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Mangalorean Catholics

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Mangalorean Catholics
Kodialche Katholik


Freida PintoTemplate:•wGenelia D'SouzaTemplate:•wSundeep MalaniTemplate:•wGeorge FernandesTemplate:•w
Regions with significant populations
     →Mangalore Diocese (2001)~360,000[1]
     →Mangalore City (1970s)~60,000[2]
     →Bombay (1960s)~29,500[3]
     →Madras (1871)3,604[4]
     →Calcutta (2004)~200[5]
Languages
Konkani
Religion
Christianity (Roman Catholicism)
Related ethnic groups
Konkani people, Goan Catholics, Karwari Catholics, Indo-Aryans

Mangalorean Catholics (Konkani: Kodialche Katholik) are Roman Catholics from the Mangalore Diocese (erstwile South Canara district) on the southwestern coast of India, and their descendants.[2] They are Konkani people and speak the Konkani language. Portuguese shipping arrived in Mangalore in 1526, and Catholic missionary activities began around 1534, when Canara was placed under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Bishop of Goa.

Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from the Goan Catholic settlers, who had migrated to South Canara from Goa, a state north of Canara, between 1560 and 1763 during the Goa Inquisition and the Portuguese-Maratha wars.[6][7] Gradually they learned the languages of South Canara but retained Konkani as their mother tongue and preserved their lifestyle.[8] Although most of the converts came from Goa, a considerable number of Mangalorean Catholics were converted by the Portuguese in South Canara.[9] The most disconsolate memory in the community's history was a 15-year captivity imposed by Tippu Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, from 24 February 1784 to 4 May 1799 at Seringapatam.[10] After the defeat of Tippu Sultan, the community resettled in South Canara, and gradually prospered under the British.[11][12] Although early assertions of being Mangalorean Catholics date from the migration period, a developed Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity emerged following the captivity.

The culture of Mangalorean Catholics is a blend of Mangalorean and Goan cultures. After migration, they adopted the local Mangalorean culture but retained many of their Goan customs and traditions. The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is globally concentrated in the Persian Gulf Arab states and the Anglosphere.[13]

Ethnic identity

The Roman Catholics from the Mangalore Diocese (erstwile South Canara district), located at 13°00′N 75°24′E / 13.00°N 75.40°E / 13.00; 75.40 [14] and their descendents are generally known as Mangalorean Catholics.[2] The diocese falls on the southwestern coast of India. At present, it comprises the whole civil districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka state, and Kasaragod taluk of Kerala state. This region was collectively referred as South Canara during the British regime, prior to the States Reorganisation Act (1956).[1][15] In 1526, after Portuguese shipping arrived in Mangalore, while the number of local converts slowly increased, an immigration of Christians from Goa to South Canara started on a large scale, in the second half of the 16th century. These Goan immigrants were reluctant to learn the local languages of South Canara. They continued to speak Konkani, the language which they brought from Goa, and the local Christians had to learn Konkani if they wanted to converse with these people. Slowly even these local converts were assimilated into the Konkani stock. Thus, the ethnic identity of the community is confined to the Konkani culture and language.[16]

After migration, the skilled Goan Catholic agriculturists were offered various land grants by the native Bednore rulers of South Canara. Thus they were allowed to preserve their lifestyle.[8] Most migrants came from the lower economic strata, who had been left out of Government and economic jobs, and their lands confiscated due to heavy taxation, under the Portuguese in Goa. As a consequence of the wealth and privilege which these Goan migrants enjoyed in Mangalore, they began feeling superior to their landless brethren in Goa. They no longer identified to their caste-based community in Goa. With the release from the captivity at Seringapatam from 1784-1799 came a sense of purpose, a sense of common identity, among the Mangalorean Catholics who had hitherto considered themselves mainly as an extension of the larger Goan Catholic community. In its rebirth, for the first time a separate Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity was formed.[17][18] Even after their captivity at Seringapatam, where many died, were killed, or forcibly converted to Islam, the British employment on ships, their prosperity under the British and Italian Jesuit regimes, their migration and employment to Bombay, Persian Gulf Arab States, and the Anglosphere enabled the community to restore their identity.[19]

History

Main article: History of Mangalorean Catholics

Pre-migration era

St Mary's Islands in South Canara, where the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama landed in 1498

All records of an early existence of Christians in South Canara were lost at the time of their deportation by Tippu Sultan in 1784. Hence, it is not known when exactly Christianity was introduced in South Canara, although it is possible that Syrian Christians settled in South Canara just as they did in Kerala, a state south of Canara.[20] The Italian traveler Marco Polo recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the Red Sea and the Canara coast in the 13th century. It can be surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce and possibly some Christian priests might have accompanied them for evangelistic work.[21] In April 1321, the French Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani of Severac (in south-western France) with four other friars landed at Thana.[22] He then travelled to Bhatkal in North Canara, a port town on the coastal route from Thana to Quilon.[23][24] Being the first bishop of India and the Quilon Diocese, he was entrusted the spiritual nourishment of Christian community in Mangalore and other parts of India by Pope John XXII.[25] He established a missionary station at Bhatkal and converted many locals to Christianity.[26] According to Historian Severine Silva, the author of History of Christianity in Canara (1961), no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century.[21]

Pedro Álvares Cabral was the first Portuguese soldier to have converted people to Christianity in South Canara

It was only after the advent of the Portuguese in the region that Christianity began to be propagated.[21] In 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama landed on a group of islands in South Canara on his voyage from Portugal to India. He named them El Padron de Santa Maria, which later came to be known as St Mary's Islands.[27] In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral, a Portuguese explorer, arrived at Anjediva in North Canara with eight Franciscan missionaries. These missionaries under the leadership of Henrique Soares de Coimbra converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region.[24] During the early part of the 16th century, Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire of Deccan, granted commercial privileges to the Portuguese on the Canara coast and there was complete freedom of worship, belief and propagation of religious tenets in the Vijaynagara Empire.[21] In 1526, under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio, the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore.[28] The Portuguese Franciscans slowly started propagating Christianity in Mangalore[28] and by 1533, there were about 505 converted Christian families in South Canara.[26] In 1534, Canara was placed under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Bishop of Goa, where the Portuguese had a strong presence. Missionaries soon arrived and gained converts. The number of local converts in South Canara started increasing.[20] During the mid 16th century, conversions slowed down because of resistance from Abbakka Rani of Ullal, the Queen of the Bednore dynasty.[29] By 1560, there were around 1,026 Christian converts in South Canara, two foreign priests to cater to the whole region, but no bishop.[26]

