbian minister [[Ilija Garašanin]]'s ''[[Načertanije]]'' foreign policy programme (1844), a document that went unpublished until 1906.{{sfn|Trencsényi|Kopecek|2007|p=238–243}} The plan controversially proposed the unification of lands inhabited by Bulgarians, Macedonians, Albanians, Montenegrins, Bosnians, and Croats under a Serbian dynasty.{{sfn|Trencsényi|Kopecek|2007|p=238–243}} Garašanin's plan also included methods of spreading Serbian influence in claimed lands and onto Croats. who Garašanin regarded as "Serbs of Catholic faith"<ref name=cohen/>{{Rp|3}}, writing: "Special attention must be paid to diverting peoples of the Roman Catholic faith from Austria and her influence, and their greater inclination towards Serbia should be fostered."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bataković |first1=Dušan T. |title=The Foreign Policy of Serbia (1844-1867): IIija Garašanin's Načertanije |date=2014 |publisher=Balkanološki institut SANU |isbn=978-8-6717-9089-5 |page=256 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5yxDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> The document is one of the most contested of nineteenth-century Serbian history, with rival interpretations.{{sfn|Trencsényi|Kopecek|2007|p=238–243}} |
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A major ideological influence on the Croatian nationalism of the Ustaše was the 19th-century nationalist [[Ante Starčević]].{{sfn|Fischer|2007|p=207}}<ref name="JonassohnBjörnson1998">{{cite book|author1=Kurt Jonassohn|author2=Karin Solveig Björnson|title=Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIxCUXI38zcC&pg=PA281|accessdate=30 August 2013|date=January 1998|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2445-3|page=281}}</ref> Starčević was an advocate of Croatian unity and independence and was both anti-[[Habsburg]] and [[Anti-Serb sentiment|anti-Serb]].{{sfn|Fischer|2007|p=207}} He envisioned the creation of a [[Greater Croatia]] that would include territories inhabited by [[Bosniaks]], [[Serbs]], and [[Slovenes]], considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be Croats who had been converted to [[Islam]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] and considering the [[Slovenia|Slovenes]] to be "mountain Croats".{{sfn|Fischer|2007|p=207}} The [[Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1878 probably contributed to the development of Starčević's anti-Serb sentiment: He believed that it increased chances for the creation of Greater Croatia. <ref>{{cite book|last=Carmichael|first=Cathie|title=Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC&pg=PT96|accessdate=31 August 2013|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-47953-5|p=95}}</ref> Starčević argued that the large Serb presence in the territories that were claimed by a Greater Croatia was the result of recent settlement, which had been encouraged by the Habsburg rulers, along with the influx of groups like [[Vlachs]] who took up Eastern Orthodox Christianity and identified themselves as Serbs.{{sfn|Fischer|2007|pp=207–208}}In 1902 major anti-Serb riots in Croatia were caused by reprinted article written by Serb Nikola Stojanović that was published in the publication of the Serbian Independent Party from [[Zagreb]] titled ''Do istrage vaše ili naše'' (''Till the Annihilation, yours or ours'') in which denying of the existence of Croat nation as well as forecasting the result of the "inevitable" Serbian-Croatian conflict occurred. |
A major ideological influence on the Croatian nationalism of the Ustaše was the 19th-century nationalist [[Ante Starčević]].{{sfn|Fischer|2007|p=207}}<ref name="JonassohnBjörnson1998">{{cite book|author1=Kurt Jonassohn|author2=Karin Solveig Björnson|title=Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIxCUXI38zcC&pg=PA281|accessdate=30 August 2013|date=January 1998|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2445-3|page=281}}</ref> Starčević was an advocate of Croatian unity and independence and was both anti-[[Habsburg]] and [[Anti-Serb sentiment|anti-Serb]].{{sfn|Fischer|2007|p=207}} He envisioned the creation of a [[Greater Croatia]] that would include territories inhabited by [[Bosniaks]], [[Serbs]], and [[Slovenes]], considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be Croats who had been converted to [[Islam]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] and considering the [[Slovenia|Slovenes]] to be "mountain Croats".{{sfn|Fischer|2007|p=207}} The [[Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1878 probably contributed to the development of Starčević's anti-Serb sentiment: He believed that it increased chances for the creation of Greater Croatia. <ref>{{cite book|last=Carmichael|first=Cathie|title=Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC&pg=PT96|accessdate=31 August 2013|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-47953-5|p=95}}</ref> Starčević argued that the large Serb presence in the territories that were claimed by a Greater Croatia was the result of recent settlement, which had been encouraged by the Habsburg rulers, along with the influx of groups like [[Vlachs]] who took up Eastern Orthodox Christianity and identified themselves as Serbs.{{sfn|Fischer|2007|pp=207–208}}In 1902 major anti-Serb riots in Croatia were caused by reprinted article written by Serb Nikola Stojanović that was published in the publication of the Serbian Independent Party from [[Zagreb]] titled ''Do istrage vaše ili naše'' (''Till the Annihilation, yours or ours'') in which denying of the existence of Croat nation as well as forecasting the result of the "inevitable" Serbian-Croatian conflict occurred. |
Revision as of 20:38, 25 April 2020
Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia | |
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Part of World War II in Yugoslavia | |
![]() Expelled Serbs marching out of town | |
Location | |
Date | 1941–1945 |
Target | Serbs |
Attack type | Genocide, ethnic cleansing, deportation, forced conversion |
Deaths | several estimates |
Perpetrators | Ustaše |
Motive | Anti-Serb sentiment,[7] Greater Croatia,[8] anti-Yugoslavism,[9] Croatisation[10] |
The Genocide of the Serbs (Serbo-Croatian: Genocid nad Srbima, Геноцид над Србима) was the World War II systematic persecution of Serbs committed by the Croatian fascist Ustashe regime in the Nazi German client Independent State of Croatia (NDH) between 1941 and 1945. It was carried out primarily by brutal executions in death camps, as well as through mass murder, ethnic cleansing, expulsion and forced conversion. This genocidal campaign was carried out simultaneously with the Holocaust in NDH, based on Nazi racial theory.[11][12][13]
Anti-Serb sentiment occasionally appeared in 19th century during the rise of the aspiration of the Croatian intelligence to form a Croatian nation-state. Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the provisional state formed on the territory of Empire inhabited by Croats and other South Slavs joined the Allies-associate Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The state was ruled by the Serbian Karađorđević dynasty and Belgrade was chosen as the capital, assuring Serb political dominance. The Serb-dominated Yugoslav government policies in the 1920's and 1930's fueled the rise of nationalist and far-right movements. This culminated in the Ustaše, the most extreme of these movements and their disproportionate and genocidal anti-Serbian policies. The Ustaše was an ultranationalist, fascist and terrorist movement that was founded by Ante Pavelić. Prior to the Second World War, the party organized an uprising in 1932 and assisted in the assassination of King Alexander I.
Following the Nazi German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, a German puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia was implemented. The Ustaše's goal was to create an ethnically pure Greater Croatia by eliminating all non-Croats, with the Serbs being the primary target but also Jews and Roma. In addition to Nazi racial theory and fascism, the Ustaše ideology incorporated Roman Catholicism and Croatian nationalism. A third of Serbs were to be killed, a third expelled and a third converted to Roman Catholicism. Large scale massacres took place and concentration camps were set up in the region, the largest one being the Jasenovac camp, which was notorious for its high mortality rate and barbaric practices. Furthermore, the Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis puppet state to establish concentration camps specifically for children.
The regime systematically murdered approximately 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs, with most authors agreeing on a range of around 300,000 to 350,000 fatalities. At least 52,000 perished at Jasenovac. 300,000 Serbs were further expelled and at least 200,000 were forcibly converted, most of whom de-converted following the war.
