Armenian genocide
| Armenian Genocide | |
|---|---|
| Part of the persecution of Armenians | |
 Armenian civilians, escorted by armed Ottoman soldiers, are marched through Harput (Kharpert), to a prison in the nearby Mezireh (present-day Elâzığ), April 1915 | |
| Location | Ottoman Empire |
| Date | 1915[note 1] |
| Target | Armenian population |
Attack type | Deportation, mass murder |
| Deaths | 1.5 million[note 2] |
| History of Armenia |
|---|
 |
| Timeline • Origins • Etymology |
The Armenian Genocide[7] (Template:Lang-hy Hayots Tseghaspanutyun),[8] also known as the Armenian Holocaust, the Armenian Massacres and, traditionally by Armenians, as Medz Yeghern (Template:Lang-hy)[9] was the Ottoman government's systematic extermination of its minority Armenian subjects from their historic homeland in the territory constituting the present-day Republic of Turkey during and after World War I. The starting date of the genocide is conventionally held to be 24 April 1915, the day Ottoman authorities rounded up and arrested some 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Constantinople. The genocide was implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and forced labor as army conscripts, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches that led to the Syrian desert as their ultimate destination. They were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre as they were marched along by military escorts.[10][11][12] The total number of people killed as a result has been estimated at between 1 and 1.5 million. Other indigenous and Christian ethnic groups such as the Assyrians, the Greeks and other minorities were similarly targeted for extermination by the Ottoman government, and their treatment is considered by many historians to be part of the same genocidal policy.[13][14][15] The majority of Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a direct result of the genocide.
Raphael Lemkin was explicitly moved by the Armenian annihilation to coin the word genocide in 1943 and define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters.[16] The Armenian Genocide is acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides,[17][18][19] because scholars point to the organized manner in which the killings were carried out in order to eliminate the Armenians,[20] and it is the second most-studied case of genocide after the Holocaust.[21]
Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide as an accurate description of the events.[22] In recent years, it has faced repeated calls to accept the events as genocide. To date, 23 countries have officially recognized the events of the period as genocide, and most genocide scholars and historians accept this view.[23][24][25][26]
Background
Armenians under Ottoman rule
Armenia had come largely under Ottoman rule during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The vast majority of Armenians, grouped together under the name Armenian millet (community) and led by their spiritual head, the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, were concentrated in the eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire (commonly referred to as Turkish Armenia or Western Armenia), although large communities were also found in the western provinces, as well as in the capital Constantinople. The Armenian community was made up of three religious denominations: the Armenian Apostolic to which the overwhelming majority of Armenians belonged, and the Armenian Catholic and Armenian Protestant communities. Through the millet system, the Armenian community was allowed to rule themselves under their own system of governance with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government. With the exception of the empire's urban centers and the extremely wealthy, Constantinople-based Amira class, a social elite whose members included the Duzians (Directors of the Imperial Mint), the Balyans (Chief Imperial Architects) and the Dadians (Superintendent of the Gunpowder Mills and manager of industrial factories), most Armenians – approximately 70% of their population – lived in poor and dangerous conditions in the rural countryside.[27][28] Ottoman census figures clash with the statistics collected by the Armenian Patriarchate. According to the latter, there were three million Armenians living in the empire in 1878 (400,000 in Constantinople and the Balkans, 600,000 in Asia Minor and Cilicia, 670,000 in Lesser Armenia and the area near Kayseri, and 1,300,000 in Western Armenia itself).[29]
In the eastern provinces, the Armenians were subject to the whims of their Turkish and Kurdish neighbors, who would regularly overtax them, subject them to brigandage and kidnapping, force them to convert to Islam, and otherwise exploit them without interference from central or local authorities.[28] In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the dhimmi system implemented in Muslim countries, they, like all other Christians and also Jews, were accorded certain limited freedoms (such as the right to worship), but were in essence treated as second-class citizens and referred to in Turkish as gavours, a pejorative word meaning "infidel" or "unbeliever".[30] The British ethnographer William Ramsay, writing in the late 1890s after having visited the Ottoman Empire, described the conditions of the Armenians:
We must, however, go back to an older time, if we want to appreciate what uncontrolled Turkish rule meant, alike to Armenians and to Greeks. It did not mean religious persecution; it meant unutterable contempt ... They were dogs and pigs; and their nature was to be Christians, to be spat upon, if their shadow darkened a Turk, to be outraged, to be the mats on which he wiped the mud from his feet. Conceive the inevitable result of centuries of slavery, of subjection to insult and scorn, centuries in which nothing that belonged to the Armenian, neither his property, his house, his life, his person, nor his family, was sacred or safe from violence – capricious, unprovoked violence – to resist which by violence meant death![31]
In addition to other legal limitations, Christians were not considered equals to Muslims: testimony against Muslims by Christians and Jews was inadmissible in courts of law; they were forbidden to carry weapons or ride atop horses; their houses could not overlook those of Muslims; and their religious practices were severely circumscribed (e.g., the ringing of church bells was strictly forbidden).[32] Violation of these statutes could result in punishments ranging from the levying of exorbitant fines to execution.
Reform implementation, 1840s–80s
Beginning in the mid-19th century, the three major European powers, Great Britain, France and Russia (known as the Great Powers), took issue with the Empire's treatment of its Christian minorities and increasingly pressured the Ottoman government (known as the Sublime Porte) to extend equal rights to all its citizens. Starting in 1839 and ending with the declaration of a constitution in 1876, the Ottoman government implemented a series of reforms, known as the Tanzimat, to improve the situation of minorities, although these were all largely abortive. The Muslims of the empire were loath to consider the Christians as their social equals. By the late 1870s, the Greeks, along with several other Christian nations in the Balkans, frustrated with their conditions, had, often with the help of the Powers, broken free of Ottoman rule. The Armenians remained, by and large, passive during these years, earning them the title of millet-i sadika or the "loyal millet".[33]
In the mid-1860s and early 1870s, things began to change as an intellectual class began to emerge among Armenian society. Educated in the European university system or in American missionary schools in the Ottoman Empire, these Armenians began to question their second-class status in society and initiated a movement that asked for better treatment from their government. In one such instance, after amassing the signatures of peasants from Western Armenia, the Armenian Communal Council petitioned to the Ottoman government to redress the issues that the peasants complained about the most: "the looting and murder in Armenian towns by [Muslim] Kurds and Circassians, improprieties during tax collection, criminal behavior by government officials and the refusal to accept Christians as witnesses in trial". The Ottoman government considered these grievances and promised to punish those responsible, though no meaningful steps were ever taken.[32]: 36
Following the violent suppression of Christians in the uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria and Serbia in 1875, the Great Powers invoked the 1856 Treaty of Paris by claiming that it gave them the right to intervene and protect the Ottoman Empire's Christian minorities.[32]: 35ff Under growing pressure, the government of Sultan Abdul Hamid II declared itself a constitutional monarchy with a parliament (which was almost immediately prorogued) and entered into negotiations with the powers. At the same time, the Armenian patriarchate of Constantinople, Nerses II, forwarded Armenian complaints of widespread "forced land seizure ... forced conversion of women and children, arson, protection extortion, rape, and murder" to the Powers.[32]: 37
After the conclusion of the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War, the Armenians began to look more toward the Russian Empire as the ultimate guarantors of their security. Nerses approached the Russian leadership during its negotiations with the Ottomans in San Stefano and in the eponymous treaty, convinced them to insert a clause, Article 16, stipulating that the Russian forces occupying the Armenian-populated provinces in the eastern Ottoman Empire would withdraw only with the full implementation of reforms.[34] Great Britain was troubled by Russia's retention of so much Ottoman territory and forced it to enter into new negotiations with the convening of the Congress of Berlin in June 1878. Armenians also entered into these negotiations and emphasized that they sought autonomy, not independence from the Ottoman Empire.[32]: 38 They partially succeeded, as Article 61 of the Treaty of Berlin contained the same text as Article 16 but removed any mention that Russian forces would remain in the provinces; instead, the Ottoman government was periodically to inform the Great Powers of the progress of the reforms.
Armenian national liberation movement
As it turned out, the reforms were not forthcoming. Upset with this turn of events, a number of disillusioned Armenian intellectuals living in Europe and Russia decided to form political parties and societies dedicated to the betterment of their compatriots living inside the Ottoman Empire. In the last quarter of the 19th century, this movement came to be dominated by three parties: the Armenakan, whose influence was limited to Van, the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party, and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutiun). Ideological differences aside, all parties were committed to the same goal of improving the social status of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. Along with their claims for reforms, including the search for European pressure over the Ottoman government for their implementation, the parties also sought to improve the plight of the Armenians through self-defense.[35][36]
Hamidian Massacres, 1894–96
Since 1876, the Ottoman state had been led by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Immediately after the Treaty of Berlin was signed, Hamid II attempted to forestall implementation of its reform provisions by asserting that Armenians did not make up a majority in the provinces and that their reports of abuses were largely exaggerated or false. In 1890, Hamid II created a paramilitary outfit known as the Hamidiye which was made up of Kurdish irregulars who were tasked to "deal with the Armenians as they wished".[30]: 40 As Ottoman officials intentionally provoked rebellions (often as a result of over-taxation) in Armenian populated towns, such as in Sasun in 1894 and Zeitun in 1895–96, these regiments were increasingly used to deal with the Armenians by way of oppression and massacre. In some instances, Armenians successfully fought off the regiments and in 1895 brought the excesses to the attention of the Great Powers in, who subsequently condemned the Porte.[32]: 40–2
In October 1895 the Powers forced Hamid to sign a new reform package designed to curtail the powers of the Hamidiye but, like the Berlin Treaty, it was never implemented. On 1 October 1895, 2,000 Armenians assembled in Constantinople to petition for the implementation of the reforms, but Ottoman police units converged on the rally and violently broke it up.[30]: 57–8 Soon, massacres of Armenians broke out in Constantinople and then engulfed the rest of the Armenian-populated provinces of Bitlis, Diyarbekir, Erzerum, Harput, Sivas, Trabzon and Van. Estimates differ on how many Armenians were killed but European documentation of the violence, which became known as the Hamidian massacres, placed the figures at between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians.[37]
Although Hamid was never directly implicated in ordering the massacres, it is believed that they had his tacit approval.[32]: 42 Frustrated with European indifference to the massacres, Armenians from the Dashnaktsutiun party seized the European-managed Ottoman Bank on 26 August 1896. This incident brought further sympathy for Armenians in Europe and was lauded by the European and American press, which vilified Hamid and painted him as the "great assassin" and "bloody Sultan".[30]: 35, 115 While the Great Powers vowed to take action and enforce new reforms, these never came to fruition due to conflicting political and economic interests.
Prelude to genocide
The Young Turk Revolution of 1908
On 24 July 1908, Armenians' hopes for equality in the empire brightened once more when a coup d'état staged by officers in the Ottoman Third Army based in Salonika removed Abdul Hamid II from power and restored the country to a constitutional monarchy. The officers were part of the Young Turk movement that wanted to reform administration of the perceived decadent state of the Ottoman Empire and modernize it to European standards. The movement was an anti-Hamidian coalition made up of two distinct groups: the secular liberal constitutionalists and the nationalists; the former were more democratic and accepted Armenians into their wing whereas the latter group was more intolerant in regard to Armenian-related issues and their frequent requests for European assistance.[30]: 140–1 In 1902, during a congress of the Young Turks held in Paris, the heads of the liberal wing, Sabahaddin and Ahmed Riza Bey, partially persuaded the nationalists to include in their objectives ensuring some rights for all the minorities of the empire.
One of the numerous factions within the Young Turk movement was a secret revolutionary organization called the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). It drew its membership from disaffected army officers based in Salonika and was behind a wave of mutinies against the central government. In 1908, elements of the Third Army and the Second Army Corps declared their opposition to the Sultan and threatened to march on the capital to depose him. Hamid, shaken by the wave of resentment, stepped down from power as Armenians, Greeks, Assyrians, Arabs, Bulgarians and Turks alike rejoiced in his dethronement.[30]: 143–4
The Adana Massacre of 1909
A countercoup took place on 13 April 1909. Some Ottoman military elements, joined by Islamic theological students, aimed to return control of the country to the Sultan and the rule of Islamic law. Riots and fighting broke out between the reactionary forces and CUP forces, until the CUP was able to put down the uprising and court-martial the opposition leaders.
While the movement initially targeted the Young Turk government, it spilled over into pogroms against Armenians who were perceived as having supported the restoration of the constitution.[32]: 68–9 When Ottoman Army troops were called in, many accounts record that instead of trying to quell the violence they actually took part in pillaging Armenian enclaves in Adana province.[38] The number of Armenians killed in the course of the Adana Massacre ranged between 15,000 and 30,000 people.[32]: 69 [39]
The Balkan wars
In 1912, the First Balkan War broke out and ended with the defeat of the Ottoman Empire as well as the loss of 85% of its European territory. Many in the empire saw their defeat as "Allah's divine punishment for a society that did not know how to pull itself together".[32]: 84 The Turkish nationalist movement in the country gradually came to view Anatolia as their last refuge. That the Armenian population formed a significant minority in this region would figure prominently in the calculations of the Young Turks who would eventually carry out the Armenian Genocide.