Migration era

Main articles: History of Goan Catholics and Goa Inquisition
The path of migration of Goan Catholics towards South Canara

In 1510, the Portuguese wrested Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur and finally established themselves in Goa. By 1544, they conquered the districts of Bardez and Salcette in Goa.[30] In 1534, the Archdiocese of Goa was established. Soon missionaries of the newly founded Society of Jesus were sent to Goa, which lead to conversion of many locals to Christianity. In 1542, the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier, co-founder of the Society of Jesus, arrived in Goa. He observed that the newly converted Christians were practicing their old customs and traditions. He requested John III of Portugal in 1545 to install an Inquisition in Goa. The Inquisition converted a sizeable population of Goa to Christianity.

Many of the Goan ancestors of the present Mangalorean Catholics fled Goa because of the Goa Inquisition introduced by the Portuguese in 1560. King Sebastian of Portugal decreed that every trace of Indian customs be eradicated through the Inquisition. But many Christians of Goa were attached to some of their ancient Indian customs, especially their Pagan marriage costumes and refused to abandon them.[7] Those who refused to comply with the rules laid down by the Inquisition were forced to leave Goa and to settle outside the Portuguese dominion.[20] About 7,000 of them (mostly Saraswat Brahmins) fled Goa. Most migrated to South Canara in what is called the "First Wave of Migration".[26]

The Christians who left Goa were skilled cultivators who abandoned their irrigated fields in Goa to achieve freedom. At the time of migration, Canara was ruled by the Bednore King Shivappa Naik (1540–60). He evinced great interest in the development of agriculture in his empire and welcomed these farmers to his fertile lands.[31] They were also recruited into the armies of the Bednore dynasty.[32] This was confirmed by Francis Buchanan, a Scottish physician, when he visited Canara in 1801. In his book, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (1807), he stated that "The princes of the house of Ikeri had given great encouragement to the Christians, and had induced 80,000 of them to settle in Tuluva."[33][34] Later, this was identified as a probable mistake and should have read "8,000". However even this figure included the second emigration of Christians from Goa.[31] Under the provisional treaties between the Portuguese and the Bednore rulers, and the Paradox (Protectorate privileges) the Christians were allowed to build churches and help the growth of Christianity in South Canara.[32] The arrival of the English and the Dutch halted the activity of the Portuguese and gradually the Portuguese were unable to send the required number of missionaries to Mangalore.[35][6] In 1568, the Church of Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Mangalore (Our Lady of the Rosary of Mangalore) was erected by the Portuguese at Bolar in Mangalore. The Churches of Nossa Senhora de Mercês de Velala (Our Lady of Mercy of Ullal) and São Francisco de Assis Igreja (St. Francis of Assisi) at Farangipet were also erected by the Portuguese during the same time in South Canara. These three churches were highlighted by the Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle, who visited Mangalore in 1623.[36] The appointment of the Vicar Apostolic of Mangalore was felt to be the need of the hour. Shivappa Naik, the king of Bednore, pressurized that a native priest be chosen as the Vicar Apostolic. So, Father Andrew Gomez was appointed as the Vicar Apostolic but before the nomination papers could reach Mangalore, Father Gomez died.

The Milagres Church, one of the oldest churches in South Canara, was built in 1680

The Sultan of Bijapur attacked Goa in 1571 and ended Portuguese influence in the region. The Bijapur sultans were especially known for their loathing of Christianity. Fearing persecution, many Catholics from Goa migrated to South Canara. This migration is referred as the "Second Wave of Migration".[26] e However the arrival of the British and the Dutch gave a blow to the activity of the Portuguese and gradually the Portuguese were unable to send the required number of missionaries to Mangalore. The appointment of the Vicar Apostolic of Mangalore was felt to be the need of the hour. Shivappa Naik, the king of Bednore, pressurized that a native priest be chosen as the Vicar Apostolic. So, Father Andrew Gomez was appointed as the Vicar Apostolic but before the nomination papers could reach Mangalore, Father Gomez died.

At the recommendation of the Vicar General of Verapoly, Msgr Joseph Sebastiani, Pope Clement X appointed Thomas de Castro, a Goan Catholic Theatine priest, as the Vicar Apostolic of Canara on August 30, 1675 to remedy the sad state of the Canara Christians.[37] After his consecration, he came first to Calicut and then to Mangalore (1677-84) and in 1680 he built conflict with Rome for disregarding the Padroado and so did they did not cede the jurisdiction to Thomas de Castro. Instead, they appointed Father Joseph Vas, a Goan Catholic priest, as the Vicar Forane of Canara and he was asked not to submit to Bishop Castro unless he showed the letter of appointment. Father Joseph Vaz worked as a zealous missionary and he submitted to Bishop Castro.[35] The Milagres Church, one of the oldest churches in South Canara, was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas De Castro, a Goan Catholic theatine priest who was appointed by Pope Clement X as the Vicar Apostolic of Canara.[6][38][39] The attacks of the Maratha Empire on Goa, during the mid 16th century, was also a cause of migration. In 1664, Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha empire, attacked Kudal, a town north of Goa, and began his campaign for Goa. After Shivaji's death on 3 April 1680, his son Sambhaji ascended to the throne.[26] The onslaught of Sambahji, along the northern territories of Goa drove nearly all the Christians from their homelands, and most of them migrated to South Canara. This migration is referred as the "Third Wave of Migration". From the Salcete district of Goa, according to one estimate, emigrations were around at the rate of 2,000 annually. From the Bardez district of Goa, Jesuit priests estimated that 12,000 Christians emigrated from Goa between 1710-1712, mot of them going southward. A Goa Government report of 1747 presently in the Panjim archives recorded that around 5,000 Christians fled from the Bardez and Tiswadi districts of Goa during the invasion of the Marathas.[40] It was estimated that during the Maratha raids on Goa, about 60,000 Christians migrated to South Canara.[41] During the later years, the migration slowed because of the Maratha-Mughal wars, which kept Sambhaji busy, and some 10,000 Christians returned to Goa.[26] According to Historian Alan Machado Prabhu, the author of Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians (1999), the Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58,000 by 1765.[42]