Background
19th century
Ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs can be traced back to the Great Schism of 1054. During the time of the Austrian Empire, land privileges were granted to Serbs living in the Military Frontier of the Habsburg Monarchy.[14] Some Serbian historians, citing a document issued by Emperor Leopold I in 1690, claim that the masses were "invited" to come to Hungary. The original text in Latin shows that Serbs were actually advised to rise up against the Ottomans and "not to desert" their ancestral lands.[15][16] As Habsburg frontier militiamen, they were exempt from communal and church autonomy as well as feudal obligations while Croats were not. Historian Carl Brown notes that this became a source of Croat resentment and Serb determination to defend their status which became articulated in nationalist sentiments and ideologies in later history. However, both Croat and Serb communities lived in peace, if not harmony until 1941.[17] A politically provoking moment came with Serbian minister Ilija Garašanin's Načertanije foreign policy programme (1844), a document that went unpublished until 1906.[18] The plan controversially proposed the unification of lands inhabited by Bulgarians, Macedonians, Albanians, Montenegrins, Bosnians, and Croats under a Serbian dynasty.[18] Garašanin's plan also included methods of spreading Serbian influence in claimed lands and onto Croats. who Garašanin regarded as "Serbs of Catholic faith"[19]: 3 , writing: "Special attention must be paid to diverting peoples of the Roman Catholic faith from Austria and her influence, and their greater inclination towards Serbia should be fostered."[20] The document is one of the most contested of nineteenth-century Serbian history, with rival interpretations.[18]
A major ideological influence on the Croatian nationalism of the Ustaše was the 19th-century nationalist Ante Starčević.[21][22] Starčević was an advocate of Croatian unity and independence and was both anti-Habsburg and anti-Serb.[21] He envisioned the creation of a Greater Croatia that would include territories inhabited by Bosniaks, Serbs, and Slovenes, considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be Croats who had been converted to Islam and Eastern Orthodox Christianity and considering the Slovenes to be "mountain Croats".[21] The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 probably contributed to the development of Starčević's anti-Serb sentiment: He believed that it increased chances for the creation of Greater Croatia. [23] Starčević argued that the large Serb presence in the territories that were claimed by a Greater Croatia was the result of recent settlement, which had been encouraged by the Habsburg rulers, along with the influx of groups like Vlachs who took up Eastern Orthodox Christianity and identified themselves as Serbs.[24]In 1902 major anti-Serb riots in Croatia were caused by reprinted article written by Serb Nikola Stojanović that was published in the publication of the Serbian Independent Party from Zagreb titled Do istrage vaše ili naše (Till the Annihilation, yours or ours) in which denying of the existence of Croat nation as well as forecasting the result of the "inevitable" Serbian-Croatian conflict occurred.
That combat has to be led till the destruction, either ours or yours. One side must succumb. That side will be Croatians, due to their minority, geographical position, mingling with Serbs and because the process of evolution means Serbhood is equal to progress.[25]
— Nikola Stojanović, Srbobran, 10 August 1902.
Inter-war period
Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Croat and Slovene-dominated State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was established. This new state failed to gain recognition from the Great Powers. In a note of 31 October, the National Council in Zagreb informed the governments of the United Kingdom, France, Italy and the United States that the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was constituted in the South-Slavic areas that had been part of Austria-Hungary, and that the new state intended to form a common state with Serbia and Montenegro. The same note was sent to the government of the Allies-associate Kingdom of Serbia and the Yugoslav Committee in London. Serbia's prime minister Nikola Pašić responded to the note on 8 November, recognizing the National Council in Zagreb as "legal government of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes living in the territory of the Austria-Hungary", and notified the governments of the United Kingdom, France, Italy and the United States asking them to do the same.[26]
On 23–24 November, the National Council declared "unification of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs formed on the entire, contiguous South-Slavic area of the former Austria-Hungary with the Kingdom of Serbia and Montenegro into a unified State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs". 28 members of the council were appointed to implement that decision based on National Council's adopted directions on implementation of the agreement of organization of the unified state with the government of the Kingdom of Serbia and representatives of political parties in Serbia and Montenegro. The instructions were largely ignored by the delegation members who negotiated with Regent Alexander instead.[26] The agreement with Serbia would save Croatia from being partitioned by the Allies as part of vanquished Austria-Hungary, the declaration did not specify the form of government and relations between ethnic groups.[27]
This left Croats and Slovenes no choice but to join a union largely dominated by ethnic Serbs, which came to be known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Upon its creation, the state was composed of six million Serbs, 3.5 million Croats and 1 million Slovenes. Being the largest ethnic group, the Serbs favoured a centralised state, whereas Croats, Slovenes and Bosnian Muslims did not.[28]
Approved on 28 June 1921 and based on the Serbian constitution of 1903, the so-called Vidovdan Constitution established the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes as a parliamentary monarchy under the Serbian Karađorđević dynasty. Belgrade was chosen as the capital of the new state, assuring Serb and Orthodox Christian political dominance.[29] In 1928, Croatian Peasant Party leader Stjepan Radić was assassinated on the floor of the country's parliament by a Montenegrin Serb leader and People's Radical Party politician Puniša Račić, who attended parliamentary sessions armed. In the Assembly, Račić, got up and made a provocative speech which produced a stormy reaction from the opposition but Radić himself stayed completely silent. Finally, Ivan Pernar shouted in response, "thou plundered beys" (referring to accusations of corruption related to Račić). Račić had demanded that Pernar be sanctioned, and when the demand was not met, Račić drew his pistol and fired at Croatian Peasant Party deputies, killing two instantly and wounding three more. Radić refused to apologize earlier where in a speech he accused Račić of corruption and using the cover of his Chetnik activities to steal from civilian population.[30] Radić’s burial was massively attended and his death was seen as causing a permanent rift in Croat-Serb relations in the old Yugoslavia.[31]
The following year, King Alexander I proclaimed the 6 January Dictatorship and renamed his country the Kingdom of Yugoslavia to remove any emphasis on its ethnic makeup. Yugoslavia was divided into nine administrative units called banovinas, six of which had ethnic Serb majorities.
The anti-Croatian policies of the Serbian-dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920's and 1930's, especially the assassination of Croatian Peasant Party leaders in Parliament in June 1928 by a deputy of the main Serbian political party, were largely responsible for the creation, growth and nature of Croatian nationalist forces.[32] In 1931, the King issued a decree which allowed the Yugoslav Parliament to reconvene on the condition that only pro-Yugoslav parties were allowed to be represented in it. Marginalised, far-right and far-left movements thrived. The Ustaše, a Croatian fascist party, emerged as the most extreme movement of these.[33] The Ustaše were driven by a deep hatred of Serbs and Serbdom and claimed that, "Croats and Serbs were separated by an unbridgable cultural gulf" which prevented them from ever living alongside each other.[34] They organized the so-called Velebit uprising in 1932, assaulting a police station in the village of Brušani in Lika. The police responded harshly to the assault and harassed the local population.[35] In 1934, the Ustaše cooperated with Bulgarian, Hungarian and Italian right-wing extremists to assassinate Alexander while he visited the French city of Marseille.[33] Alexander's cousin, Prince Paul, took the regency until the new king, Peter II, turned eighteen.[36] Ustaše leader, Ante Pavelić, believed that the assassination would cause Yugoslavia to disintegrate. Instead, countries that had assisted the organisation, such as Italy and Hungary, cracked down on its members, arrested them, and destroyed their training camps at Yugoslavia's behest.[37] According to historian Slavko Goldstein, the Ustaše planned to commit a genocide against ethnic Serbs for years prior to the outbreak of World War II.