An important consequence of the Balkan Wars was also the mass expulsion of Muslims (known as muhajirs) from the Balkans. In fact, beginning in the mid-19th century, hundreds of thousands of Muslims, including Circassians and Chechens, were expelled or forced to flee from the Caucasus and the Balkans (Rumelia) as a result of the Russo-Turkish wars and the conflicts in the Balkans. Muslim society in the empire was incensed by this flood of refugees and overcome by a desire for revenge. A journal published in Constantinople expressed the mood of the times: "Let this be a warning ... O Muslims, don't get comfortable! Do not let your blood cool before taking revenge".[32]: 86 As many as 850,000 of these refugees were settled in areas where the Armenians were resident from the period of 1878–1904. The muhajirs resented the status of their relatively well-off neighbors and, as historian Taner Akçam and others have noted, the refugees would come to play a pivotal role in the killings of the Armenians and the confiscation of their properties during the genocide.[32]: 86–87
World War I
On 2 November 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers. The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I became the scene of action. The combatants were the Ottoman Empire, with some assistance from the other Central Powers, and primarily the British and the Russians among the Allies of World War I. The conflicts at the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign and the Gallipoli Campaign affected where the Armenian people lived in significant numbers. Before the declaration of war, at the Armenian congress at Erzurum, the Ottoman government requested the Ottoman Armenians to facilitate the conquest of Transcaucasia by inciting a rebellion among Russian Armenians against the tsarist army in the event of a Caucasus front.[32]: 136 [40]
Battle of Sarikamish
On 24 December 1914, Minister of War Enver Pasha implemented a plan to encircle and destroy the Russian Caucasus Army at Sarikamish in order to regain territories lost to Russia after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. Enver Pasha's forces were routed at the Battle of Sarikamis, and almost completely destroyed. Returning to Constantinople, Enver Pasha publicly blamed his defeat on Armenians in the region having actively sided with the Russians.[30]: 200 He referred to the Armenian volunteer units established within the Russian armed forces in the summer of 1914. As the Russian Armenian conscripts had already been sent to the European Front, these units were composed of Armenians who were not obligated to serve or who were not Russian. Karekin Pastermadjian (Armen Garo), a former Armenian representative to the Ottoman Parliament, was also brought into this force. Initially they had 20,000 men, but it was reported that their number subsequently increased.
Labor battalions, 25 February
On 25 February 1915, Enver Pasha sent an order to all military units that Armenians in the active Ottoman forces be demobilized and assigned to the unarmed Labour battalion (Turkish: amele taburlari). Enver Pasha explained this decision as "out of fear that they would collaborate with the Russians". Traditionally, the Ottoman Army only drafted non-Muslim males between the ages of 20 and 45 into the regular army. The younger (15–20) and older (45–60) non-Muslim soldiers had always been used as logistical support through the labor battalions. Before February, some of the Armenian recruits were utilized as laborers (hamals), though they would ultimately be executed.[41]
Transferring Armenian conscripts from active combat to passive, unarmed logistic sections was an important precursor to the subsequent genocide. As reported in The Memoirs of Naim Bey, the execution of the Armenians in these battalions was part of a premeditated strategy of the Committee of Union and Progress. Many of these Armenian recruits were executed by local Turkish gangs.[30]: 178
Events at Van, April 1915
On 19 April 1915, Jevdet Bey demanded that the city of Van immediately furnish him 4,000 soldiers under the pretext of conscription. However, it was clear to the Armenian population that his goal was to massacre the able-bodied men of Van so that there would be no defenders. Jevdet Bey had already used his official writ in nearby villages, ostensibly to search for arms, but in fact to initiate wholesale massacres.[30]: 202 The Armenians offered five hundred soldiers and exemption money for the rest in order to buy time, but Jevdet Bey accused the Armenians of "rebellion" and asserted his determination to "crush" it at any cost. "If the rebels fire a single shot", he declared, "I shall kill every Christian man, woman, and" (pointing to his knee) "every child, up to here".[42]: 298
The next day, 20 April 1915, the Siege of Van began when an Armenian woman was harassed, and the two Armenian men who came to her aid were killed by Ottoman soldiers. The Armenian defenders protected the 30,000 residents and 15,000 refugees living in an area of roughly one square kilometer of the Armenian Quarter and suburb of Aigestan with 1,500 ablebodied riflemen who were supplied with 300 rifles and 1,000 pistols and antique weapons. The conflict lasted until General Yudenich of Russia came to their rescue.[43]
Reports of the conflict reached then United States Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire Henry Morgenthau, Sr. from Aleppo and Van, prompting him to raise the issue in person with Talaat and Enver. As he quoted to them the testimonies of his consulate officials, they justified the deportations as necessary to the conduct of the war, suggesting that complicity of the Armenians of Van with the Russian forces that had taken the city justified the persecution of all ethnic Armenians.
Arrest and deportation of Armenian notables, April 1915
By 1914, Ottoman authorities had already begun a propaganda drive to present Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire as a threat to the empire's security. An Ottoman naval officer in the War Office described the planning:
"In order to justify this enormous crime the requisite propaganda material was thoroughly prepared in Istanbul. [It included such statements as] 'the Armenians are in league with the enemy. They will launch an uprising in Istanbul, kill off the Ittihadist leaders and will succeed in opening up the straits [of the Dardanelles]'".[33]: 220
On the night of 23–24 April 1915, Red Sunday (Template:Lang-hy), the Ottoman government rounded up and imprisoned an estimated 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders of the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, and later those in other centers, who were moved to two holding centers near Ankara.[30]: 211–2 This date coincided with Allied troop landings at Gallipoli after unsuccessful Allied naval attempts to break through the Dardanelles to Constantinople in February and March 1915.
Following the passage of Tehcir Law on 29 May 1915, the Armenian leaders, except for the few who were able to return to Constantinople, were gradually deported and assassinated. The date April 24 is commemorated as Genocide Remembrance Day by Armenians around the world.
Deportations
In May 1915, Mehmet Talaat Pasha requested that the cabinet and Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha legalize a measure for the deportation of Armenians to other places due to what Talaat Pasha called "the Armenian riots and massacres, which had arisen in a number of places in the country". However, Talaat Pasha was referring specifically to events in Van and extending the implementation to the regions in which alleged "riots and massacres" would affect the security of the war zone of the Caucasus Campaign. Later, the scope of the deportation was widened in order to include the Armenians in the other provinces.
On 29 May 1915, the CUP Central Committee passed the Temporary Law of Deportation ("Tehcir Law"), giving the Ottoman government and military authorization to deport anyone it "sensed" as a threat to national security.[30]: 186–8 The "Tehcir Law" brought some measures regarding the property of the deportees, but during September a new law was proposed. By means of the "Abandoned Properties" Law (Law Concerning Property, Dept's and Assets Left Behind Deported Persons, also referred as the "Temporary Law on Expropriation and Confiscation"), the Ottoman government took possession of all "abandoned" Armenian goods and properties. Ottoman parliamentary representative Ahmed Riza protested this legislation:
It is unlawful to designate the Armenian assets as "abandoned goods" for the Armenians, the proprietors, did not abandon their properties voluntarily; they were forcibly, compulsorily removed from their domiciles and exiled. Now the government through its efforts is selling their goods ... If we are a constitutional regime functioning in accordance with constitutional law we can't do this. This is atrocious. Grab my arm, eject me from my village, then sell my goods and properties, such a thing can never be permissible. Neither the conscience of the Ottomans nor the law can allow it.[45]
On 13 September 1915, the Ottoman parliament passed the "Temporary Law of Expropriation and Confiscation", stating that all property, including land, livestock, and homes belonging to Armenians, was to be confiscated by the authorities.[33]: 224
With the implementation of Tehcir Law, the confiscation of Armenian property and the slaughter of Armenians that ensued upon its enactment outraged much of the western world. While the Ottoman Empire's wartime allies offered little protest, a wealth of German and Austrian historical documents has since come to attest to the witnesses' horror at the killings and mass starvation of Armenians.[46]: 329–31 [47]: 212–3 In the United States, The New York Times reported almost daily on the mass murder of the Armenian people, describing the process as "systematic", "authorized" and "organized by the government". Theodore Roosevelt would later characterize this as "the greatest crime of the war".[48]
Historian Hans-Lukas Kieser states that, from the statements of Talaat Pasha[49] it is clear that the officials were aware that the deportation order was genocidal.[50] Another historian Taner Akçam states that the telegrams show that the overall coordination of the genocide was taken over by Talaat Pasha.[51]
Death marches
The Armenians were marched out to the Syrian town of Deir ez-Zor and the surrounding desert. There is no evidence that the Ottoman government provided the extensive facilities and supplies that would have been necessary to sustain the life of hundreds of thousands of Armenian deportees during their forced march to the Syrian desert or after.[52] By August 1915, The New York Times repeated an unattributed report that "the roads and the Euphrates are strewn with corpses of exiles, and those who survive are doomed to certain death. It is a plan to exterminate the whole Armenian people".[53] Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha were completely aware that by abandoning the Armenian deportees in the desert they were condemning them to certain death.[54]
Ottoman troops escorting the Armenians not only allowed others to rob, kill, and rape the Armenians, but often participated in these activities themselves.[52] Deprived of their belongings and marched into the desert, hundreds of thousands of Armenians perished.
Naturally, the death rate from starvation and sickness is very high and is increased by the brutal treatment of the authorities, whose bearing toward the exiles as they are being driven back and forth over the desert is not unlike that of slave drivers. With few exceptions no shelter of any kind is provided and the people coming from a cold climate are left under the scorching desert sun without food and water. Temporary relief can only be obtained by the few able to pay officials.[52]
Similarly, Major General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein noted that "The Turkish policy of causing starvation is an all too obvious proof, if proof was still needed as to who is responsible for the massacre, for the Turkish resolve to destroy the Armenians".[33]: 350
German engineers and laborers involved in building the railway also witnessed Armenians being crammed into cattle cars and shipped along the railroad line. Franz Gunther, a representative for Deutsche Bank which was funding the construction of the Baghdad Railway, forwarded photographs to his directors and expressed his frustration at having to remain silent amid such "bestial cruelty".[30]: 326 Major General Otto von Lossow, acting military attaché and head of the German Military Plenipotentiary in the Ottoman Empire, spoke to Ottoman intentions in a conference held in Batum in 1918:
The Turks have embarked upon the "total extermination of the Armenians in Transcaucasia ... The aim of Turkish policy is, as I have reiterated, the taking of possession of Armenian districts and the extermination of the Armenians. Talaat's government wants to destroy all Armenians, not just in Turkey but also outside Turkey. On the basis of all the reports and news coming to me here in Tiflis there hardly can be any doubt that the Turks systematically are aiming at the extermination of the few hundred thousand Armenians whom they left alive until now.[33]: 349
Extermination camps
A network of 25 concentration camps was set up by the Ottoman government to dispose of the Armenians who had survived the deportations to their ultimate point.[55] This network, situated in the region of Turkey's present-day borders with Iraq and Syria, was directed by Şükrü Kaya, one of Talaat Pasha's right-hand men. Some of the camps were only temporary transit points. Others, such as Radjo, Katma, and Azaz, were briefly used for mass graves and then vacated by autumn 1915. Camps such as Lale, Tefridje, Dipsi, Del-El, and Ra's al-'Ayn were built specifically for those whose life expectancy was just a few days[56]
Relief
The American Committee for Relief in the Near East, established in 1915 just after the deportations began, was an organization whose primary purpose was to alleviate the suffering of the Armenian people. Henry Morgenthau played a key role in rallying support for the organization. Between 1915 and 1930, ACRNE distributed humanitarian relief to locations across a wide geographical range, eventually spending over ten times its initial estimate, see original estimate, and helping around 2,000,000 refugees.[57]
In its first year, the ACRNE cared for 132,000 Armenian orphans from Tiflis, Yerevan, Constantinople, Sivas, Beirut, Damascus, and Jerusalem. A relief organization for refugees in the Middle East helped donate over $102 million (budget $117,000,000) [1930 value of dollar] to Armenians both during and after the war.[58][59]: 336
Teshkilat-i Mahsusa
The Committee of Union and Progress founded a "special organization" (Template:Lang-tr) that participated in the destruction of the Ottoman Armenian community.[60] This organization adopted its name in 1913 and functioned like a special forces outfit, and it has been compared by some scholars to the Nazi Einsatzgruppen.[30]: 182, 185 Later in 1914, the Ottoman government influenced the direction the special organization was to take by releasing criminals from central prisons to be the central elements of this newly formed special organization.[61] According to the Mazhar commissions attached to the tribunal as soon as November 1914, 124 criminals were released from Pimian prison. Little by little from the end of 1914 to the beginning of 1915, hundreds, then thousands of prisoners were freed to form the members of this organization. Later, they were charged to escort the convoys of Armenian deportees.[62] Vehib Pasha, commander of the Ottoman Third Army, called those members of the special organization, the "butchers of the human species".[63]
Massacres
Mass burnings
Eitan Belkind was a Nili member, who infiltrated the Ottoman army as an official. He was assigned to the headquarters of Kamal Pasha. He claims to have witnessed the burning of 5,000 Armenians.[64]: 181, 183
Lt. Hasan Maruf, of the Ottoman army, describes how a population of a village were taken all together, and then burned.[65] The Commander of the Third Army Vehib's 12-page affidavit, which was dated 5 December 1918, was presented in the Trabzon trial series (29 March 1919) included in the Key Indictment,[66] reporting such a mass burning of the population of an entire village near Muş: "The shortest method for disposing of the women and children concentrated in the various camps was to burn them".[67] Further, it was reported that "Turkish prisoners who had apparently witnessed some of these scenes were horrified and maddened at remembering the sight. They told the Russians that the stench of the burning human flesh permeated the air for many days after".[68]
Drowning
Trabzon was the main city in Trabzon province; Oscar S. Heizer, the American consul at Trabzon, reported: "This plan did not suit Nail Bey ... Many of the children were loaded into boats and taken out to sea and thrown overboard".[69] The Italian consul of Trabzon in 1915, Giacomo Gorrini, writes: "I saw thousands of innocent women and children placed on boats which were capsized in the Black Sea".[70] The Trabzon trials reported Armenians having been drowned in the Black Sea.[71]
Hoffman Philip, the American chargé d'affaires at Constantinople, wrote: "Boat loads sent from Zor down the river arrived at Ana, one thirty miles away, with three fifths of passengers missing".[72]
Use of poison and drug overdoses
The psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton writes in a parenthesis when introducing the medical experiments during the Holocaust, "Perhaps Turkish doctors, in their participation in the genocide against the Armenians, come closest, as I shall later suggest".[73]
Morphine overdose: During the Trabzon trial series of the Martial court, from the sittings between 26 March and 17 May 1919, the Trabzons Health Services Inspector Dr. Ziya Fuad wrote in a report that Dr. Saib caused the death of children with the injection of morphine. The information was allegedly provided by two physicians (Drs. Ragib and Vehib), both Dr. Saib's colleagues at Trabzons Red Crescent hospital, where those atrocities were said to have been committed.[74][75]
Toxic gas: Dr. Ziya Fuad and Dr. Adnan, public health services director of Trabzon, submitted affidavits reporting cases in which two school buildings were used to organize children and send them to the mezzanine to kill them with toxic gas equipment.[76][77]
Typhoid inoculation: The Ottoman surgeon, Dr. Haydar Cemal wrote "on the order of the Chief Sanitation Office of the Third Army in January 1916, when the spread of typhus was an acute problem, innocent Armenians slated for deportation at Erzican were inoculated with the blood of typhoid fever patients without rendering that blood 'inactive'".[78][79] Jeremy Hugh Baron writes: "Individual doctors were directly involved in the massacres, having poisoned infants, killed children and issued false certificates of death from natural causes. Nazim's brother-in-law Dr. Tevfik Rushdu, Inspector-General of Health Services, organized the disposal of Armenian corpses with thousands of kilos of lime over six months; he became foreign secretary from 1925 to 1938".[80]
Trials
Turkish courts-martial
In 1919, Sultan Mehmed VI ordered domestic courts-martial to try members of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) (Turkish: "Ittihat Terakki") for their role in taking the Ottoman Empire into World War I. The courts-martial blamed the members of CUP for pursuing a war that did not fit into the notion of Millet. The Armenian issue was used as a tool to punish the leaders of the CUP. Most of the documents generated in these courts were later moved to international trials. By January 1919, a report to Sultan Mehmed VI accused over 130 suspects, most of whom were high officials. The military court found that it was the will of the CUP to eliminate the Armenians physically, via its special organization. The 1919 pronouncement reads as follows:
The Court Martial taking into consideration the above-named crimes declares, unanimously, the culpability as principal factors of these crimes the fugitives Talaat Pasha, former Grand Vizir, Enver Efendi, former War Minister, struck off the register of the Imperial Army, Cemal Efendi, former Navy Minister, struck off too from the Imperial Army, and Dr. Nazim Efendi, former Minister of Education, members of the General Council of the Union & Progress, representing the moral person of that party; ... the Court Martial pronounces, in accordance with said stipulations of the Law the death penalty against Talaat, Enver, Cemal, and Dr. Nazim.