Post-migration era and captivity

Main article: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam
The Jamalabad fort passage. Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort

From 1761 onwards, Hyder Ali, a distinguished soldier in the Mysore army, took de facto control of the throne of the Kingdom of Mysore through the Wodeyar dynasty. Hyder occupied Mangalore in 1763.[43] The Mangalorean Catholics numbered 80,000 in 1767.[44] In February 1768, the British captured Mangalore from Hyder.[43] Toward the end of 1768, Hyder along with his son Tipu Sultan defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore fort. After the conquest, Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore. Hyder believed that this behaviour of the Christians amounted to treachery against the sovereign.[45] He summoned the Portuguese priests to suggest the punishment for the Mangalorean Catholics for treachery. The priests suggested death penalty for the Christians, because it was the punishment to be awarded to the people who betray the sovereign. But Hyder exhibited a diplomatic stance and imprisoned the Christians who were condemned for treachery, rather than killing them.[46] Later, he opened negotiations with the Portuguese. As a result of the agreement, the suspicion against the clergy and the Christians was removed.[47] During Hyder's regime, the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish.[48] After Hyder's death in the Second Anglo-Mysore War on 7 December 1782, the British captured the fort again. Hyder was succeeded by his son Tippu Sultan.[49] Tippu laid several assaults on the Mangalore fort till January 1784, which resulted in failures. The fort was finally delivered to Tippu when the British capitulated it on 30 January 1784.[50] Tippu received highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Mangalorean Catholics and their help to the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War.[51] To minimize the threat from the British to his kingdom, Tippu decided to banish the Mangalorean Catholic community from his kingdom, and hold them captive at Seringapatam, the capital of his empire.[52]

A dungeon at Seringapatam. Many Mangalorean Catholics who refused to embrace Islam were imprisoned into such dungeons

The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.[10] Soon after the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, Tippu gained control of Canara.[53] He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates,[54] and deport them to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the Jamalabad fort route.[6] The account of the number of captives differ ranging from 30000 to 80,000.[55] However the generally accepted figure is 60,000, as per Tippu's own records.[56] They were forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the dense jungles and gorges of the Western Ghat mountain ranges along two routes, one along the Bantwal-Belthangadi-Kulshekar-Virajpet-Coorg-Mysore route,[17][57][58] and the other along the Gersoppa falls (Shimoga) route.[59] It was 200 miles (320 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks.[60] According to the Barkur Manuscrpt, written in Canarese by a Mangalorean Catholic from Barkur after his return from Seringapatam, 20,000 of them (one-third) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger, disease and ill treatment by the soldiers.[61] At the camp at Jamalabad fort, Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort.[58] All Christian churches in South Canara, except the Hospet Church at Hosabettu and Monte Mariano Church at Firangipet[62], were razed to the ground and all land owned by the captured Christians was taken over by Tippu and distributed among his favorites.[63] After they were freed, all their belongings had disappeared and their deserted lands were cultivated by the Bunts.[64] After arriving at Seringapatam, the Christian captives were made to forcibly embrace Islam, were tortured or sentenced to death.[63] The young men who refused to embrace Islam were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears. They were seated on asses, paraded through the city, and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam.[65] Historian Praxy Fernandes, author of Storm over Seringapatam: the incredible story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan, stated that 40,000 Christians were not kept manacled in the dungeons of Seringapatam.[66] Ludwig von Pastor, a German historian, author of The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages. Volume 39 emphasises saying "countless" Mangalorean Catholics were hanged with women clinging with their children around their necks, other trampled down or dragged by elephants.[67] The able-bodied young men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam.[68] The young women and girls were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourite's living there.[61] The future Christian progeny of these women were permanently lost, and their descendants are fully Islamic as of today.[69] According to Mr. Silva of Gangolim, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, the punishment under the orders of Tipu was the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet and one hand.[70] The persecutions continued till 1792, followed by a brief relaxation period from 1792–1797, and commenced again from 1797 onwards.[67]

British and modern era

Main article: Participation of Mangalorean Catholics in the Indian Independence Movement
The Last Effort and Fall of Tippoo Sultan by Henry Singleton

In the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799, the British army under officers George Harris, David Baird, and Arthur Wellesley stormed the fortress, breached the town of Seringapatam, and killed Tippu.[71] After his death in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from his captivity.[72] Of the 60,000-80,000 Mangalorean Catholics taken captive, only 15,000-20,000 made it out as Christians.[73] British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10,000 of them return to South Canara and resettle on their lands.[71][74][75] Of the remaining Christians freed, about a thousand went to Malabar, and some hundreds settled in Coorg.[76] According to Francis Buchanan, 15,000 of them returned to Mangalore and its vicinity, while 10,000 of them migrated to Malabar.[34] The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (1883) mentions that 15,000 persons returned, of which 12,000 were from South Canara, and 3,000 from North Canara.[77] According to the Mangalorean genealogist Michael Lobo, the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from this small group of survivors.[78][79] Later, the British took over South Canara. In 1800, they took a census of the region. Of the 396,672 people living in South Canara,[80] 10,877 were Christians.[81] Thomas Munro was appointed the first collector of Canara in June 1799.[82] He passed three orders in respect of the estates of the Christians, which were taken over by non-Christians during the captivity.[83] Through the assistance of the church, and with the support of Munro, the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates.[84] Padre José Miguel Luis de Mendes, a Goan Catholic priest, was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary at Mangalore on 7 December 1799. He took a lot of interest in the re-establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808.[85] Later, British general John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of South Canara. He took active part in the re-establishment of their former possessions and recovery of their estates. He constructed a church for them, which was completed in 1806.[86] Their population almost doubled in 1818. According to various parish books existing that time, Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19,068 in South Canara (12,877 in Mangalore and Bantwal,[87] 3,918 in Moolki, 2,273 in Cundapore and Barcoor).[88] Most of the churches which were earlier destroyed by Tippu were rebuilt[89], by 1815.[35] After relocation, the community prospered under the British, and the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa commenced again.[85]