One of Pavelić's main ideologues, Mijo Babić, wrote in 1932:
When blood starts to spill it will gush in streams. The blood of the enemy will turn into gushes and rivers, and bombs will scatter their bones like the wind scatters the husks of wheat. Every Ustaša is poised [...] to thrust himself upon the enemy, with his body and soul, to kill and destroy it. The dedication, revolvers, bombs, and sharp knives of the Croatian Ustaše will cleanse and cut whatever is rotten from the healthy body of the Croatian people.[38]
Croatian opposition to a centralised Yugoslavia continued following Alexander's assassination, culminating with the signing of the Cvetković–Maček Agreement by Croatian politician Vladko Maček and Yugoslav Prime Minister Dragiša Cvetković on 26 August 1939. By signing the agreement, Belgrade sought to accommodate moderate Croats through the creation of a largely autonomous Banovina of Croatia which covered 27 percent of Yugoslavia's territory and included 29 percent of its population. It also ensured that Maček became Yugoslavia's deputy premier. Ultimately, the agreement was not successful—it led to other Yugoslav ethnic groups demanding a status similar to that of Croatia and failed to satisfy right-wing Croats such as those that had joined the Ustaše, who wanted a fully independent Croatian state.[33] The Ustaše were enraged by the very notion of Maček having negotiated with Belgrade, denouncing him as a "sell out". Right-wing Croats quickly orchestrated anti-Serbian incidents across the newly formed Banovina, and in June 1940, a Croatian National-Socialist Party was established in Zagreb.[39] On 25 March 1941, Yugoslavia bowed to German pressure and signed the Tripartite Pact in an effort to avoid war with the Axis powers.[40] The Ustashe movement functioned as a terrorist organization as well.[41][42]
Two days later, a group of Serbian nationalist Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers organised a coup d'état to depose Prince Paul and the government of Dragiša Cvetković.[43] Peter was declared to be of age and was elevated to the throne.[44] Upon hearing news of the coup, Adolf Hitler immediately ordered the invasion of Yugoslavia.[45]
Invasion of Yugoslavia
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Axis_occupation_of_Yugoslavia_1941-43_legend.png/220px-Axis_occupation_of_Yugoslavia_1941-43_legend.png)
In April 1941, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers and the puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia was created, ruled by the Ustaše regime. The ideology of the Ustaše movement was a blend of Nazism,[46] Catholicism,[47] and Croatian ultranationalism. The Ustaše supported the creation of a Greater Croatia that would span to the Drina river and the outskirts of Belgrade.[48] The movement emphasized the need for a racially "pure" Croatia and promoted the extermination of Serbs (who were viewed as ethinic foreigners,[49]) Jews,[50] and Gypsies.[21]
The Ustaše used Starčević's theories to promote the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Croatia and they recognized Croatia as having two major ethnocultural components: Catholic Croats and Muslim Croats,[51] because the Ustaše saw the Islam of the Bosnian-Muslims as a religion which "keeps true the blood of Croats."[51] Armed struggle, genocide and terrorism were glorified by the group.[52] Alexander Korb wrote:
A German-Croatian agreement enabled Ustaša militias and Croatian state agents to unleash a campaign ethnic cleansing directed against the Serbs who lived on the soil the Ustaša claimed was part of Greater Croatia[8]
Independent State of Croatia
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After Nazi forces entered Zagreb on 10 April 1941, Pavelić's closest associate Slavko Kvaternik, proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) on a Radio Zagreb broadcast. Meanwhile, Pavelić and several hundred Ustaše volunteers left their camps in Italy and travelled to Zagreb, where Pavelić declared a new government on 16 April 1941.[53] He accorded himself the title of "Poglavnik" (German: Führer, English: Chief leader). The Independent State of Croatia was declared to be on Croatian "ethnic and historical territory".[54]
This country can only be a Croatian country, and there is no method we would hesitate to use in order to make it truly Croatian and cleanse it of Serbs, who have for centuries endangered us and who will endanger us again if they are given the opportunity.
— Milovan Žanić, the minister of the NDH Legislative council, on 2 May 1941.[55]
As outlined by Ustaše ministers Mile Budak, Mirko Puk and Milovan Žanić, the strategy to achieve an ethnically pure Croatia was that:[56][57]
- One-third of the Serbs were to be killed
- One-third of the Serbs were to be expelled
- One-third of the Serbs were to be forcibly converted to Catholicism
The NDH combined most of modern Croatia, all of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern Serbia into an "Italian-German quasi-protectorate".[58] NDH authorities, led by the Ustaše militia,[59] then implemented genocidal policies against the Serb, Jewish and Romani populations living in the new state.
Viktor Gutić made several speeches in early summer 1941, calling Serbs "former enemies" and "unwanted elements" to be cleansed and destroyed, and also threatened Croats who did not support their cause.[60] Much of the ideology of the Ustaše was based on Nazi racial theory. Like the Nazis, the Ustaše deemed Jews, Romani, and Slavs to be sub-humans (Untermensch). They endorsed the claims from German racial theorists that Croats were not Slavs but a Germanic race. Their genocides against Serbs, Jews, and Romani were thus expressions of Nazi racial ideology.[13]
In 1941, the usage of the Cyrillic script was banned,[61] and in June 1941 began the elimination of "Eastern" (Serbian) words from the Croatian language, as well as the shutting down of Serbian schools.[62] Ante Pavelić ordered, through the "Croatian state office for language", the creation of new words from old roots (some which are used today), and purged many Serbian words.[63]
Ustashe militias and death squads
The Ustaše Militia was organised in 1941 into five (later 15) 700-man battalions, two railway security battalions and the elite Black Legion and Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion (later Brigade). They were predominantly recruited among the uneducated population and working class.[64]
In the summer of 1941, Ustashe militias and death squads burnt villages and killed thousands of civilian Serbs in the country-side in sadistic ways with various weapons and tools. Men, women, children were hacked to death, thrown alive into pits and down ravines, or set on fire in churches.[60] Some Serb villages near Srebrenica and Ozren were wholly massacred while children were found impaled by stakes in villages between Vlasenica and Kladanj.[65] The Ustashe cruelty and sadism shocked even Nazi commanders.[66] A Gestapo report to Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler, dated 17 February 1942, stated:
Increased activity of the bands [of rebels] is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by Ustaše units in Croatia against the Orthodox population. The Ustaše committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age, but especially against helpless old people, women and children. The number of the Orthodox that the Croats have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand.[67]
Massacres
A large number of massacres were committed by the Ustashe. Some of the more notable ones were:
- Gudovac massacre (28 April 1941), 184–196 Serbs summary executed, after arrest orders by Kvaternik.
- Glina massacre (11–12 May 1941), 260–300 Serbs herded into an Orthodox church and shot, after which it was set on fire.
- Glina massacres (30 July–3 August 1941), 200 Serbs, willing to convert to Catholicism in return for amnesty, massacred at an Orthodox church. Between 500–2000 other Serbs later massacred in neighbouring villages by Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić's forces.
- Garavice massacres (July–September 1941), 15,000 Serbs massacred along with some Jews and Roma victims.
- Prebilovci massacre (4–6 August 1941), 650 Serb women and children killed by being thrown into the Golubinka pit. Some 4000 Serbs later massacred in neighbouring places during that summer.