The term Three Pashas, which include Mehmed Talaat Pasha and Ismail Enver, refers to the triumvirate who had fled the Empire at the end of World War I. At the trials in Constantinople in 1919 they were sentenced to death in absentia. The courts-martial officially disbanded the CUP and confiscated its assets, and the assets of those found guilty. At least two of the three were later assassinated by Armenian vigilantes.
International trials
Following the Mudros Armistice, the preliminary Peace Conference in Paris established "The Commission on Responsibilities and Sanctions" in January 1919, which was chaired by US Secretary of State Lansing. Based on the commission's work, several articles were added to the Treaty of Sèvres, and the acting government of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Mehmed VI and Damat Adil Ferit Pasha, were summoned to trial. The Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) planned a trial to determine those responsible for the "barbarous and illegitimate methods of warfare ... [including] offenses against the laws and customs of war and the principles of humanity".[21] Article 230 of the Treaty of Sèvres required the Ottoman Empire "hand over to the Allied Powers the persons whose surrender may be required by the latter as being responsible for the massacres committed during the continuance of the state of war on territory which formed part of the Ottoman Empire on August 1, 1914".
Various Ottoman politicians, generals, and intellectuals were transferred to Malta, where they were held for some three years while searches were made of archives in Constantinople, London, Paris and Washington to investigate their actions.[81] However, the Inter-allied tribunal attempt demanded by the Treaty of Sèvres never solidified and the detainees were eventually returned to Turkey in exchange for British citizens held by Kemalist Turkey.
Trial of Soghomon Tehlirian
On 15 March 1921, former Grand Vizier Talaat Pasha was assassinated in the Charlottenburg District of Berlin, Germany, in broad daylight and in the presence of many witnesses. Talaat's death was part of "Operation Nemesis", the Armenian Revolutionary Federation's codename for their covert operation in the 1920s to kill the planners of the Armenian Genocide.
The subsequent trial of the assassin, Soghomon Tehlirian, had an important influence on Raphael Lemkin, a lawyer of Polish–Jewish descent who campaigned in the League of Nations to ban what he called "barbarity" and "vandalism". The term "genocide", created in 1943, was coined by Lemkin who was directly influenced by the massacres of Armenians during World War I.[82]: 210
Armenian population, deaths, survivors, 1914 to 1918
While there is no consensus as to how many Armenians lost their lives during the Armenian Genocide, there is general agreement among western scholars that over 500,000 Armenians died between 1914 and 1918. Estimates vary between 600,000,[83] to 1,500,000 (per Western scholars,[84] Argentina,[85] and other states). Encyclopædia Britannica references the research of Arnold J. Toynbee, an intelligence officer of the British Foreign Office, who estimated that by 1916, 600,000 Armenians "died or were massacred during deportation".[68][86] This figure, however, accounts for solely the first year of the Genocide and does not take into account those who died or were killed after 1916.[87]
According to some newly discovered documents that once belonged to Talaat Pasha, more than 970,000 Ottoman Armenians disappeared from official population records from 1915 through 1916. Talaat's widow, Hayriye Talaat Bafralı, gave the documents and records in 1983 to Turkish journalist Murat Bardakçı, who has published them in a book titled The Remaining Documents of Talat Pasha (aka "Talat Pasha's Black Book"). According to the documents, the number of Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire before 1915 stood at 1,256,000. The number plunged to 284,157 two years later in 1917.[88]
Justin McCarthy calculated an estimate of the pre-war Armenian population, then subtracted his estimate of survivors, arriving at a figure of a little less than 600,000 for Armenian casualties for the period 1914 to 1922.[89] In a more recent essay, he projected that if the Armenian records of 1913 were accurate, 250,000 more deaths should be added, for a total of 850,000.[90]
However, McCarthy's numbers have been highly contested by many specialists. Some of them, like Frédéric Paulin, have severely criticized McCarthy's methodology and suggested that it is flawed.[91] Hilmar Kaiser[92] another specialist has made similar claims, as have professor Vahakn N. Dadrian[93] and professor Levon Marashlian.[94] The critics not only question McCarthy's methodology and resulting calculations, but also his primary sources, the Ottoman censuses. They point out that there was no official statistic census in 1912; rather those numbers were based on the records of 1905 which were conducted during the reign of Sultan Hamid.[95] While Ottoman censuses claimed an Armenian population of 1.2 million, Fa'iz El-Ghusein (the Kaimakam of Kharpout) wrote that there were about 1.9 million Armenians in the Ottoman Empire,[96] and some modern scholars estimate over 2 million. German official Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter wrote that fewer than 100,000 Armenians survived the genocide, the rest having been exterminated (Template:Lang-de).[97]: 329–30
Contemporaneous reports and reactions
Hundreds of eyewitnesses, including the neutral United States and the Ottoman Empire's own allies, Germany and Austria-Hungary, recorded and documented numerous acts of state-sponsored massacres. Many foreign officials offered to intervene on behalf of the Armenians, including Pope Benedict XV, only to be turned away by Ottoman government officials who claimed they were retaliating against a pro-Russian insurrection.[18]: 177 On 24 May 1915, the Triple Entente warned the Ottoman Empire that "In view of these new crimes of Turkey against humanity and civilization, the Allied Governments announce publicly to the Sublime Porte that they will hold personally responsible for these crimes all members of the Ottoman Government, as well as those of their agents who are implicated in such massacres".[98]
The American Committee for Relief in the Near East (ACRNE, or "Near East Relief") was a charitable organization established to relieve the suffering of the peoples of the Near East.[99] The organization was championed by Henry Morgenthau, Sr., American ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. Morgenthau's dispatches on the mass slaughter of Armenians galvanized much support for ACRNE.[100]
The U.S. Mission in the Ottoman Empire
The United States had consulates throughout the Ottoman Empire, including locations in Edirne, Elâzığ, Samsun, İzmir, Trebizond, Van, Constantinople, and Aleppo. It was officially a neutral party until it joined the Allies in 1917. In addition to the consulates, there were numerous American Protestant missionary compounds established in Armenian-populated regions, including Van and Kharput. The events were reported regularly in newspapers and literary journals around the world.[30]: 282–5
On his return home in 1924 after thirty years as a U.S. Consul in the Near East, and most of the preceding decade as Consul General at Smyrna, George Horton wrote his own "account of the Systematic Extermination of Christian Populations by Mohammedans and of the Culpability of Certain Great Powers; with a True Story of the Burning of Smyrna" (1926 subtitle, The Blight of Asia).[101] Horton's account quoted numerous contemporary communications and eyewitness reports including one of the massacre of Phocea in 1914, by a Frenchman, and two of the Armenian massacres of 1914/15, by an American citizen and a German missionary.[101]: 28–9, 34–7. It also quoted U.S. businessman Walter M. Geddes regarding his time in Damascus: "several Turks[,] whom I interviewed, told me that the motive of this exile was to exterminate the race."[102]
Many Americans spoke out against the genocide, including former president Theodore Roosevelt, rabbi Stephen Wise, Alice Stone Blackwell, and William Jennings Bryan, the U.S. Secretary of State to June 1915. In the U.S. and the United Kingdom, children were regularly reminded to clean their plates while eating and to "remember the starving Armenians".[103]
Ambassador Morgenthau's Story
As the orders for deportations and massacres were enacted, many consular officials reported what they were witnessing to the ambassador. In memoirs that he completed during 1918 Morgenthau wrote, "When the Turkish authorities gave the orders for these deportations, they were merely giving the death warrant to a whole race; they understood this well, and, in their conversations with me, they made no particular attempt to conceal the fact ..."[42]: 309 The memoirs and reports vividly described the methods used by Ottoman forces and documented numerous instances of atrocities committed against the Christian minority.[104]
Allied forces in the Middle East
On the Middle Eastern front, the British military was engaged fighting the Ottoman forces in southern Syria and Mesopotamia. British diplomat Gertrude Bell filed the following report after hearing the account from a captured Ottoman soldier:
The battalion left Aleppo on 3 February and reached Ras al-Ain in twelve hours ... some 12,000 Armenians were concentrated under the guardianship of some hundred Kurds ... These Kurds were called gendarmes, but in reality mere butchers; bands of them were publicly ordered to take parties of Armenians, of both sexes, to various destinations, but had secret instructions to destroy the males, children and old women ... One of these gendarmes confessed to killing 100 Armenian men himself ... the empty desert cisterns and caves were also filled with corpses ...[46]: 327
Winston Churchill described the massacres as an "administrative holocaust" and noted that "the clearance of the race from Asia Minor was about as complete as such an act, on a scale so great, could well be. ... There is no reasonable doubt that this crime was planned and executed for political reasons. The opportunity presented itself for clearing Turkish soil of a Christian race opposed to all Turkish ambitions, cherishing national ambitions that could only be satisfied at the expense of Turkey, and planted geographically between Turkish and Caucasian Moslems".[46]: 329
Arnold Toynbee: The Treatment of Armenians
Arnold J. Toynbee published a widely studied book The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire in 1916. It was a collection of documents. Reacting to numerous eyewitness accounts, British politician Viscount Bryce and historian Toynbee compiled statements from survivors and eyewitnesses from other countries including Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland, who similarly attested to the systematized massacring of innocent Armenians by Ottoman government forces.[105]
The book has since been criticized as British wartime propaganda to build up sentiment against the Central Powers, but Bryce had submitted the work to scholars for verification before its publication. University of Oxford Regius Professor Gilbert Murray stated, "... the evidence of these letters and reports will bear any scrutiny and overpower any skepticism. Their genuineness is established beyond question".[33]: 228 Other professors, including Herbert Fisher of Sheffield University and former American Bar Association president Moorfield Storey, came to the same conclusion.[33]: 228–9
Joint Austrian and German mission
As allies during the war, the Imperial German mission in the Ottoman Empire included both military and civilian components. Germany had brokered a deal with the Sublime Porte to commission the building of a railroad called the Baghdad Railway that would stretch from Berlin to the Middle East. At the beginning of 1915, Germany's diplomatic mission was led by Ambassador Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim who, upon his death in 1915, was succeeded by Count Paul Wolff Metternich. Like Morgenthau, von Wangenheim began receiving many disturbing messages from consular officials around the Ottoman Empire that detailed the massacres of Armenians. From the province of Adana, Consul Eugene Buge reported that the CUP chief had sworn to massacre any Armenians who had survived the deportation marches.[30]: 186 In June 1915, von Wangenheim sent a cable to Berlin reporting that Talaat had admitted that the deportations were not "being carried out because of 'military considerations alone'". One month later, he came to the conclusion that there "no longer was doubt that the Porte was trying to exterminate the Armenian race in the Turkish Empire".[47]: 213
When Wolff-Metternich succeeded von Wangenheim, he continued to dispatch similar cables: "The Committee [CUP] demands the extirpation of the last remnants of the Armenians and the government must yield ... A Committee representative is assigned to each of the provincial administrations ... Turkification means license to expel, to kill or destroy everything that is not Turkish".[106]
Another notable figure in the German military camp was Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter, who documented various massacres of Armenians. He sent fifteen reports regarding "deportations and mass killings" to the German chancellery. His final report noted that fewer than 100,000 Armenians were left alive in the Ottoman Empire: the rest having been exterminated (Template:Lang-de).[46]: 329–30 Scheubner-Richter also detailed the methods of the Ottoman government, noting its use of the Special Organization and other bureaucratized instruments of genocide.