Thomas Munro helped the Mangalorean Catholics recover their lands after their return from captivity

The opening of the Protestant German Basel Mission of 1834 in Mangalore brought many handicraft such as cotton weaving and tile-manufacturing industries to the region and led to a large-scale rise in employment.[90][91] In 1836-7, when the political situation in Portugal was in turmoil, Antonio Feliciano de Santa Rita Carvalho, a Portuguese priest, was appointed Archbishop-elect of Goa in September 1836 without authorization from the Pope.[92] Many Mangalorean Catholics did not accept the leadership of Carvalho but instead submitted to the Vicar Apostolic of Verapoly in Travancore, while some of them continued to be under the jurisdiction of Goa. The parishes in South Canara were divided into two groups — one under Goa and the other under Verapoly.[6] Under the leadership of Joachim Pius Noronha, a Mangalorean Catholic priest, and John Joseph Saldanha, a Mangalorean Catholic judge, the Mangalorean Catholics sent a petition to the Holy See in 1840 to establish Mangalore as a separate Vicariate to ward off the differences.[93] Conceding to their request, Pope Gregory XVI established Mangalore as a separate Vicariate on 17 February 1845 under the Verapoly Carmelites. The Mangalore Mission was then transferred to the French Carmelites by a Bull dated 3 January 1870.[94] During the regime of Carmelites, the Mangalorean Catholics constantly sent memorandums to the Holy See to send Jesuits to Mangalore to start institutions for higher education, since the youth frequently had to go to Bombay and Madras for educational purposes.[95] The Roman Catholic Church studied the situation and Pope Leo XIII by the Brief of 27 September 1878 handed over the Mangalore mission to the Italian Jesuit of Naples, who reached Mangalore on 31 December 1878.[6][12][96]

The St Aloysius Chapel in Mangalore, built by Antonio Moscheni in 1884, when Mangalore was transferred to the Italian Jesuits in 1878

The Italian Jesuits played an important role in education, health, and social welfare of the community[97] and built the St. Aloysius College in 1880,[98] St Aloysius Chapel in 1884,[99], St. Joseph's Seminary[100] and many other institutions and churches. On 25 January 1887, Pope Leo XIII established the Diocese of Mangalore, which is considered to be an important landmark in the community's history.[101] During the later 19th century, they started migrating to other urban areas, especially Bombay,[102] Bangalore,[103] Calcutta, Karachi, Madras, Mysore and Poona. The Mangalorean Catholics came to Bombay due to economic necessities.[9] The first permanent settlement of Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay was recorded in the 1890s.[104] The first Mangalorean Catholic settlement in Madras was recorded in the 1940s.[105] Joachim Alva, a Mangalorean Catholic politician, actively participated in uniting the Mangalorean Catholic community against the British during the Indian Independence Movement.[106] In 1901, Mangalorean Catholics accounted for 76,000 of the total 84,103 Christians in South Canara.[11][107], while in 1962, they numbered 186,741.[108] During the mid-19th century, Victor Fernandes, Bishop of Mangalore (1931–1955), erected a large cross at former outskirts of Mangalore in Nanthoor near Padav hills to honour the memory of Mangalorean Catholic martyrs who died on the march and during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam.[17] During the 1970s, coastal communication increased between Bombay and Mangalore, after introduction of ships by the London based trade firm Shepherd. These ships facilitated the entry of Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay.[109] Events related to Mangalorean Catholics that occurred in Mangalore, and made national headlines were the attacks on Christian churches in September 2008.[110]

Geographical distribution

According to the 2001 census, the Mangalore Diocese estimates the population of Mangalorean Catholics to be 360,000 out of a total South Canara population of 3,957,071. This amounts to 9.5 percent of the population.[1] Many Mangalorean Catholics live in Bombay and Bangalore.[111] In the 1960s, there were around 29,500 Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay, of which 25,000 were in urban Bombay, and 4,500 in rural Bombay.[3] Other regions of India having a significant proportion of Mangalorean Catholics, characterized by the presence of Mangalorean Catholic organizations or celebration of the unique Mangalorean Catholic Monti Fest festival, are Bangalore, Delhi, Pune, Hyderabad, Chikmagalur, Hassan, and Ranchi.[112] In 1871, there were around 3,704 Mangalorean Catholics in Madras[4], while in 2004, there were around 200 Mangalorean Catholics in Calcutta.[5]

In the 1960s, there were around 29,500 Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay, of which 25,000 were in urban Bombay, and 4,500 in rural Bombay.[3] In 1871, there were around 3,704 Mangalorean Catholics in Madras[4], while in 2004, there were around 200 Mangalorean Catholics in Calcutta.[5]

The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is scattered across the globe.[78] Many Mangalorean Catholics are found in Persian Gulf Arab states in the Middle East. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) has estimated that around 300 Mangalorean Catholic families live in Sydney with quite a number of second generation families. Many of these are multi-cultural being married into Anglo Saxon, Italian, Greek, and other ethnicities.[113]

The Mangalorean genealogist Michael Lobo has estimated that approximately half of the Mangalorean Catholics still reside in Mangalore and the other towns in the South Canara district. Of the remaining half, about 15% would be residing in other parts of Karnataka (mainly Bangalore), another 15% in Bombay and its surrounding areas, another 10% in the Gulf countries, another 5% in other parts of India, and the remaining 5% in other other parts of the world.[13]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Mangalorean Catholics

Architecture and cuisine

Main articles: Architecture of Mangalorean Catholics and Mangalorean Catholic cuisine
Mangalore tile