Concentration camps
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Head_of_Serbian_orthodox_priest_and_Croatian_soldiers.jpg/220px-Head_of_Serbian_orthodox_priest_and_Croatian_soldiers.jpg)
The Ustashe set up temporary concentration camps in the spring of 1941 and laid the groundwork for a network of permanent camps in autumn.[6] The creation of concentration camps and extermination campaign of Serbs had been planned by the Ustashe leadership long before 1941.[68] In Ustashe state exhibits in Zagreb, the camps were portrayed as productive and "peaceful work camps", with photographs of smiling inmates.[69] Croatia was the only Axis satellite to have erected camps specifically for children.[6]
Serbs, Jews and Romani were arrested and sent to concentration camps such as Jasenovac, Stara Gradiška, Gospić and Jadovno. There were 22–26 camps in NDH in total.[70] Special camps for children were those at Sisak, Gornja Rijeka and Jastrebarsko,[71] while Stara Gradiška held thousands of children and women.[72]
The largest and most notorious camp was the Jasenovac-Stara Gradiška complex,[6] the largest extermination camp in the Balkans.[73] An estimated 100,000 inmates perished there, most Serbs.[74] Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić, the commander-in-chief of all the Croatian camps, announced the great "efficiency" of the Jasenovac camp at a ceremony on 9 October 1942, and also boasted: "We have slaughtered here at Jasenovac more people than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe."[75]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Srbosjek_%28knife%29_used_in_Croatia_-_1941%E2%80%931945.jpg/220px-Srbosjek_%28knife%29_used_in_Croatia_-_1941%E2%80%931945.jpg)
Bounded by rivers and two barbed-wire fences making escape unlikely, the Jasenovac camp was divided into five camps, the first two closed in December 1941, while the rest were active until the end of the war. Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V) held women and children. The Ciglana (brickyards, Jasenovac III) camp, the main killing ground and essentially a death camp, had 88% mortality rate, higher than Auschwitz's 84.6%.[72] A former brickyard, a furnace was engineered into a crematorium, with witness testimony of some, including children, being burnt alive and stench of human flesh spreading in the camp.[76] Luburić had a gas chamber built at Jasenovac V, where a considerable number of inmates were killed during a three-month experiment with sulfur dioxide and Zyklon B, but this method was abandoned due to poor construction.[77] Still, that method was unnecessary, as most inmates perished from starvation, disease (especially typhus), assaults with mallets, maces, axes, poison and knives.[77] The srbosjek ("Serb-cutter") was a glove with an attached curved blade designed to cut throats.[77] Large groups of people were regularly executed upon arrival outside camps and thrown into the river.[77] Unlike German-run camps, Jasenovac specialized in brutal one-on-one violence, such as guards attacking barracks with weapons and throwing the bodies in the trenches.[77] The infamous camp commander Filipović, dubbed fra Sotona ("brother Satan") and the "personification of evil", on one occasion drowned Serb women and children by flooding a cellar.[77] Filipović and other camp commanders (such as Dinko Šakić and his wife Nada Šakić, the sister of Maks Luburić), used ingenious torture.[77] There were throat-cutting contests of Serbs, in which prison guards made bets among themselves as to who could slaughter the most inmates. It was reported that guard and former Franciscan priest Petar Brzica won a contest on 29 August 1942 after cutting the throats of 1,360 inmates.[78] Inmates were tied and hit over the head with mallets and half-alive hung in groups by the Granik ramp crane, their intestines and necks slashed, then dropped into the river.[79] When the Partisans and Allies closed in at the end of the war, the Ustashe began mass liquidations at Jasenovac, marching women and children to death, and shooting most of the remaining male inmates, then torched buildings and documents before fleeing.[80]
Diana Budisavljević, a humanitarian of Austrian descent, carried out rescue operations and saved more than 15,000 children from Ustashe camps.[81][82]
Religious persecution
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Glina_church_massacre.jpg/220px-Glina_church_massacre.jpg)
The Ustashe viewed religion and nationality as being closely linked; while Roman Catholicism and Islam (Bosnian Muslims were viewed as Croats) were recognized as Croatian national religions, Eastern Orthodoxy was deemed inherently incompatible with the Croatian state project.[34] They saw Orthodoxy as hostile because it was identified as Serb.[83] On 3 May 1941 a law was passed on religious conversions, pressuring Serbs to convert to Catholicism and thereby adopt Croat identity.[34] This was made on the eve of Pavelić's meeting with Pope Pious XII in Rome.[84] The Catholic Church in Croatia, headed by archbishop Aloysius Stepinac, greeted it and adopted it into the Church's internal law.[84] The term "Serbian Orthodox" was banned in mid-May as being incompatible with state order, and the term "Greek-Eastern faith" was used in its place.[85] By the end of September 1941, about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy, 335 priests, had been expelled.[86]
The Ustaša movement is based on religion. Therefore, our acts stem from our devotion to religion and the Roman Catholic church.
— the chief Ustashe ideologist Mile Budak, 13 July 1941.[87]
Ustashe propaganda legitimized the persecution as being partially based on the historic Catholic–Orthodox struggle for domination in Europe and Catholic intolerance towards the "schismatics".[83] Following the Serb insurgency which was provoked by the Ustashe's reign of terror, killings and deportation campaign, the State Directorate for Regeneration launched a program in the autumn of 1941 which was aimed at the mass forced conversion of the Serbs.[83] Already in the summer, the Ustashe had closed or destroyed most of the Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries and deported, imprisoned or murdered Orthodox priests and bishops.[83] The conversions were meant to Croatianize and permanently destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church.[83] The Vatican was not opposed to the forced conversions. On 6 February 1942, Pope Pious XII privately received 206 Ustashes in uniforms and blessed them, symbolically supporting their actions.[88] On 8 February 1942 envoy to the Holy See Rusinović said that 'the Holy See joyed' over forced conversions.[89] In a 21 February 1942 letter to Cardinal Luigi Maglione, the Holy See's secretary encouraged the Croatian bishops to speed up the conversions, and he also stated that the term "Orthodox" should be replaced with the terms "apostates or schismatics".[90] Many fanatical Catholic priests joined the Ustashe, blessed and supported their work, and participated in killings and conversions.[91]
In 1941–1942,[92] some 200,000[93] or 240,000[94]–250,000[95] Serbs were converted to Roman Catholicism, although most of them only practiced it temporarily.[93] Converts would sometimes be killed anyway, often in the same churches where they were re-baptized.[93] 85% of the Serbian Orthodox clergy was killed or expelled.[96] In Lika, Kordun and Banija alone, 172 Serbian Orthodox churches were closed, destroyed, or plundered.[85] On 2 July 1942, the Croatian Orthodox Church was founded in order to replace the institutions of the Serbian Orthodox Church,[97] after the matter of forced conversion had become extremely controversial.[34]
Many Catholic bishops and priests in Croatia openly supported the Ustashe's actions, and the Catholic hierarchy did not issue any condemnation of the crimes, either publicly or privately.[98] In fact, The Croatian Catholic Church and the Vatican viewed the Ustashe's policies against the Serbs as being advantageous to Roman Catholicism.[99] Nevertheless, historian Tomasevich praised some of the public statements that were made by archbishop Aloysius Stepinac as well as some of his actions, but he also noted that these same statements and actions had shortcomings with regard to the Ustashe's genocidal actions against the Serbs and the Serbian Orthodox Church.[100] In his diary, Stepinac said that "Serbs and Croats are of two different worlds, north and south pole, which will never unite as long as one of them is alive", along with other similar views.[101] In 2016 Croatia's rehabilitation of Stepinac was negatively received in Serbia and Republika Srpska.
Expulsion
An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from NDH to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.[2] The general plan was to have prominent people deported first, so their property could be nationalized and the remaining Serbs could then be more easily manipulated. By the end of September 1941, about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy, 335 priests, had been expelled.[86]
Toll of victims and genocide classification
During the war as well as during Tito's Yugoslavia, various numbers were given for Yugoslavia's overall war casualties.[a] Estimates by Holocaust memorial centers also vary.[b] The historian Rory Yeomans concluded that the most conservative estimates state that 200,000 Serbs were killed by Ustashe death squads but the actual number of Serbs who were executed by the Ustashe or perished in Ustashe concentration camps may be as high as 500,000.[6] Jozo Tomasevich said that the exact number of victims in Yugoslavia is impossible to determine.[102] Sabrina P. Ramet estimated that at least 300,000 Serbs were "massacred by the Ustaše".[2]
In the 1980s, calculations of World War II victims in Yugoslavia were made by the Serb statistician Bogoljub Kočović and the Croat demographer Vladimir Žerjavić. Tomasevich described their studies as being objective and reliable.[103] Kočović estimated that 370–410,000 Serbs died in the NDH during the war.[5][104] He did not estimate the number of Serbs who were killed by the Ustaše, saying that in most cases, the task of categorizing the victims would be impossible.[105] Žerjavić estimated that the total number of Serb deaths in the NDH was 322,000, of which 125,000 died as combatants, while 197,000 were civilians. Žerjavić estimated that a total of 78,000 civilians were killed in Ustashe prisons, pits and camps, including Jasenovac, 45,000 civilians were killed by the Germans, 15,000 civilians were killed by the Italians, 34,000 civilians were killed in battles between the warring parties, and 25,000 civilians died of typhoid.[106] The number of victims who perished in the Jasenovac concentration camp remains a matter of debate, but current estimates put the total number at around 100,000, about half of whom were Serbs.[74]
In Serbia as well as in the eyes of Serbs, the Ustashe atrocities constituted a genocide.[107] Many historians and authors describe the Ustasha regime's mass killings of Serbs as meeting the definition of genocide, including Raphael Lemkin who is known for coining the word genocide and initiating the Genocide Convention.[108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117] Yad Vashem, Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, stated that “Ustasha carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000, and forcing another 250,000 to convert to Catholicism”.[118][119] The Simon Wiesenthal Center, also, mentioned that leaders of the Independent State of Croatia committed genocide against Serbs, Jews, and Roma.[120]
Presidents of Croatia, Stjepan Mesić and Ivo Josipović, as well as Bakir Izetbegović and Željko Komšić, Bosniak and Croat member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, also described the persecution of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia as a genocide.[121][122][123][124]
Catholic extremism was at the heart of Ustaše policy and this meant that many Serbs in the NDH were given the option of either converting to Catholicism or facing deportation to a concentration camp.[125] Serbs who refused to renounce the Orthodox Christian faith ultimately faced death in concentration camps across the NDH, especially at the Jasenovac concentration camp. In the post-war era, the Serbian Orthodox Church considered the Serbian victims of this genocide to be martys. As a result, the Serbian Orthodox Church commemorates the Holy New Martys of Jasenovac Concentration Camp on 13 September.[126]
Aftermath
World War II and especially its ethnic conflicts have been deemed instrumental in the later Yugoslav Wars (1991–95).[127]
After World War II, most of the remaining Ustashe went underground or fled to countries such as Australia, Canada, the United States and Germany, with the assistance of Roman Catholic clerics and grassroots supporters.