The Germans also witnessed the way Armenians were burned according to Israeli historian, Bat Ye'or, who writes: "The Germans, allies of the Turks in the First World War ... saw how civil populations were shut up in churches and burned, or gathered en masse in camps, tortured to death, and reduced to ashes".[107] German officers stationed in eastern Turkey disputed the government's assertion that Armenian revolts had broken out, suggesting that the areas were "quiet until the deportations began".[47]: 212 Other Germans openly supported the Ottoman policy against the Armenians. As Hans Humann, the German naval attaché in Constantinople said to US Ambassador Henry Morgenthau:
I have lived in Turkey the larger part of my life ... and I know the Armenians. I also know that both Armenians and Turks cannot live together in this country. One of these races has got to go. And I don't blame the Turks for what they are doing to the Armenians. I think that they are entirely justified. The weaker nation must succumb. The Armenians desire to dismember Turkey; they are against the Turks and the Germans in this war, and they therefore have no right to exist here.[42]: 375
In a genocide conference held in 2001, professor Wolfgang Wipperman of the Free University of Berlin introduced documents evidencing that the German High Command was aware of the mass killings at the time but chose not to interfere or speak out.[46]: 331 In his reports to Berlin in 1917, General Hans von Seeckt supported the reforming efforts of the Young Turks, writing that "the inner weakness of Turkey in their entirety, call for the history and custom of the new Turkish empire to be written".[108] Seeckt added that "Only a few moments of the destruction are still mentioned. The upper levels of society had become unwarlike, the main reason being the increasing mixing with foreign elements of a long standing unculture".[108] Seeckt blamed all of the problems of the Ottoman empire on the Jews and the Armenians, whom he portrayed as a fifth column working for the Allies.[108] In July 1918, Seeckt sent a message to Berlin stating that "It is an impossible state of affairs to be allied with the Turks and to stand up for the Armenians. In my view any consideration, Christian, sentimental, and political should be eclipsed by a hard, but clear necessity for war".[108]
Photographs exist that may also suggest the Germans participated in the mass killing and some of the German witnesses to the Armenian holocaust would go on to play a role in the Nazi regime. Konstantin Freiherr von Neurath, for example, who was attached to the Turkish 4th Army in 1915 with instructions to monitor "operations" against the Armenians, later became Hitler's foreign minister and "Protector of Bohemia and Moravia" during Reinhard Heydrich's terror in Czechoslovakia.[109]
Armin T. Wegner
German aspiring writer Armin T. Wegner enrolled as a medic during the winter of 1914–15. He defied censorship by taking hundreds of photographs[110] of Armenians being deported and subsequently starving in northern Syrian camps[46]: 326 and in the deserts of Deir-er-Zor. Wegner was part of a German detachment under von der Goltz stationed near the Baghdad Railway in Mesopotamia. He was eventually arrested by the Germans and recalled to Germany.
Wegner protested against the atrocities in an open letter submitted to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson at the peace conference of 1919. The letter made a case for the creation of an independent Armenian state. Also in 1919, he published The Road of No Return ("Der Weg ohne Heimkehr"), a collection of letters he had written during what he deemed the "martyrdom" (German: "Martyrium") of the Armenians.[111] A documentary film depicting Wegner's personal account of the Armenian Genocide through his own photographs, called "Destination Nowhere: The Witness" and produced by Dr J. Michael Hagopian, premiered in Fresno on 25 April 2000.[112] Prior to the release of the documentary, he was honored at the Armenian Genocide Museum in Yerevan for championing the plight of Armenians throughout his life.
Russian military
The Russian Empire's response to the bombardment of its Black Sea naval ports was primarily a land campaign through the Caucasus. Early victories against the Ottoman Empire from the winter of 1914 to the spring 1915 saw significant gains of territory, including relieving the Armenian bastion resisting in the city of Van in May 1915. The Russians also reported encountering the bodies of unarmed civilian Armenians as they advanced.[113] In March 1916, the scenes they saw in the city of Erzerum led the Russians to retaliate against the Ottoman III Army whom they held responsible for the massacres, destroying it in its entirety.[114]
Swedish Embassy and Military Attaché
Sweden, as a neutral state during the entire World War I, had permanent representatives in the Ottoman Empire, able to continuously report on the ongoing events in the country. The Swedish Embassy in Constantinople, represented by Ambassador Per Gustaf August Cosswa Anckarsvärd, along with Envoy M. Ahlgren, and the Swedish Military Attaché, Captain Einar af Wirsén, closely followed the development throughout the empire, reporting, among others, on the Armenian massacres. On 7 July 1915, Anckarsvärd dispatched a two-page report to Stockholm, beginning with the following information:
The persecutions of the Armenians have reached hair-raising proportions and all points to the fact that the Young Turks want to seize the opportunity, since due to different reasons there are no effective external pressure to be feared, to once and for all put an end to the Armenian question. The means for this are quite simple and consist of the extermination (utrotandet) of the Armenian nation.[115]: 39
During the remainder of 1915 alone, Anckarsvärd dispatched six other reports entitled "The Persecutions of the Armenians". In his report on 22 July, Anckarsvärd noted that the persecutions of the Armenians were being extended to encompass all Christians in the Ottoman Empire:
[The deportations] can not be any other issue than an annihilation war against the Greek nation in Turkey and as measures hereof they have been implementing forced conversions to Islam, in obvious aim to, that if after the end of the war there again would be a question of European intervention for the protection of the Christians, there will be as few of them left as possible.[115]: 40
On 9 August 1915, Anckarsvärd dispatched yet another report, confirming his suspicions regarding the plans of the Turkish government, "It is obvious that the Turks are taking the opportunity to, now during the war, annihilate [utplåna] the Armenian nation so that when the peace comes no Armenian question longer exists".[115]: 41
When reflecting upon the situation in Turkey during the final stages of the war, Envoy Alhgren presented an analysis of the prevailing situation in Turkey and the hard times which had befallen the population. In explaining the increased living costs he identified a number of reasons: "obstacles for domestic trade, the almost total paralysing of the foreign trade and finally the strong decreasing of labour power, caused partly by the mobilisation but partly also by the extermination of the Armenian race [utrotandet af den armeniska rasen]".[115]: 52
Wirsén, when writing his memoirs from his mission to the Balkans and Turkey, Minnen från fred och krig ("Memories from Peace and War"), dedicated an entire chapter to the Armenian genocide, entitled Mordet på en nation ("The Murder of a Nation"). Commenting on the interpretation that the deportations resulted from the purported collaboration of the Armenians with the Russians, Wirsen concludes that their subsequent deportations were nothing but a cover for their extermination.: "Officially, these had the goal to move the entire Armenian population to the steppe regions of Northern Mesopotamia and Syria, but in reality they aimed to exterminate [utrota] the Armenians, whereby the pure Turkish element in Asia Minor would achieve a dominating position".[115]: 28
In conclusion, Wirsén made the following note: "The annihilation of the Armenian nation in Asia Minor must revolt all human feelings ... The way the Armenian problem was solved was hair-raising. I can still see in front of me Talaat's cynical expression, when he emphasized that the Armenian question was solved".[115]: 29
Bodil Biørn
In 1905 the missionary nurse Bodil Biørn (1871–1960) was sent to Armenia. First based in the town of Mezereh (now Elazig) and later in Mush, she worked for widows and orphaned children in cooperation with missionaries from the German Hülfsbund. She witnessed the massacres of 1915 in Mush and saw most of the children in her care murdered along with Armenian priests, teachers, and assistants. She barely escaped after 9 days on horseback but stayed on in the region for another 2 years under increasingly difficult working conditions. After a period at home she again went to Armenia and, until she retired in 1935, worked for Armenian refugees in Syria and Lebanon. Bodil Biørn was also an able photographer. Many of her photos are now in the WMF archive, which since the organisation was dissolved in 1982 has been preserved in the National Archives of Norway. In combination with her comments, written in her photo albums or on the back of the prints themselves, these photos bear strong witness of the atrocities that she saw.[116]
Ottoman Empire and Turkey
According to Mehmet Celal Bey, the former governor of the Province of Aleppo, the governor of the Province of Konya at the time explained the situation to him and said: "Blood flowed instead of water in the river, and thousands of innocent children, blameless elderly, helpless women and strong youths were flowing towards death in this blood flow."[117]
In 1919, Ahmet Refik (Altınay) wrote: "The Unionists (Committee of Union and Progress) wanted to remove the problem of Vilâyât-ı Sitte with annihilating Armenians."[118]
At a secret session of the National Assembly, held on 17 October 1920, Hasan Fehmi (Ataç), deputy of Gümüşhane, said: "As you know, the issue of relocation was an event that made the world to yell blue and made all of us to be considered murderers. We knew, before we did it, that the Christian world would not tolerate it and they would direct their anger and hatred toward us. Why did we impute the title of murderer to our race? Why did we enter into such decisive and difficult struggle? That was done just to secure the future of our country, which we know to be more precious and sacred than our lives."[119]
Halil Pasha (Kut), uncle of Enver Pasha, wrote in his memoirs: "In the most horrible and painful days of my homeland, the Armenian nation, as prisoners of the enemy, tried to erase my country from history and I had tried to annihilate it to its last member; now I want the piece and luxury of the Armenian nation, because today it takes shelter under the virtue of the Turkish nation. If you remain loyal to the Turkish homeland, I will do every possible good. If you follow several senseless Komitadjis again and try to betray Turks and the Turkish homeland, I will order my forces to surround your entire country and I will not leave even a single breathing Armenian over the earth. Make up your mind."[120]
Persia
Due to the period of weak central government and Tehran's inability to protect its territorial integrity, no resistance was offered by the mostly Islamic Persian troops when, after the withdrawal of Russian troops from the extreme northwest of Persia, Islamic Turks invaded the town of Salmas in northwestern Persia and tortured and massacred the Christian Armenian inhabitants.[121]
Study of the Armenian Genocide
The Armenian Genocide is widely corroborated by international genocide scholars. The International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS), consisting of the world's foremost experts on genocide,[122] unanimously passed a formal resolution affirming the fact of the Armenian Genocide. According to IAGS, "Every book on comparative genocide studies in the English language contains a segment on the Armenian Genocide. Leading texts in the international law of genocide such as William Schabas's 'Genocide in International Law' cite the Armenian Genocide as precursor to the Holocaust and as a precedent for the law on crimes against humanity. Polish jurist Raphael Lemkin, when he coined the term genocide in 1944, cited the Turkish extermination of the Armenians and the Nazi extermination of the Jews as defining examples of what he meant by genocide. The killings of Armenians is genocide as defined by the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. 126 leading scholars of the holocaust including Elie Wiesel, and Yehuda Bauer placed a statement in the New York Times in June 2000 declaring the "inconstestable fact of the Armenian genocide" and urging western democracies to acknowledge it. "The Institute on the Holocaust and Genocide (Jerusalem), and the Institute for the Study of Genocide (NYC), have affirmed the historical fact of the Armenian Genocide".[123]
For Turkish historians, supporting the national republican myth is essential to preserving Turkish national unity. The usual Turkish argument is that the deportations were necessary because the Armenians had allied themselves with the Russian army in wartime and that around 600,000 Armenians perished during the marches, largely due to isolated massacres, disease, or malnourishment.[124] "There was no genocide committed against the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire before or during World War I".[125] Genocide scholars Roger Smith, Eric Markusen, and Robert Jay Lifton wrote in Professional Ethics and the Denial of the Armenian Genocide (Holocaust and Genocide Studies): "Where scholars deny genocide in the face of decisive evidence ... they contribute to false consciousness that can have the most dire reverbrations. Their message, in effect, is ... mass murder requires no confrontation, no reflection, but should be ignored, glossed over".[126] Some dissident historians and scholars in Turkey, including Yektan Türkyilmaz, have been trying to reclaim the Armenians as part of Ottoman and Turkish history and acknowledge the wrongs done to the Armenians as a condition for reconciliation with them on the basis of confidence in Turkish national unity.[127]
Defining genocide
Hebrew University scholar Yehuda Bauer suggests of the Armenian Genocide, "This is the closest parallel to the Holocaust".[128] He nonetheless distinguishes several key differences between the Holocaust and the Armenian Genocide, particularly in regard to motivation:
[T]he Nazis saw the Jews as the central problem of world history. Upon its solution depended the future of mankind. Unless International Jewry was defeated, human civilization would not survive. The attitude towards the Jews had in it important elements of pseudo-religion. There was no such motivation present in the Armenian case; Armenians were to be annihilated for power-political reasons, and in Turkey only ... The differences between the holocaust and the Armenian massacres are less important than the similarities—and even if the Armenian case is not seen as a holocaust in the extreme form which it took towards Jews, it is certainly the nearest thing to it.[128]
Bauer has also suggested that the Armenian Genocide is best understood, not as having begun in 1915, but rather as "an ongoing genocide, from 1896, through 1908/9, through World War I and right up to 1923".[129] Lucy Dawidowicz also alludes to these earlier massacres as at least as significant as World War I era events:
In 1897, when the Dreyfus Affair was tearing France apart, Bernard Lazare, a French Jew active in Dreyfus's defense, addressed a group of Jewish students in Paris on the subject of anti-Semitism. "For the Christian peoples", he remarked, "an Armenian solution" to their Jew-hatred was available. He was referring to the Turkish massacres of Armenians, which in their extent and horror most closely approximated the murder of European Jews. But, Lazare went on, "their sensibilities cannot allow them to envisage that". The once unthinkable "Armenian solution" became, in our time, the achievable "Final Solution", the Nazi code name for the annihilation of the European Jews.[130]
Law professor Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide" in 1943, has stated that he did so with the fate of the Armenians in mind, explaining that "it happened so many times ... It happened to the Armenians, then after the Armenians Hitler took action".[131] Several international organizations have conducted studies of the events, each in turn determining that the term "genocide" aptly describes "the Ottoman massacre of Armenians in 1915–16".[132] Among the organizations affirming this conclusion are the International Center for Transitional Justice, the International Association of Genocide Scholars, and the United Nations' Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities.[132][133] One public figure who objected to the use of the term "genocide" was Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres, who was subsequently rebutted by Dr Israel Charny, executive director of the Institute on the Holocaust and Genocide in Jerusalem.[134]
In 2002, the International Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ) was asked by the Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission to provide a report on the applicability of the Genocide Convention to the controversy. An independent legal counsel drafted a memorandum for the ICTJ which stated that in its opinion "legal scholars as well as historians, politicians, journalists and other people would be justified in continuing to so describe [the events as genocide]" and further that the Republic of Turkey was not liable for the event.[135]
In 2005, the International Association of Genocide Scholars affirmed[136] that scholarly evidence revealed the "Young Turk government of the Ottoman Empire began a systematic genocide of its Armenian citizens – an unarmed Christian minority population. More than a million Armenians were exterminated through direct killing, starvation, torture, and forced death marches". The IAGS also condemned Turkish attempts to deny the factual and moral reality of the Armenian Genocide. In 2007, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity produced a letter[137] signed by 53 Nobel Laureates re-affirming the Genocide Scholars' conclusion that the 1915 killings of Armenians constituted genocide.[138][139]
While some consider denial to be a form of hate speech or politically minded historical revisionism, several western academics have expressed doubts as to the genocidal character of the events.[140][141][142] The most important counterpoint may be that of British scholar Bernard Lewis. While he had once written of "the terrible holocaust of 1915, when a million and a half Armenians perished",[143] he later came to believe that the term "genocide" was distinctly inaccurate, because the "tremendous massacres"[144] were not "a deliberate preconceived decision of the Turkish government".[145] This opinion has been joined by Guenter Lewy.[146]
Academic views within the Republic of Turkey are often at odds with international consensus: this may partly stem from the fact that to acknowledge the Armenian genocide in Turkey carries with it a risk of criminal prosecution. Many Turkish intellectuals have been prosecuted for characterizing the massacres as genocide.[147][148]
Bat Ye'or has suggested that "the genocide of the Armenians was a jihad".[149] Ye'or holds jihad and what she calls "dhimmitude" to be among the "principles and values" that led to the Armenian Genocide.[150] This perspective is challenged by Fà'iz el-Ghusein, a Bedouin Arab witness of the Armenian persecution, whose 1918 treatise aimed "to refute beforehand inventions and slanders against the Faith of Islam and against Moslems generally ... [W]hat the Armenians have suffered is to be attributed to the Committee of Union and Progress ... [I]t has been due to their nationalist fanaticism and their jealousy of the Armenians, and to these alone; the Faith of Islam is guiltless of their deeds".[151]: 49 Arnold Toynbee writes that "the Young Turks made Pan-Islamism and Turkish Nationalism work together for their ends, but the development of their policy shows the Islamic element receding and the Nationalist gaining ground".[152] Toynbee, and various other sources, report that many Armenians were spared death by marrying into Turkish families or converting to Islam. El-Ghusein points out that many converts were put to death, concerned that Westerners would come to regard the "extermination of the Armenians"[151]: 49 as "a black stain on the history of Islam, which ages will not efface".[151]: 51 In one instance, when an Islamic leader appealed to spare Armenian converts to Islam, El-Ghusein quotes a government functionary as responding that "politics have no religion", before sending the converts to their deaths.[151]: 49
Noam Chomsky has suggested that, rather than the Armenian Genocide having been relegated to the periphery of public awareness, "more people are aware of the Armenian genocide during the First World War than are aware of the Indonesian genocide in 1965".[153] Taner Akçam's A Shameful Act has contextualized the Armenian Genocide with the desperate Ottoman struggle at Gallipoli, suggesting that panic of imminent destruction caused Ottoman authorities to opt for deportation and extermination.[32]: 125–8
On 10 October 2009 in Zürich, despite overwhelming opposition by Armenians in Armenia and in the Diaspora, the Armenian government signed the Armenia-Turkey Protocols, one of the provisions of which stipulates the establishment of a research commission "to study the two country's historical grievances".[154] The agreement must still be ratified by the parliaments of both countries in order to take effect.
Just a day before, on 9 October 2009 in London, Geoffrey Robertson QC, eminent jurist, barrister and judge, published a detailed legal opinion[155] which comprehensively and methodically countered the British Government's reasons for not formally recognizing the Armenian Genocide.
Republic of Turkey and the Genocide
According to Kemal Çiçek, the head of the Armenian Research Group at the Turkish Historical Society, in Turkey there is no official thesis on the Armenian issue.[156] The Republic of Turkey's formal stance is that the deaths of Armenians during the "relocation" or "deportation" cannot aptly be deemed "genocide", a position that has been supported with a plethora of diverging justifications: that the killings were not deliberate or systematically orchestrated; that the killings were justified because Armenians posed a Russian-sympathizing threat[157] as a cultural group; that the Armenians merely starved to death, or any of various characterizations referring to marauding "Armenian gangs".[158] Some suggestions seek to invalidate the genocide on semantic or anachronistic grounds (the word "genocide" was not coined until 1943). Turkish World War I casualty figures are often cited to mitigate the effect of the number of Armenian dead.[159]
Volkan Vural, retired ambassador of Turkey to Germany and Spain, says that the Turkish state should apologize for what happened to the Armenians during the deportations of 1915 and what happened to the Greeks during the Istanbul Pogrom.[160][161] He also states, "I think that, the Armenian issue can be solved by politicians and not by historians. I don't believe that historical facts about this issue is not revealed. The historical facts are already known. The most important point here is that how this facts will be interpreted and will affect the future".[160]
Turkish governmental sources have asserted that the historically demonstrated "tolerance of Turkish people" itself renders the Armenian Genocide an impossibility.[162] One military document leverages 11th century history to cast doubt on the Armenian Genocide: "It was the Seljuq Turks who saved the Armenians that came under the Turkish domination in 1071 from the Byzantine persecution and granted them the right to live as a man should".[162] A Der Spiegel article addressed this modern Turkish conception of history thus:
"Would you admit to the crimes of your grandfathers, if these crimes didn't really happen?" asked ambassador Öymen. But the problem lies precisely in this question, says Hrant Dink, publisher and editor-in-chief of the Istanbul-based Armenian weekly Agos. Turkey's bureaucratic elite have never really shed themselves of the Ottoman tradition — in the perpetrators, they see their fathers, whose honor they seek to defend. This tradition instills a sense of identity in Turkish nationalists — both from the left and the right, and it is passed on from generation to generation through the school system. This tradition also requires an antipole against which it could define itself. Since the times of the Ottoman Empire, religious minorities have been pushed into this role.[163]
In 2007, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan issued a circular that calls the government institutions to use "1915 Events" (in Turkish, 1915 Olayları) phrase instead of the "so-called Armenian genocide" (in Turkish, sözde Ermeni soykırımı) phrase.[164]
Turkey has started an "Initiative to Resolve Armenian Allegations Regarding 1915" by using archives in Turkey, Armenia and other countries.[165] Armenian president Robert Kocharian rejected this offer by saying, "It is the responsibility of governments to develop bilateral relations and we do not have the right to delegate that responsibility to historians. That is why we have proposed and propose again that, without pre-conditions, we establish normal relations between our two countries".[166] Additionally, Turkish foreign minister of the time, Abdullah Gül, invited the United States and other countries to contribute to such a commission by appointing scholars to "investigate this tragedy and open ways for Turks and Armenians to come together".[167]
The Turkish government continues to protest against the formal recognition of the genocide by other countries and to dispute that there ever was a genocide.
Controversies
Efforts by the Turkish government and its agents to quash mention of the genocide have resulted in numerous scholarly, diplomatic, political and legal controversies.
In 1973 Turkey recalled its ambassador to France to protest the Genocide monument erected in Marseilles "to the memory of the 1.5 million Armenian victims of the genocide ordered by the Turkish rulers in 1915".[168]
In 1982, the Israeli Foreign Ministry attempted to prevent an international conference on genocide, held in Tel Aviv, from including any mention of the Armenian Genocide. Several reports suggested that Turkey had warned that Turkish Jews might face "reprisals", if the conference permitted Armenian participation.[169] This charge was "categorically denied" by Turkey;[170] the Israeli Foreign Ministry supported Turkey in this protestation that there had been no threats against Jews, suggesting that its misgivings as to the genocide conference were based on considerations "vital to the Jewish nation".[171]
In the same year (1982), the Institute of Turkish Studies in Washington, D.C. (ITS) was established by a $3 million grant from the Turkish Government. Israel Charny identifies ITS and some of its foremost deniers of the Armenian genocide, such as Stanford Shaw, Heath W. Lowry, and Justin McCarthy, as the Turkish government's principal agency in USA for promoting research on Turkey and the Ottoman Empire, but also denial of the Armenian Genocide.[172]
A 1989 U.S. Senate proposal to recognize the Armenian Genocide stoked the ire of Turkey. The proposal occurred in the context of the publication of internal U.S. documents which laid out a State Department official's eyewitness report that "thousands and thousands of Armenians, mostly innocent and helpless women and children, were butchered", in the last days of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey responded by blocking United States Navy visits to Turkey and suspending some US military training facilities on Turkish territory. The American scholar who assembled the US archive documents for publication went into hiding after a series of anonymous threats.[173]
In 1990, psychologist Robert Jay Lifton received a letter from the Turkish Ambassador to the United States, questioning his inclusion of references to the Armenian Genocide in one of his books. The ambassador inadvertently included a draft of the letter, presented by scholar Heath W. Lowry, advising the ambassador on how to prevent mention of the Armenian Genocide in scholarly works.[174] In 1996, Lowry was named to a chair at Princeton University that had been financed by the Turkish government, sparking a debate on ethics in scholarship.[126][175]
In 1993, Ragıp Zarakolu a Turkish human rights activist published the Turkish translation of the book called History of the Genocide written by Yves Ternon. The book was the first to be published in Turkey that openly acknowledged the event in 1915 as Genocide. Soon after its publication, he received threats and in 1994, the publishing firm of Ragıp Zorakolu was the target of a bomb attack.[176]
Prosecutors acting on their own initiative have used Article 301 of the Turkish Penal Code prohibiting "insulting Turkishness" to silence a number of prominent Turkish intellectuals who spoke of atrocities suffered by Armenians in the last days of the Ottoman Empire (most of these cases have been dismissed).[177] During a February 2005 interview with Das Magazin, novelist Orhan Pamuk made statements implicating Turkey in massacres against Armenians and persecution of the Kurds, declaring: "Thirty thousand Kurds and a million Armenians were killed in these lands and nobody but me dares to talk about it". Subjected to a hate campaign, he left Turkey, before returning in 2005 to defend his right to freedom of speech: "What happened to the Ottoman Armenians in 1915 was a major thing that was hidden from the Turkish nation; it was a taboo. But we have to be able to talk about the past".[178] Lawyers of two Turkish ultranationalist professional associations led by Kemal Kerinçsiz then brought criminal charges against Pamuk.[179] However, on 23 January 2006 the charges of "insulting Turkishness" were dropped (for reasons which are not necessarily tied to the case), a move welcomed by the EU.[180] That the charges had been brought at all was still a matter of contention for European politicians.
These prosecutions have often been accompanied by hate campaigns and threats, as was the case for Hrant Dink, who was prosecuted three times for "denigrating Turkishness", and murdered in 2007.[181] Later, photographs of the assassin being honored as a hero while in police custody, posing in front of the Turkish flag with grinning policemen,[182] gave the academic community still more cause for pause with regard to engaging the Armenian issue.[183] The leading lawyer behind the prosecutions, Kemal Kerinçsiz, is accused of plotting to overthrow the government as being a member of the alleged Ergenekon network.