A German missionary Plebot set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860. It was called the Basel Mission tile factory.[114] In the course of time, Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparing Mangalore tiles[7] and the Albuquerque tile factory, the first Indian Mangalore tile manufacturing factory was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque, a Mangalorean Catholic, at Pane Mangalore in 1868. Since then, Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing these red Mangalore tiles. After the opening of the Albuquerque tile factory, the Alvares tile factory was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares, a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay, in 1878.[115] As of 1991—92, out of 12 tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore, 6 were owned by Christians.[116] These tiles, prepared from hard clay, were in great demand throughout India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and were even shipped to East Africa, the Middle-East, Europe, and Australia. These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India,[117] and still define Mangalore's skyline and characterize its urban setting.[114] Urban and rural housing follows the old traditional variety of laterite-brick structures with Mangalore tile roofing with steep slopes. Inside the house, a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house.[118]

Kuswar are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas

Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most curries.[119] Sanna-Dukra Maas (Sanna – idli fluffed with toddy or yeast; Dukra Maas – Pork) is one of the most popular dish of the Mangalorean Catholic community.[120] Rosachi Kadi (Ros Curry), a fish curry made with coconut milk (ros), is a traditional curry served during the Ros ceremony.[121] Patrode, a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice, dal, jaggery, coconut, and spices is also popular.[122] Kuswar are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and includes around 22 varieties of sweets.[123] Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics.[124] Par-boiled rice, also known as red rice, is the traditional rice eaten[125] and preferred over raw rice.[124]

Names and surnames

Main article: Mangalorean Catholic names and surnames

Bilingual names, having variants in both Konkani and English, like Zuãuñ (John) and Mornel (Magdalene) are common among Mangalorean Catholics.[126][127] Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the second declension. Among women, the names follow the first declension, while among young girls, the names follow the second declension.[126] Portuguese surnames like D'Souza, Coelho and Pinto are abundant among Mangalorean Catholics,[91][128] and generally follow the second declension.[129] Other European surnames are also found.[129] Mangalorean Catholics also use their native language Konkani forms of their surnames in Konkani-language contexts, along with their English forms in English-language contexts, such as Soz, Kuel[129], Pint instead of Sousa, Coelho, Pinto.[128]

Some families use their original Konkani brahmin surnames such as Prabhu, Kamat, Naik, Shet and Shenoy.[91] These original surnames are actually the names of five classes of persons and originally mean "lord, cultivator, merchant, warrior, writer".[130] All of these five are Goud Saraswat Brahmin surnames, except Shet that is used by a few who are descendents of the Daivadnya Brahmins of Goa.[131] A minuscule percentage descended from Jain converts still use the surname Padival.[131] Mudartha is a unique Mangalorean Catholic surname to be found among some who hail from the Udupi district.[132]

Mangalorean Catholic variant English variant Portuguese variant Meaning Sex
Mâri Mary Maria Beloved Female
Monku Monica Mónica To advise Female
Motes Matthew Mateus Gift from God Male
Nâtu Natalia Natalia Birthday Female
Pedru Peter Pedro Stone Male
Šila Sylvester Silas Wooded Male
Zâbel Elizabeth Isabel My God is my oath Female
Zoze Joseph José The Lord will add Male
Source: An English-Konkani Dictionary: And A Konkani-English Dictionary (1883)[127] and A Konkani Grammar (1882)[126]

Language and literature

Michael Lobo published the first genealogical encyclopaedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999
Main articles: Konkani language and Literature of Mangalorean Catholics

Mangalorean Catholics speak the Konkani language, which they retained as their mother tongue despite the migration. The Konkani language is central to the community's identity.[34] Konkani is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages, which is spoken predominantly on the west coast of India.[133] They speak a dialect of Konkani, known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani, which the Ethnologue identifies as the Mangalore dialect.[134] It is largely derived from the Bardeskaar (North Goan) dialect and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Bardeskaar Christian dialect and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect. This dialect has a significant infusion of Tulu and Kannada loanwords.[8] They do not distinguish between the nouns of Kannada and Konkani and have developed a very business practical language.[8] Some Kannada rootwords which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese have re-entered the Mangalorean lexicon. It is significantly different from the dialect spoken by the Goud Saraswat Brahmins in South Canara.[135] The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is much closer to the dialects of the Goan Hindus than to that of the Goan Catholics.[136] 350-400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect.[137]

The origin of their literature dates to 1883, when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, published the first English-Konkani Dictionary in Mangalore.[138] In 1912, the first Konkani periodical, Konknni Dirvem (Konkani Treasure), was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas.[139] Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include Raknno (Guardian) (1938) by Mons Sylvester Menezes[140], Konkan Daiz (Heritage of Konkani) (1958),[141] and Kannik (Donation) (1965) by Raymond Miranda.[142] In Bombay, periodicals like Sukh-Dukh (Ups and Downs) (1948) by G.M.B. Rodrigues, Konknni Yuvak (Konkani Youth) (1949) by George Fernandes, Poinnari (Traveller) (1950) by V.J.P. Saldanha[140], and Divo (Lamp) (1995) by J.B. Moraes were published.[143]

During the twenteeth century, many Mangalorean Catholics, especially V.J.P. Saldanha, have produced several works such as Devachen Kurpen (By God's grace), Saiba Bhogos (Forgive O God!), etc. on the sufferings of the Mangalorean Catholic community during their 15 year captivity at Seringapatam imposed by the Muslim ruler Tipu Sultan from 1784 to 1799, and the oppression of Goan Catholics during the Goa Inquisition.[144][145] Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such as Indian Politics in books like What Ails the Socialists by George Fernandes,[146] historical awakening, in books such as Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians by Alan Machado Prabhu,[147] and sexual desires, in The Revised Kama Sutra: A Novel of Colonialism and Desire by Richard Crasta.[148]

The Mangalorean genealogist Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopaedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999. This genealogical Encyclopaedia, currently exceeding 6000 pages, covers over a thousand families, each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced. Three offshoots have thus far been launched, which include Mangaloreans Worldwide — An International Directory (1999), Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics (2000), and The Mangalorean Catholic Community — A Professional History / Directory (2002).[149] In 2000, the Diocese of Mangalore released the first Konkani Bible in Kannada script, which was made available online on 26 July 2007.[150]