The Yugoslav communist government did not use the Jasenovac camp as was done with other European concentration camps, most likely due to Serb-Croat relations. Tito's government attempted to let the wounds heal and forge "brotherhood and unity" in the peoples.[128] Tito himself was invited to, and passed Jasenovac several times, but never visited the site.[129]
Ratlines, terrorism and assassinations
With the Partisan liberation of Yugoslavia, many Ustashe leaders fled and took refuge at the college of San Girolamo degli Illirici near the Vatican.[80] Catholic priest and Ustashe Krunoslav Draganović directed the fugitives from San Girolamo.[80] The US State Department and Counter-Intelligence Corps helped war criminals to escape, and assisted Draganović (who later worked for the American intelligence) in sending Ustashe abroad.[80] Many of those responsible for mass killings in NDH took refuge in South America, Portugal, Spain and the United States.[80] Luburić was assassinated in Spain in 1969 by an UDBA agent; Artuković lived in Ireland and California until extradited in 1986 and died of natural causes in prison; Dinko Šakić and his wife Nada lived in Argentina until extradited in 1998, Dinko dying in prison and his wife released.[80] Draganović also arranged Gestapo functionary Klaus Barbie's flight.[80]
In the Croat diaspora, the Ustashe became heroes.[80] Ustashe émigré terrorist groups in the diaspora (such as Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood and Croatian National Resistance) carried out assassinations and bombings, and also plane hijackings, throughout the Yugoslav period.[130]
Notable war-criminals
- Ante Pavelić (1889–1959), founder and supreme leader (Poglavnik) of Ustashe. Hid in Italy, Argentine, Chile and Spain. Survived assassination attempts.
- Andrija Artuković (1899–1988), Croatian Minister of Interior. Died in Croatian custody.
- Slavko Kvaternik (1878–1947), Ustashe military commander-in-chief. Executed by Yugoslav authorities.
- Dido Kvaternik (1910–1962), Ustashe secret police leader, son of Slavko. Died in car accident in Argentina.
- Jure Francetić (1912–1942), Ustashe commander of the Black Legion, ordered massacres of Serbs in Bosnia. Plane downed by Partisans.
- Vjekoslav Luburić (1914–1969), commander of the Ustaše Defence Brigades (Ustaška Odbrana) and Jasenovac camp. Murdered by colleague in Spain.
- Mile Budak (1889–1945), Croatian politician and chief Ustashe ideologist, executed for war crimes and crimes against humanity on 7 June 1945.
- Dinko Šakić (1921–2008), Ustaše leader, commander of Jasenovac. Fled to Argentina but was eventually extradited, tried and sentenced, in 1999, by Croatian authorities to 20 years in prison, dying in prison.
- Nada Šakić (1926–2011), Jasenovac camp guard, sister of Maks Luburić and wife of Dinko. She escaped punishment as Argentina refused to extradite her.
- Miroslav Filipović (1915–1946; born Miroslav Filipović), Franciscan friar and Jasenovac camp commander infamous for his sadism and cruelty, known as "brother Satan". Captured by Partisans, tried and executed in 1946.
- Petar Brzica (1917–?), Franciscan friar who won a contest on 29 August 1942 after cutting the throats of 1,360 inmates at the Jasenovac camp.[78] His post-war fate is unknown.
Controversy
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Revisionism in modern-day Croatia
Some Croats, including politicians, have attempted to minimise the magnitude of the genocide perpetrated against Serbs in the World War II puppet state of Germany, the Independent State of Croatia.[131]
By 1989, the future President of Croatia, Franjo Tuđman (who had been a Partisan during World War II), had embraced Croatian nationalism, and published Horrors of War: Historical Reality and Philosophy, in which he questioned the official number of victims killed by the Ustaše during the Second World War. In his book, Tuđman claimed that fewer than thirty-thousand people died at Jasenovac.[citation needed] Tuđman also estimated that a total of 900,000 Jews had perished in the Holocaust.[132] Tuđman's views and his government's toleration of Ustaša symbols frequently strained relations with Israel.[133] Nonetheless, in his book, he did confirm that genocide happened:
It is a historical fact that the Ustasha regime of NDH, in its implementation of the plan to reduce the 'hostile Serb Orthodox people in Croatian lands', committed a large genocidal crime over the Serbs, and proportionately even higher over the Roma and Jews, in the implementation of Nazi racial politics.[134]
An example of ultranationalist, anti-Serb sentiment in contemporary Croatian public life is Thompson, a Croatian rock band that has been protested against on numerous occasions for having sung Ustaše songs, most notably Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara. People publicly displaying Ustaše affiliation at Thompson concerts in Croatia and elsewhere is a frequent occurrence, leading to complaints from the Simon Wiesenthal Center.[135]
In 2006, a video was leaked showing Croatian President Stipe Mesić giving a speech in Australia in the early 1990s, in which he said that the Croats had "won a great victory on April 10th" (the date of the formation of the Independent State of Croatia in 1941), and that Croatia needed to apologize to no one for Jasenovac.[136] Later on, Mesić apologized for his indecent statement and stated that he undoubtedly considered anti-fascism to be the basis of modern-day Croatia, appreciated Yugoslav Partisans and considered it necessary to "reaffirm anti-fascism as a human and civilization commitment in the function of the unavoidable condition for the building of a democratic Croatia, a country of equal citizens."[137]
On 17 April 2011, in a commemoration ceremony, Croatian President Ivo Josipović warned that there were "attempts to drastically reduce or decrease the number of Jasenovac victims", adding, "faced with the devastating truth here that certain members of the Croatian people were capable of committing the cruelest of crimes, I want to say that all of us are responsible for the things that we do." At the same ceremony, then Croatian Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor said, "there is no excuse for the crimes and therefore the Croatian government decisively rejects and condemns every attempt at historical revisionism and rehabilitation of the fascist ideology, every form of totalitarianism, extremism and radicalism... Pavelić's regime was a regime of evil, hatred and intolerance, in which people were abused and killed because of their race, religion, nationality, their political beliefs and because they were the others and were different."[138]
Croatian historian and politician Zlatko Hasanbegović, who previously served as the country's Minister of Culture in 2016, has been accused of downplaying the crimes of the Ustaše and trying to rehabilitate their ideas in his work.[139] In 1996, Hasanbegović wrote at least two articles in the magazine "The Independent State of Croatia", edited by the small far-right Croatian Liberation Movement party (HOP), in which he glorified the Ustaše as heroes and martyrs and denied crimes committed by the regime.[140] In response, Hasanbegović denied being an apologist for the regime, stating that Ustaša crimes during the Second World War were "the biggest moral lapse" of the Croatian people in their history and that his words were taken out of context for political manipulation.[141] An old black-and-white photo also resurfaced from the 1990s, published in the same magazine of Hasanbegović wearing a cap with what is allegedly an Ustaše Militia badge.[142] He claimed the photo had been manipulated and that he wore a black cap of the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS).[143]
Croatian mathematician Josip Pečarić wrote books titled Serbian myth about Jasenovac[144] and Otkrivanje jasenovačkih laži[145] which claimed that the total number of victims in Jasenovac concentration camp was drastically lower. He went on to label Jasenovac concetration camp "a myth".[146] Pečarić also negated The Holocaust.[147][148] Director of Simon Wiesenthal Center from Jerusalem criticized Pečarić's statements and called for a ban of Ustashe symbols.[149]
Croatian Wikipedia
The Croatian Wikipedia has received attention from international media for promoting a fascist worldview as well as a bias against Serbs by means of historical revisionism and negating or diluting the severity of the crimes that were committed by the Ustaše regime. The controversy erupted in September 2013 when a group of exiled Wikipedians started a Facebook page in order to discuss the takeover of the Croatian Wikipedia by right-wingers, bringing the issue to the attention of Croatian and Serbian news outlets.[150] The issue was reported by Croatia's daily Jutarnji list and even made its print edition's front page on 11 September 2013.[151] Croatia's Minister of Science, Education and Sports, Željko Jovanović, called for pupils and students in Croatia to avoid using the Croatian Wikipedia due to its dubious and forged content.[152] Robert Kurelić, a professor of history at the Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, commented that Croatian Wikipedia administrators "want to exploit high-school and university students, the most common users of Wikipedia, to change their opinions and attitudes, which presents a serious issue".[153] Snježana Koren, a historian at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, in an interview with Croatian news agency HINA stated that the ulterior motive of controversial articles in the Croatian Wikipedia is to rehabilitate the Independent State of Croatia.[154] In one pertinent example, the Croatian page on the Jasenovac concentration camp refers to the camp as both a “collection camp” and a labor camp, and it downplays the crimes that were committed at Jasenovac, as well as the number of victims who died there, and it also relies on right-wing media and private blogs as references.[155] Apart from whitewashing the crimes and vices of World War II-era criminals, the same thing is done for contemporary Croatian politicians and public figures.[156]
Revisionism in the Croat diaspora
In 2008, in Melbourne, Australia, a Croat restaurant held a celebration to honour Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić. The event was an "outrageous affront both to his victims and to any persons of morality and conscience who oppose racism and genocide", Dr. Efraim Zuroff, of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, stated. According to local press reports, a large photograph of Pavelić was hung in the restaurant, T-shirts with his picture and pictures of two other commanders who served in the 1941–45 Ustaše government were offered for sale at the bar, and the establishment of the Independent State of Croatia was celebrated. Zuroff noted that this was not the first time in which Croatian émigrés in Australia had openly defended Croat Nazi war criminals.