After a meeting with then UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown in 2010, Turkey's PM announced that the Turkish Government might order the expulsion of all illegal Armenian immigrants from Turkey. The statement came after recent US House Committee and Swedish Parliament resolutions over the Armenian Genocide affirmation. He repeated the statement in a BBC interview immediately afterwards, declaring that there were 100,000 illegal Armenian citizens living in Turkey and that:
If necessary, I may have to tell these 100,000 to go back to their country because they are not my citizens. I don't have to keep them in my country.[184][185]
Armenian Prime Minister Tigran Sargsyan responded to Erdoğan's statement by saying that this kind of threat reminded Armenians of the Armenian Genocide and that it does not improve relations between the two countries.[186] The exact number of illegal Armenians in Turkey is estimated to be only 12,000 – 13,000, contrary to the figure used by the Turkish prime minister.[187]
Armenia and the Genocide
Armenia has been involved in a protracted ethnic-territorial conflict with Azerbaijan, a Turkic state, since Azerbaijan became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991. The conflict has featured several pogroms, massacres, and waves of ethnic cleansing, by both sides. Some foreign policy observers and historians have suggested that Armenia and the Armenian diaspora have sought to portray the modern conflict as a continuation of the Armenian Genocide, in order to influence modern policy-making in the region.[82][188]: 232–3 According to Thomas Ambrosio, the Armenian Genocide furnishes "a reserve of public sympathy and moral legitimacy that translates into significant political influence ... to elicit congressional support for anti-Azerbaijan policies".[188]
The rhetoric leading up to the onset of the conflict, which unfolded in the context of several pogroms of Armenians, was dominated by references to the Armenian Genocide, including fears that it would be, or was in the course of being, repeated.[189][190] During the conflict, the Azeri and Armenian governments regularly accused each other of genocidal intent, although these claims have been treated skeptically by outside observers.[82]: 232–3
The worldwide recognition of the Genocide is a core aspect of Armenia's foreign policy and overarching grand strategy.[191]
Recognition of the Genocide
Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution, 24 April 1998
"Today we commemorate the anniversary of what has been called the first genocide of the 20th century, and we salute the memory of the Armenian victims of this crime against humanity".[17]
As a response to the continuing denial of the Armenian Genocide by the Turkish State, many activists among Armenian Diaspora communities have pushed for formal recognition of the Armenian genocide from various governments around the world. 22 countries and 42 U.S. states have adopted resolutions acknowledging the Armenian Genocide as a bona fide historical event. On 4 March 2010, a US congressional panel narrowly voted that the incident was indeed genocide; within minutes the Turkish government issued a statement critical of "this resolution which accuses the Turkish nation of a crime it has not committed". The Armenian Assembly of America (AAA) and the single largest organisation with the AAA the Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA) have as their main lobbying agenda to press Congress and the President of the United States for an increase of economic aid for Armenia (already the second largest per capita after Israel) and the reduction of economic and military assistance for Turkey. The efforts also include reaffirmation of a genocide by Ottoman Turkey in 1915.[192]
Despite his previous public recognition and support of Genocide bills, as well as the election campaign promises to formally recognize the Armenian Genocide,[193] the U.S. President, Barack Obama, although repeating that his views on the issue have not changed, has thus far abstained from using the term "genocide".[194] On 24 April commemoration speeches President Obama has yet referred to the Armenian Genocide only by the Armenian synonym Metz Eghern ("Mec Eġeṙn").
Cultural loss
The premeditated destruction of objects of Armenian cultural, religious, historical and communal heritage was yet another key purpose of both the genocide itself and the post-genocidal campaign of denial. Armenian churches and monasteries were destroyed or changed into mosques, Armenian cemeteries flattened, and, in several cities (e.g. Van), Armenian quarters were demolished.[195]
Aside from the deaths, Armenians lost their wealth and property without compensation.[196] Businesses and farms were lost, and all schools, churches, hospitals, orphanages, monasteries, and graveyards became Turkish state property.[196] In January 1916, the Ottoman Minister of Commerce and Agriculture issued a decree ordering all financial institutions operating within the empire's borders to turn over Armenian assets to the government.[197] It is recorded that as much as 6 million Turkish gold pounds were seized along with real property, cash, bank deposits, and jewelry.[197] The assets were then funneled to European banks, including Deutsche and Dresdner banks.[197]
After the end of World War I, Genocide survivors tried to return and reclaim their former homes and assets, but were driven out by the Ankara Government.[196]
In 1914, the Armenian Patriarch in Constantinople presented a list of the Armenian holy sites under his supervision. The list contained 2,549 religious places of which 200 were monasteries while 1,600 were churches. In 1974 UNESCO stated that after 1923, out of 913 Armenian historical monuments left in Eastern Turkey, 464 have vanished completely, 252 are in ruins, and 197 are in need of repair (in stable conditions).[198][199]
Armenian Genocide reparations
The grounds of the International Law
The United Nations Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law provide in part, that reparation may be claimed individually and where appropriate collectively, by the direct victims of violations of human rights and international humanitarian law, the immediate family, dependants or other persons or groups of persons closely connected with the direct victims.[200] According to Henry Theriault, while current members of Turkish society cannot be blamed morally for the destruction of Armenians, present-day Republic of Turkey, as successor state to the Ottoman Empire and as beneficiary of the wealth and land expropriations brought forth through the genocide, is responsible for reparations.[201]
Particularly important are Principles 9 and 12 that state, that civil claims relating to reparations for gross violations of human rights and international humanitarian law shall not be subject to statutes of limitations (article 9), and that restitution shall be provided to re-establish the situation that existed prior to the violations of human rights or international humanitarian law. The restitution requires, inter alia – return to one's place of residence and restoration of property.[200][202]
Professor of International Law of Geneva School of Diplomacy (J.D. – Harvard, Dr.phil. – Göttingen), former Secretary of the UN Human Rights Committee and former Chief of Petitions at the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Dr. Alfred de Zayas stated that, because of the continuing character of the crime of genocide in factual and legal terms, the remedy of restitution has not been foreclosed. Thus the survivors of the genocide against the Armenians, both individually and collectively, have standing to advance a claim for restitution. Whenever possible complete restitution or restoration to the previous condition should be granted. But where it is not possible, relevant compensation may be substituted as a remedy. [203]
In an article published in the European Journal of International Law, Vahagn Avedian, leaving aside the limitations of the UN Genocide Convention, emphasizes the applicability of international laws that prevailed at the time and remain in force up to the present, e.g. the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, more specifically the Martens Clause, pertaining to the protection of civilian population, but also existing international laws on unlawful confiscation, etc. Thus, the actions of the Turkish governments (the Ottoman, the insurgent nationalist movement as well as the succeeding republic), should be viewed from the perspective of Internationally Wrongful Acts. Avedian argues that:
the Republic not only failed to stop doing the wrongful acts of its predecessor, but it also continued the very internationally wrongful acts committed by the Young Turk government. Thus, the insurgent National Movement, which later became the Republic, made itself responsible for not only its own wrongful acts but also those of its predecessor, including the act of genocide committed in 1915–1916.[204]
Sèvres Treaty
Although there are different opinions on the legitimacy of the Treaty of Sèvres and its relativity to reparation claims, there are specialists who claim that some of its elements retain the force of law.[205] In particular, the fixing of the proper borders of an Armenian state was undertaken pursuant to the treaty and determined by a binding arbitral award, regardless of whether the treaty was ultimately ratified. The committee process determining the arbitral award was agreed to by the parties and, according to international law, the resulting determination has legal force regardless of the ultimate fate of the treaty.[201]
Lawsuits
In July 2004, after the California State Legislature passed the Armenian Genocide Insurance Act, descendants of Armenian Genocide victims settled a case for about 2,400 life insurance policies from New York Life written on Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire.[206] Around 1918, the Turkish government attempted to recover payments for the people it had killed, with the argument that there were no identifiable heirs to the policy holders. The settlement provided $20 million, of which $11 million was for heirs of the Genocide victims.[206]
Commemoration
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Memorials
Over 135 memorials, spread across 25 countries, commemorate the Armenian Genocide.[207]
In 1965, the 50th anniversary of the genocide, a 24-hour mass protest was initiated in Yerevan demanding recognition of the Armenian Genocide by Soviet authorities. The memorial was completed two years later, at Tsitsernakaberd above the Hrazdan gorge in Yerevan. The 44 metres (144 ft) stele symbolizes the national rebirth of Armenians. Twelve slabs are positioned in a circle, representing 12 lost provinces in present day Turkey. At the center of the circle there is an eternal flame. Each 24 April, hundreds of thousands of people walk to the genocide monument and lay flowers around the eternal flame.
Another memorial, in Alfortville, France, near Paris, was bombed on 3 May 1984, by a hit-team headed by Grey Wolves member Abdullah Çatlı and paid by the Turkish intelligence agency (MİT).[208]
Representation in culture
The earliest example of the Armenian genocide on art was a medal issued in St. Petersburg, signifying Russian sympathy for Armenian suffering. It was struck in 1915, as the massacres and deportations were still raging. Since then, dozens of medals in different countries have been commissioned to commemorate the event.[209]
Several eyewitness accounts of the events were published, notably those of Swedish missionary Alma Johansson and U.S. Ambassador Henry Morgenthau, Sr. German medic Armin Wegner wrote several books about the events he witnessed while stationed in the Ottoman Empire. Years later, having returned to Germany, Wegner was imprisoned for opposing Nazism,[210] and his books were burnt by the Nazis.[211] Probably the best known literary work on the Armenian Genocide is Franz Werfel's 1933 The Forty Days of Musa Dagh. It was a bestseller that became particularly popular among the youth of the Jewish ghettos during the Nazi era.[64]: 302–4
Kurt Vonnegut's 1988 novel Bluebeard features the Armenian Genocide as an underlying theme. Other novels incorporating the Armenian Genocide include Louis de Berniéres' Birds without Wings, Edgar Hilsenrath's German-language The Story of the Last Thought, and Polish Stefan Żeromski's 1925 The Spring to Come. A story in Edward Saint-Ivan's 2006 anthology "The Black Knight's God" includes a fictional survivor of the Armenian Genocide.
The first film about the Armenian Genocide appeared in 1919, a Hollywood production titled Ravished Armenia. It resonated with acclaimed director Atom Egoyan, influencing his 2002 Ararat. There are also references in Elia Kazan's America, America and Henri Verneuil's Mayrig. At the Berlin Film Festival of 2007 Italian directors Paolo and Vittorio Taviani presented another film about the events, based on Antonia Arslan's book, La Masseria Delle Allodole (The Farm of the Larks).[212] Richard Kalinoski's play, Beast on the Moon, is about two Armenian Genocide survivors.
The paintings of Armenian-American Arshile Gorky, a seminal figure of Abstract Expressionism, are considered to have been influenced by the suffering and loss of the period.[213] In 1915, at age 10, Gorky fled his native Van and escaped to Russian-Armenia with his mother and three sisters, only to have his mother die of starvation in Yerevan in 1919. His two The Artist and His Mother paintings are based on a photograph with his mother taken in Van.
In 1975, famous French-Armenian singer Charles Aznavour recorded the song "Ils sont tombés" ("They Fell"), dedicated to the memory of Armenian Genocide victims.[214]
American composer and singer Daniel Decker has achieved critical acclaim for his collaborations with Armenian composer Ara Gevorgyan. The song "Adana", named for the province of a 1909 pogrom of the Armenian people, tells the story of the Armenian Genocide. "Adana" has been translated into 17 languages and recorded by singers around the world.[215]
The American band System of a Down, composed of four descendants of Armenian Genocide survivors, has promoted awareness of the Armenian Genocide through its lyrics, including P.L.U.C.K. and in concerts.[216]
In late 2003, Diamanda Galás released the album Defixiones, Will and Testament: Orders from the Dead, an 80-minute memorial tribute to the Armenian, Assyrian and Greek victims of the genocide in Turkey. "The performance is an angry meditation on genocide and the politically cooperative denial of it, in particular the Turkish and American denial of the Armenian, Assyrian, and Anatolian Greek genocides from 1914 to 1923".[217]
In 2008, Armenian-American composer Andrey Kasparov premiered Tsitsernakabert, an original work for modern dance and six musicians: alto flute, bass/ contrabass flute, violin, two percussionists, and mezzo-soprano.[218] The work opens with eight dancers posed in a circle – inclined toward the circle's centre – in a tableau reminiscent of the eponymous memorial to victims of the Armenian Genocide, situated in Yerevan, capital of Armenia.[219][220]
Julian Cope's 2013 album Revolutionary Suicide includes a song over 15 minutes long, "The Armenian Genocide", memorializing the event.
Images
-
Armenian genocide survivors discovered in Salt and sent to Jerusalem in April 1918. -
Armenian orphans in Merzifon, 1918 -
Food relief -
Woman with baby -
Transport of Armenians -
Armenian refugees in Van crowding around a public oven in 1915 -
Tents in Aleppo -
Armenian refugee children in Aleppo, Syria. -
Armenians ordered by the authorities to gather in the main square of the city to be deported. The crowd was eventually massacred. -
Deportations of Armenians. The man in the foreground is a gendarme who has stolen carpets from the deportees. -
Refugee camp in Syria -
Armenian refugees under the Near East relief -
Armenian refugee camps in Beirut -
Port Said, Egypt -
5,000 children from Kharpert on donkeys or marching on foot -
Deportations of Armenians in the Mamuret Al-Aziz province -
Armenians being deported -
Near East Relief with Armenian refugees in Bitlis -
Armenian refugee children near Athens, 1923, after the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey -
Armenian refugees at the American Relief eye hospital -
An Armenian refugee woman and her son. -
Transport to Greece -
Transport to Greece -
Armenian deportees in Malatya who were eventually massacred -
Turkish soldiers posing with Armenian dead
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See also
- Armenian Genocide denial
- Armenia–Turkey relations
- Confiscated Armenian properties in Turkey
- Historiography of the fall of the Ottoman Empire
- Press coverage during the Armenian Genocide
- Racism in Turkey
- Rape during the Armenian Genocide
References
- ^ "Tsitsernakaberd Memorial Complex". Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute.
- ^ Kifner, John (7 December 2007). "Armenian Genocide of 1915: An Overview". The New York Times.
- ^ "The forgotten Holocaust: The Armenian massacre that inspired Hitler". The Daily Mail. London. 11 October 2007.
- ^ Auron, Yair (2000). The banality of indifference: Zionism & the Armenian genocide. Transaction. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7658-0881-3.
- ^ Encyclopedia of human rights (Google Books). Oxford University Press. 11 August 2009. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-19-533402-9.
{{cite book}}:|first=missing|last=(help) - ^ Chalk, Frank Robert; Jonassohn, Kurt (10 September 1990). The history and sociology of genocide: analyses and case studies. Institut montréalais des études sur le génocide. Yale University Press. pp. 270–. ISBN 978-0-300-04446-1.