Traditions and festivals

A Mangalorean Catholic Ros

Mangalorean Catholics have retained many Indian customs and traditions and reveal their existence especially during the celebration of a marriage.[151] Their culture is more traditional and Indian.[152] Though the Portuguese traded quite frequently in Mangalore, and most of the priests arriving in the region were Portuguese, there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture.[153] They have no uniform rituals since they belong to both the patrilineal Brahmin stock and to the matrilineal non-Brahmin stock.[154] It were mainly these Pagan marriage rites[7] which the Portuguese during the Goan Inquisition found objectionable and prohibited it.[155]

Ros (anointing) ceremony, conducted one or two days before a wedding, celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and bridegroom and involves the parents' blessing of the bride and groom, who are anointed with ros, a mixture of coconut milk and coconut oil,[156] while a cross is inscribed on the bride's forehead.[7][157] Other traditions include Soirik (betrothal),[158] and exchange of Paan Pod or Bido[a] (betel leaves) during marriage ceremonies[159], which known as badalchen (changing hands).[b][158] Indian traditions include adorning the bride with the Sado (wedding sari)[160] and Pirduk[d] (wedding necklace),[160] the wearing of which indicates her Ayaponn (destiny)[161], the Onpnni (giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride)[162], Porthoponn (re-invitation to the bride's house)[162], and singing of Honvious (hymns).[158] Some other traditions include Novemjeevon (partaking of the food prepared from new corn) and Novem (blessing of new harvests).[158]

The St. Lawrence Church in Karkala, where the Attur festival is celebrated

In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas, Good Friday, and Easter, the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance. Monti Fest is one of the major festivals, celebrated on 8 September. It combines the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary and blessing of Novem (new crops). The festival derives its name from the Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet in South Canara, and was initiated by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest at Farangipet in 1763. Though Tippu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali with Father Miranda.[62] Attur Jatre or Attur Fest (Attur festival) is the feast of St. Lawrence, celebrated in the St. Lawrence Shrine on the outskirts of Karkala in South Canara. This shrine, in existence since 1759, is said to have a history of miracles. Eucharistic Procession (Evkaristic Purshanv in Konkani) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore from Milagres Church to Rosario Cathedral. The procession, held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar, seeks blessings for the new year.[120]

Costumes and Ornaments

A typical Mangalorean Catholic wedding sari (sado)

Mangalorean Catholic men used to wear long loose frilled white or black coats (similar to the Maratha loose coats) with buttons. The turbans were usually flattened like the Coorgi turbans (Urmal).[163] The Urmal is a long white piece of cloth with a golden hem and is tied around the head like a turban.[163] In modern times, this mode has changed. Only a few old people can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church going occasions.[164] Before marriage, women used to wear a Kirgi (sari) and Baju (blouse). The kirgi is a piece of cloth, not longer than four feet and about three feet broad. It was wrapped around the body from the waist down. A jacket called baju with long sleeves was used to cover the upper part of the body. This dress was a sign of her virginity and wore it during the Ros ceremony.[163][165] The kirgi was wrapped around the waist, but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder.[165] To wear the sari with its end thrown over the shouider, known as worl, is the exclusive right of a married woman.[166] Married women used to wear sarees the general way.[167] The Salwar kameez is another form of popular dress for females.

The Mangalorean Catholic bride's wedding sari is known as an Sado.[c][168] It is usually a red coloured Banarasi sari, which are made of finely woven silk and are decorated with elaborate engravings.[160] In olden days, the bride wore on her head a red cloth, three feet long and as many broad. Gold ornaments in those days were absent. The bride went to the church dressed as a virgin girl. In present times the bride wears in place of the kirgi, a sari of red, but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder, it is wrapped around the waist. Only married women would cover the shoulder with the end of the sari. She wears a few gold ornaments, some rings on the fingers, earrings and at least two of the golden combs (dantoni).[168] Ornaments worn by the bride in ancient included times kanti, chakrasar, kap, karap, mugud, kanto, dantoni.[165] Dantoni included at least two of the golden combs known as that consisted of two ordinary combs and the upper part of each one was plate with gold, that are worn in the hair on both sides of the headover the ears. On the way to church she wears some white and red flowers stuck in the hair. In the centre of the forehead, a bang (gold chain) was placed with a pendant.[169] The Pirduk (Mangalsutra)[d] was a necklace of black glass beads strung on a thread made of the fibres of dried pineapple leaves. This necklace was to be worn as long as the husband was alive; a widow had to take it off. It was highly prized by the women as the symbol of their married state.[170] A widow had to wear a black sari all her life, and was not allowed to wear ornaments.[151]

The bridegroom's dress in the early times consisted of a short loincloth of hand-woven cloth (Dhoti), a shawl to cover his shoulders and a red handkerchief on the head (leis). The groom's dress was gradually improved. Later, his dress consisted of a white loincloth with a red and gold hem (todop), a shirt with gold buttons and a coat (kutav), a shawl on the shoulders and a towel (Urmal) on the head.[163][165] The bridegroom wore a chakrasar (neck chain) around his neck. He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks.[171] In modern times however, some westernized Mangalorean Catholic couples have a White wedding, were the bridegroom wears a suit, while the bride wears a white gown.[172]

Historical Society

A traditional house of a Mangalorean Catholic family, constructed using olden-style architecture.

Mangalorean Catholics had retained the same caste system which their ancestors had in Goa. They were divided into four castes — Bamons, Charodis, Shudras, and Gaudis.[154] The biggest group were the Bamons (the Konkani word for Brahmins). They were converts from the Brahmin caste (priestly class), and especially included the Goud Saraswat Brahmin converts from Goa. The Charodis, the second largest group, were converts from either Kshatriya (military class) or Vaishya (merchant class) castes. The artisan converts formed the third biggest group and were known as Shudras (labour class). The Vakkals (medical class) were called Gaudis, and formed the fourth group.[154] Other minor castes included the Padivals, who were local Jain converts.[31]

It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly. Thus, the gurkar system came into existence. Gurkars were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements. They were entrusted the work of social and religious supervision of the community.[38] After migration, the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture, since they were skilled farmers.[31] Every farmer practised carpentry but it was quite primitive and unskilled. Other crafts and industries were non-existent.[173] By the later half of the 19th century Mangalorean Catholics were invovled in the Mangalore tile industry, Coffee plantations and trade in plantation products.[7] The mass was celebrated in Latin; but the sermon, the cathecism, and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani.[174]

A widow had to remain indoors practically for the rest of her life. Canon Law did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara, but few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community. A widow who remarried was looked down upon, pitied and shunned as unlucky. But she was not ill-treated or made an outcast. No stigma was attached to her husband.[151]

Songs and music

Konkani Nirantari, a Konkani cultural event, entered the Guinness Book of World Records for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns.