It is high time that the authorities in Australia find a way to take the necessary measures to stop such celebrations, which clearly constitute racist, ethnic, and anti-Semitic incitement against Serbs, Jews, and Gypsies.[157]
Ustaše gold
The Ustaše deposited large amounts of gold that it plundered from Serbian and Jewish property owners during World War II in Swiss bank accounts. Of a total of 350 million Swiss Francs, about 150 million were seized by British troops; however, the remaining 200 million (c. 47 million dollars) reached the Vatican. In October 1946, the American intelligence agency SSU alleged that these funds are still being held in the Vatican Bank. This matter is the crux of a recent class action lawsuit against the Vatican Bank and other defendants.[158]
Commemoration
Israeli President Moshe Katsav visited Jasenovac in 2003. His successor, Shimon Peres, paid homage to the camp's victims when he visited Jasenovac on 25 July 2010 and laid a wreath at the memorial. Peres dubbed the Ustaše's crimes a "demonstration of sheer sadism".[159][160]
The Jasenovac Memorial Museum reopened in November 2006 with a new exhibition designed by a Croatian architect, Helena Paver Njirić, and an Educational Center, designed by the firm Produkcija. The Memorial Museum features an interior of rubber-clad steel modules, video and projection screens, and glass cases displaying artifacts from the camp. Above the exhibition space, which is quite dark, is a field of glass panels inscribed with the names of the victims.
The New York City Parks Department, the Holocaust Park Committee and the Jasenovac Research Institute, with the help of then-Congressman Anthony Weiner (D-NY), established a public monument to the victims of Jasenovac in April 2005 (the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of the camps.) The dedication ceremony was attended by ten Yugoslavian Holocaust survivors, as well as diplomats from Serbia, Bosnia and Israel. It remains the only public monument to Jasenovac victims outside the Balkans.
See also
- Anti-Serb sentiment
- Anti-Eastern Orthodox sentiment
- Catholic clergy involvement with the Ustaše
- The Holocaust
Annotations
- ^ During the war, German military commanders gave different figures for the number of Serbs, Jews, and others killed by the Ustaše inside the NDH. Alexander Löhr claimed 400,000 Serbs killed, Massenbach around 700,000. Hermann Neubacher stated that Ustashe claims of a million Serbs slaughtered was a "boastful exaggeration", and believed that the number of 'defenseless victims slaughtered to be three-quarters of a million'. The Vatican cited 350,000 Serbs slaughtered by the end of 1942 (Eugène Tisserant).[161] Yugoslavia presented 1,700,000 as its war casualties, produced by mathematician Vladeta Vučković, at the Paris Peace Treaties (1947). A secret 1964 government list counted 597,323 victims (out of which 346,740 were Serbs). In the 1980s Croat economist Vladimir Žerjavić concluded that the number of victims was around one million. Furthermore, he claimed that the number of victims in the Independent State of Croatia was between 300,000 and 350,000, out of which 80,000 victims in Jasenovac.[citation needed] Since the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Croatian side began suggesting substantially smaller numbers.
- ^ The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum lists (as of 2012) a total of 320,000–340,000 ethnic Serbs killed in Croatia and Bosnia, and 45–52,000 killed at Jasenovac.[162] The Yad Vashem center claims that more than 500,000 Serbs were murdered in Croatia, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert to Catholicism.[163]
- ^ The only official Yugoslav data of war-victims in Kosovo and Metohija is from 1964, and counted 7,927 people, out of which 4,029 were Serbs, 1,460 Montenegrins, and 2,127 Albanians.[167]
{{Cnote2|c|According to K. Ungváry the actual number of Serbs deported was 25,000.[164] Ramet cites the German statement.[165] Serbian Orthodox bishop in America Dionisije Milivojević claimed 50,000 Serb colonists and settlers deported and 60,000 killed in the Hungarian occupation.[166]
Footnotes
- ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 158.
- ^ a b c Ramet 2006, p. 114.
- ^ Baker 2015, p. 18.
- ^ Bellamy 2013, p. 96.
- ^ a b Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34.
- ^ a b c d e Yeomans 2013, p. 18.
- ^ Christia 2012, p. 206.
- ^ a b Korb 2010b, p. 512.
- ^ Bartulin 2013, p. 5.
- ^ Touval 2001, p. 105.
- ^ Lampe, John; Mazower, Mark (2006). Ideologies and National Identities:. Central European University Press. p. 54-109. ISBN 9789639241824.
- ^ Cyprian, Blamires (2006). World Fascism: A-K. ABC-CLIO. p. 691. ISBN 9781576079409.
- ^ a b Fischer, Bernd J., ed. (2007). Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South-Eastern Europe. Purdue University Press. pp. 207–208, 210, 226. ISBN 978-1-55753-455-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - ^ Mojzes 2008, p. 158.
- ^ Ramet, Sabrina P. (2005). Thinking about Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates about the Yugoslav Breakup and the Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-52161-690-4.
- ^ Noel Malcolm (2004). Kosovo: A Chain of Causes 1225 B.C. - 1991 and Consequences 1991-1999. Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia. pp. 1–27.
- ^ Brown, L. Carl (1996). Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East. Columbia University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-2311-0305-3.
- ^ a b c Trencsényi & Kopecek 2007, p. 238–243.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
cohen
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Bataković, Dušan T. (2014). The Foreign Policy of Serbia (1844-1867): IIija Garašanin's Načertanije. Balkanološki institut SANU. p. 256. ISBN 978-8-6717-9089-5.
- ^ a b c d Fischer 2007, p. 207. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFischer2007 (help)
- ^ Kurt Jonassohn; Karin Solveig Björnson (January 1998). Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective. Transaction Publishers. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-4128-2445-3. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
- ^ Carmichael, Cathie (2012). Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition. Routledge. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-134-47953-5. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
- ^ Fischer 2007, pp. 207–208. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFischer2007 (help)
- ^ Bilandžić, Dušan (1999). Hrvatska moderna povijest. Golden marketing. p. 31. ISBN 953-6168-50-2.
- ^ a b Boban 1993.
- ^ "Croatia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
- ^ Rogel 2004, p. 6.
- ^ Rogel 2004, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Newman, John Paul (2017). "War Veterans, Fascism, and Para-Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, 1918–1941". FASCISM. 6: 63.
- ^ "YU Historija... ::: Dobro dosli ... Prva Jugoslavija". www.yuhistorija.com. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 404.
- ^ a b c Rogel 2004, p. 8.
- ^ a b c d Ramet 2006, p. 118.
- ^ Goldstein 1999, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Hoptner 1962, p. 25.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 92.
- ^ Mojzes 2011, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 108.
- ^ Roberts 1973, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 32.