- ^ Armenian Genocide (affirmation), The International Association of Genocide Scholars,
That this assembly of the Association of Genocide Scholars in its conference held in Montreal, June 11–3, 1997, reaffirms that the mass murder of Armenians in Turkey in 1915 is a case of genocide which conforms to the statutes of the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide. It further condemns the denial of the Armenian Genocide by the Turkish government and its official and unofficial agents and supporters.
- ^ Հայոց Ցեղասպանութիւն in classical Armenian orthography
- ^ Matiossian, Vartan (12 January 2013). "The Self-Delusion of 'Great Calamity': What 'Medz Yeghern' Actually Means Today". Armenian Weekly.
- ^ Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J. (2002), Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah (in German), Chronos, p. 114, ISBN 3-0340-0561-X
{{citation}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Walker, Christopher J. (1980), Armenia: The Survival of A Nation, London: Croom Helm, pp. 200–3
- ^ Bryce, Viscount; Bryce, James; Toynbee, Arnold (2000), Sarafian, Ara (ed.), The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden (uncensored ed.), Princeton, NJ: Gomidas, pp. 635–49, ISBN 0-9535191-5-5
- ^ "Resolution on genocides committed by the Ottoman empire" (PDF). International Association of Genocide Scholars.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Gaunt, David (2006), Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I, Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias
- ^ Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.
- ^ Hyde, Jennifer (2 December 2008). "Polish Jew gave his life defining, fighting genocide". CNN. Archived from the original on 3 December 2008.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ a b "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution". Armenian genocide.
- ^ a b Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. New York: Penguin Press. p. 177. ISBN 1-59420-100-5.
- ^ "A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars" (PDF). Genocide Watch. 13 June 2005.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Senate Resolution 106 — Calling on the President to ensure that the foreign policy of the United States reflects appropriate understanding and sensitivity concerning issues related to Human Rights, Ethnic Cleansing, and Genocide Documented in the United States Record relating to the Armenian Genocide". Library of Congress.
- ^ a b Rummel, RJ (1 April 1998), "The Holocaust in Comparative and Historical Perspective", The Journal of Social Issues, 3 (2)
- ^ "Q&A: Armenian 'genocide'". News. BBC. 12 October 2006. Archived from the original on 1 March 2007.
- ^ Cohan, Sara (1 October 2005). "A Brief History of the Armenian Genocide" (PDF). Social Education. 69 (6): 333–37.
- ^ Kamiya, Gary (16 October 2007), "Genocide: An inconvenient truth", Salon (opinion)
- ^ Jaschik, Scott (10 October 2007), Genocide Deniers, US: History News Network
- ^ Kifner, John (7 December 2007), "Armenian Genocide of 1915: An Overview", The New York Times
- ^ Barsoumian, Hagop (1982), "The Dual Role of the Armenian Amira Class within the Ottoman Government and the Armenian Millet (1750–1850)", in Braude, Benjamin; Lewis, Bernard (eds.), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society, vol. I, New York: Holmes & Meier
- ^ a b Barsoumian, Hagop (1997), "The Eastern Question and the Tanzimat Era", in Hovannisian, Richard G (ed.), The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, vol. II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, New York: St. Martin's, pp. 175–201, ISBN 0-312-10168-6
- ^ Hambaryan, Azat S (1981), Aghayan, Tsatur; et al. (eds.), Hay Zhoghovrdi Patmut'yun (in Armenian), vol. 6, Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, p. 22
{{citation}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|editor2=(help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Balakian, Peter (2003). The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 25, 445. ISBN 0-06-019840-0.
- ^ Ramsay, W.M. (1897). Impressions of Turkey during Twelve Years' Wanderings. London: Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 206–207.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Akçam, Taner (2006). A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books. p. 24. ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.
- ^ a b c d e f g Dadrian, Vahakn N (1995). The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus. Oxford: Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-666-6.
- ^ "Article 16", Treaty of San Stefano,
As the evacuation of the Russian troops of the territory they occupy in Armenia ... might give rise to conflicts and complications detrimental to the maintenance of good relations between the two countries, the Sublime Porte engaged to carry into effect, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by Armenians and to guarantee their security from Kurds and Circassians.
- ^ Nalbandian, Louise (1963), The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century, Berkeley: University of California Press
- ^ Libaridian, Gerard (2011). "What was Revolutionary about Armenian Revolutionary Parties in the Ottoman Empire?". In Suny, Ronald; et al. (eds.). A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 82–112.
{{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|editor2-last=(help) - ^ The German Foreign Ministry operative, Ernst Jackh, estimated that 200,000 Armenians were killed and a further 50,000 expelled from the provinces during the Hamidian unrest. French diplomats placed the figures at 250,000 killed. The German pastor Johannes Lepsius was more meticulous in his calculations, counting the deaths of 88,000 Armenians and the destruction of 2,500 villages, 645 churches and monasteries, and the plundering of hundreds of churches, of which 328 were converted into mosques.
- ^ "Days of horror described; American missionary an eyewitness of murder and rapine". New York Times. 28 April 1909.
- ^ "30,000 Killed in massacres; Conservative estimate of victims of Turkish fanaticism in Adana Vilayet". New York Times. 25 April 1909.
- ^ Walker, Christopher J. "World War I and the Armenian Genocide". The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. Vol. II. p. 244.
- ^ Toynbee, Arnold. Armenian Atrocities: The Murder of a Nation. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915, pp. 181–2.
- ^ a b c d Morgenthau, Henry (1918). "Ambassador Morgenthau's Story". Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Hinterhoff, Eugene. Persia: The Stepping Stone To India. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I. Vol. iv. pp. 153–57.
- ^ "Twenty-Seven". Ambassador Morgenthau's Story. BYU. 1918.
- ^ Y. Bayur, Turk Inkilabz, vol. III, part 3, in Dadrian, History of the Armenian Genocide.
- ^ a b c d e f Fisk, Robert (2005). The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. New York: Alfred A Knopf. ISBN 1-84115-007-X.
- ^ a b c Fromkin, David (1989). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-8050-6884-8.
- ^ Theodore Roosevelt, Letters and Speeches, New York: Library of America, 2004, p. 736. See Rosen, Ruth. "The hidden holocaust". San Francisco Chronicle. 15 December 2003.
- ^ Kabacali, Alpay (1994). Talat Paşa'nın hatıraları. İletişim Yayınları.
- ^ "Ermeni Meselesi" (PDF) (in Turkish). Hist.net. March. p. 12.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help) - ^ Akçam, Taner (2004). From empire to republic: Turkish nationalism and the Armenian genocide. Zed Books. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84277-527-1.
- ^ a b c "Exiled Armenians starve in the desert; Turks drive them like slaves, American committee hears ;- Treatment raises death rate". New York Times. 8 August 1916. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007.
{{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Armenians are sent to perish in desert; Turks accused of plan to exterminate whole population; people of Karahissar massacred". New York Times. 18 August 1915.
{{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ "Génocide arménien: le scénario". l'Histoire (in French). 1 April 2009.
- ^ (French internet site, Revue D'Histoire Arménienne Contemporaine, Tome II), Raymond Kévorkian, 1998, L'Extermination Des Déportés Arméniens Ottomans Dans Les Camps De Concentration De Syrie-Mésopotamie (1915–1916), section 5.http://www.imprescriptible.fr/rhac/tome2/
- ^ Template:Fr icon Kotek, Joël and Pierre Rigoulot. Le Siècle des camps: Détention, concentration, extermination: cent ans de mal radica. JC Lattes, 2000. ISBN 2-7096-1884-2.
- ^ Suzanne E. Moranian. "The Armenian Genocide and American Missionary Relief Efforts", in America and the Armenian Genocide of 1915. Jay Winter (ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
- ^ Oren, Michael B (2007). Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East 1776 to the Present. New York: WW Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-33030-3.
- ^ Goldberg, Andrew. The Armenian Genocide. Two Cats Productions, 2006
- ^ "Fact sheet: armenian genocide". Knights of Vartan Armenian Research Center, The University of Michigan-Dearborn.
- ^ Dadrian, Vahakn (November 1991). "The Documentation of the World War I Armenian Massacres in the Proceedings of the Turkish Military Tribunal". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 23 (4): 549–76 (560). doi:10.1017/S0020743800023412. JSTOR 163884.
- ^ RJ Rummel. Genocide never again (book 5) (PDF). Llumina Press. ISBN 1-59526-075-7.
- ^ Guenter Lewy (Fall 2005). "Revisiting the Armenian Genocide". Middle East Quarterly.
- ^ a b Auron, Yair (2000). "The Banality of Indifference: Zionism and the Armenian Genocide". New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ British Foreign Office 371/2781/264888, Appendices B., p. 6.
- ^ Takvimi Vekayi, No. 3540, 5 May 1919.
- ^ McClure, Samuel S. Obstacles to Peace. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917, pp. 400–1.
- ^ a b Viscount Bryce (1916). "The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 1915–16: Documents presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs". New York and London: GP Putnam's Sons, for His Majesty's Stationery Office.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ 11 April 1919 report. U.S. National Archives. R.G. 59. 867. 4016/411.
- ^ Toronto Globe, 26 August 1915.
- ^ Takvimi Vekdyi, No. 3616, 6 August 1919, p. 2.
- ^ Cipher telegram, 12 July 1916. U.S. National Archives, R.G. 59.867.48/356.
- ^ Lifton, Robert Jay. Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide, New York: Basic Books, 1986, p. xii.
- ^ Dadrian, Vahakn N. "The Turkish Military Tribunal's Prosecution of the Authors of the Armenian Genocide: Four Major Court-Martial Series". Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 11(1), 1997, pp. 28–59.
- ^ Genocide Study Project, HF Guggenheim Foundation, in The Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 11, Number 1, Spring 1997.
- ^ Session 3, p.m., 1 April 1919 Constantinople newspaper Renaissance, 27 April 1919.
- ^ Vahakn N. Dadrian, "The Role of Turkish Physicians in the World War I Genocide of Ottoman Armenians". The Holocaust and Genocide Studies 1, no. 2 (1986), pp. 169–92.
- ^ Türkce Istanbul, No. 45, 23 December 1918.
- ^ Renaissance, 26 December 1918.
- ^ Baron, Jeremy Hugh. "Genocidal Doctors". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. November 1999, 92, pp. 590–93.
- ^ Türkei By Klaus-Detlev. Grothusen.
- ^ a b c Bloxham, Donald (2005). "The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians". Oxford: Oxford University Press.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ John G. Heidenrich (2001). How to prevent genocide: a guide for policymakers, scholars, and the concerned citizen. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-275-96987-5.
- ^ "French in Armenia 'genocide' row". BBC News. 12 October 2006. Archived from the original on 7 April 2008.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Woods, Allan (6 May 2006). "Turkey protests Harper's marking of genocide". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on 13 March 2008.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica".
{{cite web}}:|contribution=ignored (help) - ^ Robert Melson, Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust, University Of Chicago Press, October 15, 1992, p. 147
- ^ Tavernise, Sabrina "Nearly a Million Genocide Victims, Covered in a Cloak of Amnesia". New York Times, 8 March 2009.
- ^ Justin McCarthy, The End of Ottoman Anatolia, in Muslims and Minorities: The Population of Ottoman Anatolia and the End of the Empire, New York Univ. Press, 1983.
- ^ Justin McCarthy, The Population of the Ottoman Armenians, in The Armenians in the Late Ottoman Period, The Turkish Historical Society For The Council Of Culture, Arts And Publications Of The Grand National Assembly Of Turkey, Ankara, 2001, pp. 65–86
- ^ Frédéric Paulin, Négationnisme et théorie des populations stables : le cas du génocide arménien, in Hervé Lebras (dir.), L'Invention des populations. Biologie, Idéologie et politique, Editions Odile Jacob, 2000.
- ^ Hilmar Kaiser, a German expert on the Armenian genocide, also criticizes McCarthy's calculation techniques in an interview with Dirk van Delft published in the NRC Handelsblad, p. 51, Amsterdam, Saturday, 27 May 2000
- ^ Vahakn N. Dadrian, Warrant for Genocide: Key Elements of Turko-Armenian Conflict, New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1999. See also his essay: Ottoman Archives and Denial of the Armenian Genocide, in The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics, R.G. Hovanissian, ed. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992 pp. 294–7
- ^ Levon Marashlian, Politics and Demography: Armenians, Turks and Kurds in the Ottoman Empire, Zoryan Inst for Contemporary Armenian Research & Documentation Inc. September 1990
- ^ Kemal H. Karpat, Ottoman Population 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics, Madiscon, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. See also Tableau indicant le nombre des divers éléments de la population dans l'Empire Ottoman au 1er Mars 1330 (14 Mars 1914), Istanbul: Zellitch Brothers, 1919. Foreword by Refet. FO 371/4229/86552. May 1919.
- ^ El-Ghusein, Fà'iz (1917). Martyred Armenia. p. .
- ^ Fisk, Robert (2005), The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East, New York: Alfred A Knopf, ISBN 1-84115-007-X.
- ^ 1915 declaration
- Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution 106th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives
- Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced in House of Representatives) 109th Congress, 1st Session, H.RES.316, 14 June 2005. 15 September 2005 House Committee/Subcommittee:International Relations actions. Status: Ordered to be Reported by the Yeas and Nays: 40–7.
- "Crimes Against Humanity", 23 British Yearbook of International Law (1946) p. 181
- William A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 16–7
- Original source of the telegram sent by the Department of State, Washington containing the French, British and Russian joint declaration
- ^ Robert Marrus, Michael (2002). The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War. Temple University Press. pp. 83–4. ISBN 1-4399-0551-7.