On 26–27 January 2008, a Konkani cultural event, Konkani Nirantari, held in Mangalore by a Mangalorean Catholic organization, Mandd Sobhann, entered the Guinness Book of World Records for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns. Mandd Sobhann members sang for 40 hours, surpassing the old record of 36 hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe, Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo (Lutheran Evangelical Community of São Paulo) of Universidade Luterana do Brasil (Lutheran University of Brazil).[175] The Silver Band, started in 1906 by Lawrence D'Souza in Mangalore, is the one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore.[176] The well known Konkani hymn Riglo Jezu Molliant (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) was written by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest, during the 18th century, when he was held captive by Tippu Sultan, on his Canara mission.[177] Mgr Minguel Placid Colaco wrote the devotional hymn Jezucho Mog[178] during 1905[143], and also translated the Latin hym Stabat Mater into Konkani entitled Khursa mullim.[179] Joseph Saldanha's Shembor Cantigo[179] and Raimundo Mascarenhas' Deva Daia Kakultichea (O Compassionate Master) were popular.[180] Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics as of today are Aika Cristanv Jana, Utha Utha Praniya, and Sorgim Thaun.[181]

Konkani pop music became popular after the Indian Independence. Henry D'Souza and Helen D'Cruz are known for the Konkani love duet Cathrina in 1971[182] and the love Ballad Garacho Divo (Lamp of the house) in the 1970s[183], while Wilfy Rebimbus's sonnet Mog Tuzo Kithlo Axelom (How I Have Loved Thee) in 1977 is also popular.[184] Konkani Plays, especially religious plays, were written and staged in Mangalore since the tweeteeth century with prominent playwrights such as Pedru John D'Souza, Pascal Sequeira and Bonaventure Tauro.[185] The Ghumat was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings.[186] The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides. One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open.[187] The tradition Of Voviyo (wedding songs), sung by women during a Ros, is important to this community. The procedure is that one of the elderly lady, usually the yejman (wife of the master of ceremonies, who is known as yejmani) who knows the voviyos leads the song while the rest of the women sing along with her. Only women whose husbands are still living may sing. In ancient times the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families, invoking the blessing of God on them.[188]

Aprosachi vatli, kasgran petli, ruzai mai betli, hea rosalagim.
The Ros brass plate is made by brass smith, our Lady of Rosary is here at this ros ceremony

Dimbi ami galeam, santa kuru kadeam, kurpa ami magieam amchea Jezulagim
Let us kneel, make sign of the cross, and pray for God’s grace

Akashim mod, narl kubear telacho kuris hokleachea kopalar
Clouds in the sky, coconut on the tree, oily sign of cross on the forehead of the bride

— Voviyos taken from The Tradition of Voviyo article by Maurice D’Mello, [189]

Organizations

File:Mangalorean Catholic Association Of Sydney (MCAS) logo.jpg
The logo of the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS)

Many organizations cater to the community in South Canara. The most notable are Mandd Sobhann, which broke the Guinness record for non-stop singing, and the Catholic Association of South Kanara (CASK).[190] The first session of the Canara Konkani Catholic World Convention took place on 26 December 2004 in Mangalore.[191] The convention aimed to establish institutions to conduct research on the history of Mangalorean Catholics.[192] In India, the Kanara Catholic Association, Bangalore (KCA Bangalore) (established in 1955)[193] and Mangalore Catholic Association (MCA) (established on 10 February 1996 in Pune)[194] are well known.

In the United Kingdom, Mangalorean United Konkani Association (MUKA) in Nottingham is popular.[195] The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Victoria (MCAV) established in Melbourne was the first organization for the community in Australia.[196] In 2006, the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) was established in Australia.[113] In North America, the Mangalorean Association of Canada[197] and the Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA) in Chicago[198] are well known. In the Middle East, the Mangalore Cultural Association (MCA) in Doha (Qatar) was established on March 2008.[199]

Notable Mangalorean Catholics

Notable Mangalorean Catholics Achievements
Diana Pinto Miss India America 2009.[200]
Freida Pinto Hollywood actress known for her role in Slumdog Millionaire.[201]
Pius Fidelis Pinto Indian historian, researcher and scholar on Christianity.[202]
Genelia D'Souza Indian actress.[203][204]
George Fernandes Defence minister of India from 19 March 1998 to 22 May 2004[146]
Joachim Alva Member of Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament, from 3 April 1968 to 2 April 1974.[205]
Margaret Alva Member of Rajya Sabha from 1972 to 1998.[206]
Maxwell Pereira Joint Police Commissioner, Traffic.[207]
Michael Lobo Indian writer, scientist and genealogist.[149]
Oscar Fernandes Member of Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament, from 1980 to 1998.[208]
Richard Crasta American novelist.[209]
Tony D'Souza American novelist of mixed Mangalorean Catholic and Caucasian descent.[210]
Viren Rasquinha Captain of India's national field hockey team.[211]
Sundeep Malani Indian film director, Documentary film maker, Script writer, Actor and film critic. He is of Sindhi and Mangalorean Catholic descent.[212]