- ^ Ladislaus Hory und Martin Broszat. Der kroatische Ustascha-Staat, Deutsche Verlag-Anstalt, Stuttgart, 2. Auflage 1965, pp. 13–38, 75–80. (in German)
- ^ Tomasevich 1975, p. 43.
- ^ Roberts 1973, p. 14.
- ^ Roberts 1973, p. 15.
- ^ Hory & Broszat 1964, pp. 13–38.
- ^ Jan Nelis; Anne Morelli; Danny Praet (2015). Catholicism and Fascism in Europe 1918 – 1945: Edited by Jan Nelis, Anne Morelli and Danny Praet. Georg Olms Verlag. pp. 365–. ISBN 978-3-487-42127-8.
- ^ Viktor Meier. Yugoslavia: A History of Its Demise English edition. London, UK: Routledge, 1999, p. 125.
- ^ Rory Yeomans (April 2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945. University of Pittsburgh Pre. pp. 52–. ISBN 978-0-8229-7793-3.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 351–52.
- ^ a b Butić-Jelić, Fikreta. Ustaše i Nezavisna Država Hrvatska 1941–1945. Liber, 1977.
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- ^ Fischer 2007, p. ?. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFischer2007 (help)
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 466.
- ^ "Deciphering the Balkan Enigma: Using History to Inform Policy" (PDF). Retrieved 3 June 2011.
- ^ Jones, Adam & Nicholas A. Robins. (2009), Genocides by The Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide In Theory and Practice, p. 106, Indiana University Press; ISBN 978-0-253-22077-6
- ^ Jacobs, Steven L. Confronting Genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, pp. 158–59, Lexington Books, 2009; ISBN 978-0-739-13590-7
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 272.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 397–409.
- ^ a b Yeomans 2013, p. 17.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 312.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 61.
- ^ Fischer 2007, p. 228. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFischer2007 (help)
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 301.
- ^ Paris 1961, p. 104. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFParis1961 (help)
- ^ Yeomans 2013, p. vii.
- ^ Goñi, Uki. The real Odessa: Smuggling the Nazis to Perón's Argentina; Granta, 2002, p. 202. ISBN 9781862075818
- ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 16.
- ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 2.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 69.
- ^ Bulajić 2002, p. 7.
- ^ a b Levy 2011, p. 70.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 21, Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34
- ^ a b Yeomans 2015, p. 3, Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34
- ^ Paris 1961, p. 132. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFParis1961 (help)
- ^ Levy 2011, pp. 70–71.
- ^ a b c d e f g Levy 2011, p. 71.
- ^ a b Lituchy 2006, p. 117.
- ^ Bulajić 2002, p. 231.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Levy 2011, p. 72.
- ^ Kolanović, Josip, ed. (2003). Dnevnik Diane Budisavljević 1941–1945. Zagreb: Croatian State Archives and Public Institution Jasenovac Memorial Area. pp. 284–85. ISBN 978-9-536-00562-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - ^ Lomović, Boško (2014). Die Heldin aus Innsbruck – Diana Obexer Budisavljević. Belgrade: Svet knjige. p. 28. ISBN 978-86-7396-487-4.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - ^ a b c d e Yeomans 2015, p. 178.
- ^ a b Vuković 2004, p. 431.
- ^ a b Ramet 2006, p. 119.
- ^ a b Tomasevich 2001, p. 394.
- ^ Paris 1961, p. 100. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFParis1961 (help)
- ^ Vuković 2004, p. 430.
- ^ Vuković 2004, p. 430, Rivelli 1999, p. 171
- ^ Vuković 2004, p. 431, Dakina 1994, p. 209, Simić 1958, p. 139
- ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 64.
- ^ Djilas 1991, p. 211.
- ^ a b c Mojzes 2011, p. 63.
- ^ Vuković 2004, p. 431, Đurić 1991, p. 127, Djilas 1991, p. 211, Paris 1988, p. 197
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 542.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 529.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 546.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 531, 537.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 565.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 563–564.
- ^ Vuković 2004, p. 432.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 719.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 736–737.
- ^ Kočović 2005, p. XVII.
- ^ Kočović 2005, p. 113.
- ^ Žerjavić 1993, p. 10.
- ^ Rapaić 1999, Krestić 1998, SANU 1995, Kurdulija 1993, Bulajić 1992 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBulajić1992 (help), Kljakić 1991
- ^ McCormick 2014, McCormick 2008
- ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 5.
- ^ Levy 2011.
- ^ Lemkin 2008, pp. 259–264.
- ^ Mojzes 2008, p. 154.
- ^ Rivelli 1999.
- ^ Paris 1961. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFParis1961 (help)
- ^ Samuel Totten; William S. Parsons (2004). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Routledge. p. 422. ISBN 978-1-135-94558-9.
The Independent State of Croatia willingly cooperated with the Nazi "Final Solution" against Jews and Gypsies, but went beyond it, launching a campaign of genocide against Serbs in "greater Croatia." The Ustasha, like the Nazis whom they emulated, established concentration camps and death camps.
- ^ Michael Lees (1992). The Serbian Genocide 1941–1945. Serbian Orthodox Diocese of Western America.
- ^ John Pollard (30 October 2014). The Papacy in the Age of Totalitarianism, 1914–1958. OUP Oxford. pp. 407–. ISBN 978-0-19-102658-4.
- ^ "Ustasa" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
- ^ "Croatian President Mesic Apologizes for Croatian Crimes Against the Jews during the Holocaust". Yad Vashem.
- ^ "Wiesenthal Center Condemns Whitewash of Ustasha Crimes by MEP Ruža Tomašić". Simon Wiesenthal Center.
- ^ "Mesić: Jasenovac je bio poprište genocida, holokausta i ratnih zločina". Index.hr.
- ^ "Hrvatska odala poštu žrtvama Jasenovca". balkaninsight.com.
- ^ "Bio sam razočaran što Vučić ne prihvata sudske presude". N1.
- ^ "Hrvatska niječe genocid počinjen u vreme NDH – Željko Komšić pred dužnosnikom UN-a Hrvatsku usporedio s Republikom Srpskom". jutarnji.hr].
- ^ Paris, Edmond (1961). Genocide in Satellite Croatia 1941–1945. King's. p. 157. ISBN 978-1258163464.
- ^ "For the glory and honour of the New Martyrs of Jasenovac". Serbian Orthodox Church. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
- ^ Kataria 2015, Mirković 2000, Krestić 1998, Dedijer 1992
- ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 47.
- ^ Bulajić 2001, p. 67.
- ^ Paul Hockenos (2003). Homeland Calling: Exile Patriotism & the Balkan Wars. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4158-5.
- ^ Drago Hedl (10 November 2005). "Croatia's Willingness To Tolerate Fascist Legacy Worries Many". BCR Issue 73. IWPR. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
- ^ Schemo, Diana Jean (22 April 1993). "Anger Greets Croatian's Invitation To Holocaust Museum Dedication". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ "Croatia probes why Hitler image was on sugar packets". Reuters. 20 February 2007. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
- ^ Boris Havel (2015). "O izučavanju holokausta u Hrvatskoj i hrvatskoj državotvornosti". Nova Prisutnost. 13 (1): 105. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
Povijesna je činjenica da je ustaški režim NDH, u provedbi svojih planova o smanjenju 'neprijateljskog srpsko-pravoslavnog pučanstva u hrvatskim zemljama' izvršio velik genocidni zločin nad Srbima, a razmjerno još veći nad Romima i Židovima, u provedbi nacističke rasne politike.
- ^ "Wiesenthal Center Expresses Outrage At Massive Outburst of Nostalgia for Croatian fascism at Zagreb Rock Concert; Urges President Mesić to Take Immediate Action" Archived 25 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, wiesenthal.com; accessed 4 March 2014.
- ^ (in Croatian) Vijesti.net: "stari govor Stipe Mesića: Pobijedili smo 10. travnja!", index.hr; accessed 4 March 2014.
- ^ "STIPE MESIĆ O SVOJIM IZJAVAMA O NDH I USTAŠTVU U AUSTRALIJI 'Dopustio sam da me upregnu u kola jednostrane interpretacije povijesti'". Jutarnji Vjesti. 13 February 2016.
- ^ "Croatian Auschwitz must not be forgotten". B92. 17 April 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
- ^ Hockenos, Paul (6 May 2016). "Croatia's Far Right Weaponizes the Past". ForeignPolicy.com.