See also

Notes

a ^ Bido is the small packet of pieces of areca nut wrapped into a betel leaf with the addition of several spices, as it is sold in the shops. Pan-pod is the same, but loosely placed on a plate, so that each guest can prepare his own pan. The areca nut, uncut, is called popal, cut into small pieces it is pod.[159]
b ^ In the past Canara was famous for its spices. And so, paan (betel leaf) and pod (areca nut cut into small pieces), the seed of the tropical palm Areca catechu were generously supplied on all festive occasions. The spices were not mixed with chuno (Quick lime). In fact, in every house a copper or brass plate was always kept ready for a pan-pod party. Whenever a guest arrived at the house it was customary to offer him this plate with a fresh betel leaf just picked from the vine. Also a betel nut known as known as tobak or dumti (Tobacco) was prepared and placed on the brass plate.[159]
c ^ After the wedding was over, the Sado was well preserved and worn only on high feast-days or for weddings. Sometimes a particularly precious sado was handed down from mother to daughter and considered a valuable heirloom. The cost of a sado was reckoned in varahas. Saris are known for their variety by special names, such as Katari, Shilari, Gulabi, etc..[160] Both the Sado and Dharma sado were costly saris, while the Sado was the most expensive, the Dharma Sado was the second most expensive.[165]
d a b The Hindus call it mangal sutra (the auspicious necklace). It is the symbol of the married state.[160]

Citiations

  1. ^ a b c "Civil Data". Diocese of Mangalore. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
  2. ^ a b c Pai & Supriya 1981, p. 203: "This city (Mangalore) has a very influential proportion of Roman Catholics, numbering over a good quarter of the total population. It is the seat of the Mangalore Roman Catholic Diocese, and hence when we speak of the Mangalorean Catholics, we do not limit ourselves only to the roughly 60,000 Catholics within the city limits, but to a total of much over 2,00,000 Catholics spread over the whole diocese."
  3. ^ a b c Baptista 1967, p. 27
  4. ^ a b c Oddie 1991, p. 140
  5. ^ a b c Nair 2004, p. 88
  6. ^ a b c d e f "Christianity in Mangalore". Diocese of Mangalore. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Rodrigues, Vernon (2009-03-02), "Mangalorean Pagan Catholics", The Secular Citizen, 18 (9), Mumbai: Printed and published by Lawrence Coelho: 5, RNI No. 56987/92, Registered No. 139/2009-11 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |editorn-first= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |editorn-last= ignored (help)
  8. ^ a b c d Gajrani 2004, p. 83
  9. ^ a b Narain, University of Bombay. Dept. of Sociology & Indian Council of Social Science Research 1989, p. 88
  10. ^ a b "Deportation & The Konkani Christian Captivity at Srirangapatna (1784 Feb. 24th Ash Wednesday)". Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
  11. ^ a b The Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 14, p. 360
  12. ^ a b The Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 14, p. 361
  13. ^ a b Lobo 1999, p. xiii: "If a comprehensive survey of the South Kanara Catholic community, as a whole, were to be attempted, my guess is that about half would still be residing either in Mangalore itself or in one of the smaller towns or villages of the district. Of the remaining half, about 15% would be residing in other parts of Karnataka (mainly Bangalore and the Ghats), another 15% in Bombay and its surrounding areas, another 10% in the Gulf countries, another 5% in other parts of India, and the remaining 5% in other other parts of the world."
  14. ^ Lozupone, Patsy (2004). Ornithological gazetteer of the Indian subcontinent. Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International. p. 82. ISBN 1881173852. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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  19. ^ Larsen 1998, p. 361
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  21. ^ a b c d South Kanara District Gazetteer 1973, p. 101
  22. ^ Prabhu 1999, p. 78
  23. ^ Jordanus & Yule 2001, p. 40
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  34. ^ a b c Buchanan 1988, p. 24 Cite error: The named reference "buc24" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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  39. ^ Raviprasad Kamila (2005-11-30). "Jubilee celebrations at Milagres Church on Tuesday". The Hindu. Retrieved 2009-03-01. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
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  41. ^ Kurzon 2003, p. 77
  42. ^ Prabhu 1999, p. 167
  43. ^ a b South Kanara District Gazetteer 1973, p. 62
  44. ^ More & Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR 2006, p. 37
  45. ^ Silva 1957, N. 6, p. 90
  46. ^ Tour 1855, p. 236: As soon as Hyder was informed of this circumstance, he caused these merchants to appear before him, with the chief of the Portuguese factory, and several Christian priests belonging to the three churches at Mangalore. He then demanded of the Portuguese chief and the priests, what punishment the Christians inflict on those who should presume to betray their sovereign, by giving assistance to his enemies. The Portuguese officer having without hesitation answered that such a crime deserved death, Hyder replied, " I do not "judge in that manner, for our laws are milder. Since they have " made themselves English by engaging to serve them, their property " shall be adjudged to belong to Englishmen; and themselves shall be " thrown into prison till I make peace with that nation."
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  48. ^ Silva 1957, N. 6, p. 105
  49. ^ South Kanara District Gazetteer 1973, p. 63
  50. ^ South Kanara District Gazetteer 1973, p. 64
  51. ^ Silva 1957, N. 6, p. 116
  52. ^ Silva 1957, N. 6, p. 117
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References

Further reading

  • Template:Harvard reference.
  • Lobo, Michael (2000). Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics 1800-2000 - A Historico-Biographical Survey of the Mangalorean Catholic Community. Camelot Publishers. ISBN 9788187609018.
  • Lobo, Michael (2000). The Mangalorean Catholic Community — A Professional History / Directory.
  • Pinto, Pius Fidelis (2004). Canaranthle Konknni Catholic (The Konkani Catholics of Canara) (in Konkani). Mangalore: Samanvaya Prakashan.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  • Pinto, Pius Fidelis (1999). Desaantar Thaun Bandhadek – Karavali Karnatakantle Konkani Kristanv (From Migration to Captivity - The Konkani Christians of Canara) (in Konkani). Mangalore: Samanvaya Prakashan.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  • Template:Harvard reference.
  • D'Souza, A. L. P. (1983). History of the Catholic Community of South Kanara. Desco Publishers.
  • Pinto, Pius Fidelis (1999). Konkani Christians of Coastal Karnataka in Anglo-Mysore Relations 1761-1799. Mangalore: Samanvaya Prakashan.
  • Prabhu, Mohan. Ancient and pre-modern History of the Mangalorean Catholic Community.

External links

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