- ^ Simicevic, Hrvoje (12 February 2016). "What were the Ustasa for Minister Hasanbegovic?". BalkanInsight.com.
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- ^ "Croatian Minister of Culture Hasanbegovic's Perceived Past Ustasha Sympathies Dominate National Media". Total Croatia News. 11 February 2016.
- ^ "Hasanbegović: Na slici sam ja, kapa nije ustaška već HOS-ova". 24sata.hr. 10 February 2016.
- ^ "Serbian myth about Jasenovac / Josip Pečarić ; [translation Ivana Pečarić] - Collections Search - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". collections.ushmm.org. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ "JASENOVAČKE LAŽI - Iskopavanja ne lažu". www.hrvatski-fokus.hr. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ Bertović, Zrinka (26 May 2016). "Akademik Pečarić: Mit o Jasenovcu poslužio je prikrivanju zločina koje su počinili komunisti i 'antifašisti'". narod.hr (in Croatian). Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ "Sramotna knjiga o logoru Jasenovac". Radio Televizija BN. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
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- ^ Sampson, Tim (1 October 2013). "How pro-fascist ideologues are rewriting Croatia's history". dailydot.com.
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(help) - Rivelli, Marco Aurelio (1999). L'arcivescovo del genocidio: Monsignor Stepinac, il Vaticano e la dittatura ustascia in Croazia, 1941–1945 [The Archbishop of Genocide: Monsignor Stepinac, the Vatican and the Ustaše dictatorship in Croatia, 1941–1945] (in Italian). Milano: Kaos.
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(help) - Trencsényi, Balázs; Kopecek, Michal (2007). National Romanticism: The Formation of National Movements: Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe 1770–1945, volume II. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 9786155211249.
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(help) - Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 9780822977933.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Yeomans, Rory (2015). The Utopia of Terror: Life and Death in Wartime Croatia. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 9781580465458.
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(help) - Žerjavić, Vladimir (1993). Yugoslavia: Manipulations with the Number of Second World War Victims. Zagreb, Croatia: Croatian Information Centre. ISBN 0-919817-32-7.
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Journals
- Antonijević, Nenad (2003). "Stradanje srpskog i crnogorskog civilnog stanovništva na Kosovu i Metohiji 1941. godine". Dijalog Povjesničara-istoričara. 8: 355–369.
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(help) - Antonijević, Nenad M. (2016). "Ратни злочини на Косову и Метохији: 1941–1945. године". Универзитет у Београду, Филозофски факултет.
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(help) - Bartulin, Nevenko (October 2007). "Ideologija nacije i rase: ustaški režim i politika prema Srbima u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj 1941–1945" (PDF). Radovi (in Croatian). 39 (1): 209–241. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
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(help) - Bartulin, Nevenko (2008). "The Ideology of Nation and Race: The Croatian Ustasha Regime and its Policies toward the Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia 1941–1945". Croatian Studies Review. 5: 75–102.
- Biondich, Mark (2005). "Religion and Nation in Wartime Croatia: Reflections on the Ustaša Policy of Forced Religious Conversions, 1941–1942". The Slavonic and East European Review. 83 (1): 71–116. JSTOR 4214049.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Biondich, Mark (2006). "Controversies Surrounding the Catholic Church in Wartime Croatia, 1941–45". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 7 (4): 429–457. doi:10.1080/14690760600963222.
- Biondich, Mark (2007b). "Radical Catholicism and Fascism in Croatia, 1918–1945". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 8 (2): 383–399. doi:10.1080/14690760701321346.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Boban, Ljubo (1993). "Kada je i kako nastala Država Slovenaca, Hrvata i Srba" [When and how did the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs come into existence (Summary)]. Journal of the Institute of Croatian History. 26 (1): 187–198.
{{cite journal}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Byford, Jovan (2007). "When I say "The Holocaust," I mean "Jasenovac": Remembrance of the Holocaust in contemporary Serbia". East European Jewish Affairs. 37 (1): 51–74. doi:10.1080/13501670701197946.
- Cvetković, Dragan (2011). "Holokaust u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj – numeričko određenje" [Holocaust in Independent State of Croatia] (PDF). Istorija 20. Veka: Časopis Instituta Za Savremenu Istoriju. 29 (1): 163–182. doi:10.29362/ist20veka.2011.1.cve.163-182. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
- Hehn, Paul N. (1971). "Serbia, Croatia and Germany 1941–1945: Civil War and Revolution in the Balkans". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 13 (4): 344–373. doi:10.1080/00085006.1971.11091249.
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(help) - Kataria, Shyamal (2015). "Serbian Ustashe Memory and Its Role in the Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995". Mediterranean Quarterly. 26 (2): 115–127. doi:10.1215/10474552-2914550.
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(help) - Krestić, Vasilije (1986). "O genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH". Književne Novine. 15.
- Levy, Michele Frucht (2009). ""The Last Bullet for the Last Serb": The Ustaša Genocide against Serbs: 1941–1945". Nationalities Papers. 37 (6): 807–837. doi:10.1080/00905990903239174.
- Lisac, A. L. (1956). "Deportacije Srba iz Hrvatske 1941". Historijski Zbornik. 9: 125–145.
- McCormick, Rob (2008). "The United States' Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 3 (1): 75–98. doi:10.1353/gsp.2011.0060.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Mirković, D. (2000). "The historical link between the Ustasha genocide and the Croato-Serb civil war: 1991‐1995". Journal of Genocide Research. 2 (3): 363–373. doi:10.1080/713677614.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Škiljan, F. (2007). "Stradanje Srba u Jasenovcu u Drugom svjetskom ratu". Pro Tempore: časopis Studenata Povijesti. 4: 40–46.
- Škiljan, F. (2004). "Hate speech in Independent State of Croatia during WWII". Ljetopis Srpskog Kulturnog Društva Prosvjeta. 9: 243–.
- Škiljan, F. (2012). "Organizirano masovno prisilno iseljavanje Srba iz Hrvatske 1941. godine".
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(help) - Stojanović, Aleksandar (2017). "A Beleaguered Church: The Serbian Orthodox Church in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) 1941–1945". Balcanica. 48 (48): 269–287. doi:10.2298/BALC1748269S.
- Vukčević, Slavko (1995). "Ratni zločini i genocid u Jugoslaviji od 1941. do 1945. godine" [War crimes and genocide in Yugoslavia from 1941 till 1945]. Vojno Delo. 47 (3): 192–200.
- Vuković, Slobodan V. (2004). "Uloga Vatikana u razbijanju Jugoslavije". Sociološki Pregled. 38 (3): 423–443. doi:10.5937/socpreg0403423V.
{{cite journal}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Yeomans, Rory (2005). "Cults of Death and Fantasies of Annihilation: The Croatian Ustasha Movement in Power, 1941–45". Central Europe. 3 (2): 121–142. doi:10.1179/147909605x69383.
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Other
- SANU (1995). Genocid nad Srbima u II svetskom ratu. Muzej žrtava genocida i Srpska književna zadruga.
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(help) - Schindley, Wanda; Makara, Petar, eds. (2005). Jasenovac: Proceedings of the First International Conference and Exhibit on the Jasenovac Concentration Camps. Dallas Publishing. ISBN 9780912011646.
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(help) - Gutman, Israel, ed. (1990). "Ustase". Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. Vol. 4. Macmillan.
- Latinović, Goran (2006). "On Croatian history textbooks". Association of Descendants and Supporters of Victims of Complex of Death Camps NDH, Gospić-Jadovno-Pag 1941.
External links
- "Genocide in Croatia 1941–1945" (Document). Serbian National Defense Council of Canada; Serbian National Defense Council of America. 1976.
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- 1941 establishments in Croatia
- 1945 disestablishments in Croatia
- Anti-Eastern Orthodoxy in Catholicism
- Axis war crimes in Yugoslavia
- Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II
- Catholicisation
- Croatia in World War II
- Eastern Orthodox–Catholic conflicts
- Ethnic cleansing in Europe
- Genocide denial
- Genocides in Europe
- Genocides
- History of Catholicism in Europe
- History of the Serbs of Croatia
- Persecution by Christians
- Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians
- Persecution of Serbs
- Persecution of ethnic groups by fascist regimes
- Political controversies in Yugoslavia
- Serbia in World War II
- The Holocaust in Yugoslavia
- Ustaše
- War crimes of the Independent State of Croatia