- ^ "Would Send Here 550,000 Armenians; Morgenthau Urges Scheme to Save Them From Turks". New York Times, 13 September 1915.
- ^ a b Horton, George (2008) [1926]. The Blight of Asia, An Account of the Systematic Extermination of Christian Populations by Mohammedans and of the Culpability of Certain Great Powers; with the True Story of the Burning of Smyrna. London: Gomidas Institute (Sterndale Classics). ISBN 978-1-903656-79-2. Foreword by James W. Gerard (1926) with a new introduction by James L. Marketos (2003 or 2008).
- ^ Winter, Jay, ed. (2003). America and the Armenian genocide of 1915. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-511-16382-1.
- ^ Merrill D. Peterson, "Starving Armenians": America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1930 and After. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2004.
- ^ James L. Barton, Turkish Atrocities: Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917. Gomidas Institute, 1998, ISBN 1-884630-04-9.
- ^ The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden by Viscount Bryce, James Bryce and Arnold Toynbee, Uncensored Edition. Ara Safarian (ed.) Princeton, New Jersey: Gomidas Institute, 2000. ISBN 0-9535191-5-5.
- ^ Auswärtiges Amt, West German Foreign Office Archives, K170, no. 4674, folio 63, in Balakian, The Burning Tigris, p. 186.
- ^ B. Ye'or, The Dhimmi. The Jews and Christians under Islam, Trans. from the French by D. Maisel P. Fenton and D. Liftman, Cranbury, New Jersey: Frairleigh Dickinson University, 1985. p. 95.
- ^ a b c d Dabag, Mihran "The Decisive Generation: Self-authorization and delegations in deciding a genocide" pages 113–135 from Genocide: Approaches, Case Studies, And Responses edited by Graham Charles Kinloch, Raj P. Mohan, New York: Algora Publishing, 2005 page 121.
- ^ Robert Fisk (21 October 2012). "The Independent, 22 October 2012". London: Independent.co.uk.
- ^ Armin T. Wegner e gli Armeni in Anatolia, 1915: Immagini e testimonianze = Armin T. Wegner and the Armenians in Anatolia, 1915 : images and testimonies, Milan, Guerini, 1996. See also Wegner. "Photo collection". Armenian Genocide.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Wegner Biographie" (in German). DE.
- ^ Der Mugrdechian, Barlow (May 2000). ""Destination Nowhere" Premieres in Fresno". Hye Sharzhoom.
- ^ Special Cable to THE NEW YORK TIMES. (23 February 1915). "Massacre By Turks in Caucasus Towns; Armenians Led Out into the Streets and Shot or Drowned – Old Friends Not Spared". Select.nytimes.com.
- ^ New York Times Dispatch. Russians Slaughter Turkish IIIrd Army: Give No Quarter to Men Held Responsible for the Massacre of Armenians. New York Times, 6 March 1916.
- ^ a b c d e f Avedian, Vahagn (2008). "The Armenian Genocide 1915: From a Neutral Small State's Perspective: Sweden" (PDF). Uppsala University.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Armenia". Norwegian State Archive.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Halep Valisi Celal'in Anılar", Vakit, December 12, 1918, Turkish text: Nehirde su yerine kan akıyor ve binlerce masum çocuk, kabahatsız ihtiyar, aciz kadınlar, kuvvetli gençler bu kan cereyanı içinde ademe doğru akıp gidiyorlardı.
- ^ Ahmet Refik (transcribed by Hamide Koyukan), Kafkas Yolunda İki Komite İki Kıtal, Ankara, Kebikeç Yayınları, 1994, ISBN 975-7981-00-1, p. 27.
- ^ Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Gizli Celse Zabıtları, Vol. I, Ankara, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 1985, p. 177, Turkish text: Tehcir meselesi, biliyorsunuz ki dünyayı velveleye veren ve hepimizi katil telâkki ettiren bir vaka idi. Bu yapılmazdan evvel âlem-i nasraniyetin bunu hazmetmeyeceği ve bunun için bütün gayz ve kinini bize tevcih edeceklerini biliyorduk. Neden katillik ünvanını nefsimize izafe ettik? Neden o kadar azim, müşkül bir dava içine girdik? Sırf canımızdan daha aziz ve daha mukaddes bildiğimiz vatanımızın istikbalini taht-ı emniyete almak için yapılmış şeylerdir.
- ^ Halil Paşa (transcribed by Taylan Sorgun), İttihat ve Terakki'den Cumhuriyet'e Bitmeyen Savaş, Istanbul, Kamer, 1997, pp. 240–41, Turkish text: Vatanımın en korkunç ve acı günlerinde vatanımı düşmana esir olarak tarihten silmeye kalktıkları için son ferdine kadar yok etmeye çalıştığım Ermeni Milleti, bugün Türk milletinin âlicenaplığına sığındığı için huzura ve rahata kavuşturmak istediğim Ermeni milleti. Eğer siz Türk vatanına sâdık kalırsanız elimden gelen her iyi şeyi yapacağım. Eğer yine bir takım şuursuz komitacılara takılarak Türk'e ve Türk vatanına ihanete kalkarsanız bütün memleketinizi saran ordularıma emir vererek dünya üstünde nefes alacak tek Ermeni bırakmayacağım, aklınızı başınıza alın.
- ^ "The Jihad Rampant in Persia by Rev. Robert M. Labree-reporting from Tabriz, Persia July 1915". Cilicia.com.
- ^ "International Association of Genocide Scholars Officially Recognizes Ottoman Genocides Against the Armenians, Assyrians, and Hellenics". 11 March 2008.
- ^ "An Open Letter Concerning Historians Who Deny the Armenian Genocide: October 1, 2006" (PDF). International Association of Genocide Scholars.
- ^ Papazian, Dennis R. (1991). What Every Armenian Should Know. Armenian Research Center. pp. 27–31.
- ^ Statements by the Assembly of Turkish American Associations, 1982, quoted in Gunter (1986) p. 18
- ^ a b Smith, Roger W.; Markusen, Eric; Lifton, Robert Jay (1995). "Professional Ethics and the Denial of Armenian Genocide". Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 9 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1093/hgs/9.1.1.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Lucette Valensi, "Notes on Two Discordant Histories: Armenia During World War I". Mediterranean Historical Review 2001 16(1): 49–60. ISSN: 0951-8967; James Reid, "The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman and Turkish Historiography". Armenian Review 1984 37(1): 22–40. ISSN: 0004–2366
- ^ a b Bauer, Yehuda. "Holocaust: Religious & Philosophical Implications".
{{cite journal}}:|contribution=ignored (help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Bauer, Yehuda. "Can Genocides be Prevented?" (PDF). Armenia Foreign Ministry.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Dawidowicz, Lucy S (1981). The Holocaust and the Historians. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-40566-8.
- ^ Stanley, Alessandra (17 April 2006). "A PBS Documentary Makes Its Case for the Armenian Genocide, With or Without a Debate". New York Times.
- ^ a b "Turkey Recalls Envoys Over Armenian Genocide". International Center for Transitional Justice. 8 May 2006.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ "International Center for Transitional Justice". Armeniapedia.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Fisk, Robert (18 April 2001). "Peres stands accused over denial of 'meaningless' Armenian Holocaust". The Independent.
- ^ "The Applicability of the United Nations Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide to the events which occurred during the early twentieth century" (PDF). ICTJ. February 2002: 2, 18.
This memorandum was drafted by independent legal counsel based on a request made to the International Center for Transitional Justice ("ICTJ"), on the basis of the Memorandum of Understanding ("MoU") entered into by The Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission ("TARC") on July 12, 2002 and presentations by members of TARC on September 10, 2002. ... D. Conclusion Because the other three elements identified above have been definitively established, the Events, viewed collectively, can thus be said to include all of the elements of the crime of genocide as defined in the Convention, and legal scholars as well as historians, politicians, journalists and other people would be justified in continuing to so describe them
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Invalid|nopp=The memorandum was drafted by independent legal counsel and not by the ICTJ. The memorandum is a legal, not a factual or historical, analysis(help); Unknown parameter|nopp=ignored (|no-pp=suggested) (help) - ^ "Letter to Prime Minister Erdogan". Genocide Watch. 13 June 2005. Archived from the original on 4 June 2007.
{{cite web}}:|first=missing|last=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ "Nobel Laureates call for tolerance, contact and cooperation between Turks and Armenians" (PDF). Elie Wiesel Foundation. 9 April 2007.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Danielyan, Emil (10 April 2007). "Nobel Laureates Call For Armenian-Turkish Reconciliation". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 2 July 2007.
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{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Gilles Veinstein, "Trois questions sur un massacre", L'Histoire, no. 187 (April 1995), pp. 40–1.
- ^ Salt, Jeremy. "The Narrative Gap in Ottoman Armenian History, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol 39, No 1, January 2003 pp. 19–36.
- ^ Erickons, E.J., 2006. Armenian Massacres: New Records Undercut Old Blame. The Middle East Quarterly. Summer 2006, Vol. 13, No. 3.
- ^ Bostom, Andrew. "Dhimmitude and The Doyen", New English Review, 10 November 2006. Retrieved 26 April 2007.
- ^ Statement of Professor Bernard Lewis, Princeton University, "Distinguishing Armenian Case from Holocaust", Assembly of Turkish American Associations, 14 April 2002 (PDF).
- ^ Getler, Michael. "Documenting and Debating a 'Genocide'", The Ombudsman Column, PBS, 21 April 2006. Retrieved 9 October 2006.
- ^ Lewy, Guenter. The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide.
- ^ Nouritza Matossian (27 February 2005). "They say 'incident'. To me it's genocide". London: The Observer. Archived from the original on 15 March 2007.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Rainsford, Sarah (14 December 2005). "Author's trial set to test Turkey" (News ed.). UK: BBC.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Congress Must Recognize the Armenian Genocide". American Thinker. 2007–8.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Ye'or, Bat. Islam and Dhimmitude. Madison, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2002, p. 374.
- ^ a b c d El-Ghusein, Fà'iz (1918). . ISBN 0-87899-003-8.
- ^ Toynbee, Arnold Joseph. Turkey: a Past and a Future. 1917, pp. 22–3.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam. Language and Politics. 1988, p. 625.
- ^ "Turkey's Opposition parties express concern over reconciliation accords". France 24. 11 October 2009.
- ^ Robertson, Geoffrey (9 October 2009). "Was there an Armenian Genocide?" (PDF). Doughty Street.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Turkish Historical Society, In Turkey, There is no official thesis on the Armenian issue. If there were the official thesis, now everyone would know it (Ermeni meselesinde Türkiye'nin resmi bir tezi yok. Keşke resmi tez olsaydı, şu anda herkes o tezi bilirdi). Template:Tr icon
- ^ Dinkell, Christoph (1991). "German Officers and the Armenian Genocide". Armenian Review. 44 (1): 92. ISSN 0004-2366.
- ^ Tashan, Seyfi (April 2002). "Armenian question and the Western powers". Turkish Daily News.
- ^ Turkish Embassy.org – Republic of Turkey
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- ^ "Interview with Volkan Vural". YouTube.
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- ^ Archived 2008-08-26 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved from Internet Archive January 2014.
- ^ "1915 yılı olayları". Sabah (in Turkish). 27 July 2007.
Erdoğan, eylülde ABD Kongresi'nin gündemine gelmesi beklenen soykırım iddialarına ilişkin genelgesinde, kamu kurumlarının, '1915 yılı olayları', '1915 yılı olayları ile ilgili Ermeni iddiaları veya varsayımları' ifadelerini kullanmalarını istedi.
- ^ "Turkey's Initiative to Resolve Armenian Allegations Regarding 1915" (Press release). Embassy of Turkish Republic at Washington, D.C.
- ^ "Minister Oskanian Comments on Turkish Foreign Minister Abdullah Gul's Recent Remarks". Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 November 2006.
- ^ "Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Vaşington Büyükelçiliği". Turkish Embassy in Washington. 1 January 2007.
- ^ Jacques Derogy (1 July 1990). Resistance and revenge: the Armenian assassination of the Turkish leaders responsible for the 1915 massacres and deportations. Transaction Publishers. pp. 196–. ISBN 978-0-88738-338-0.
- ^ "Genocide Parley with Armenians to Proceed", New York Times, 4 June 1982.
- ^ Howe, Marvine. "Turkey Denies it Threatened Jews Over Parley on Genocide", New York Times, 5 June 1982.
- ^ "Armenians to Take Part In Tel Aviv Seminar", New York Times, 16 June 1982.
- ^ Charny, Israel, Encyclopedia of genocide, Vol. 1, Oxford, 2000, p. 178
- ^ McKenna, Kate. "Account of Armenian Massacre Provokes Diplomatic Storm", New York Times, 3 December 1989.
- ^ Honan, William H. "Princeton Is Accused of Fronting For the Turkish Government", New York Times, 22 May 1996.
- ^ "Armenian Genocide Cannot Be Denied", New York Times, 2 June 1996.
- ^ Akınhay, Osman. "Ragıp Zarakolu: Hümanist Ekol, Benim Suç Ortağımdır". Mesele Dergi (in Turkish).
- ^ Corley, Felix. "Obituary: Ayse Nur Zarakolu", Independent, 14 February 2002.
- ^ Rainsford, Sarah (14 December 2005). "News — "Author's trial set to test Turkey"". BBC.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Nouritza Matossian (1 March 2005). "World view: Nouritza Matossian | World news |". The Observer. London.
- ^ "Court drops Turkish writer's case". BBC. 23 January 2006.
- ^ "IPI Deplores Callous Murder of Journalist in Istanbul". International Press Institute. 22 January 2007. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007.
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- ^ "Erdogan Threatens To Deport Armenians From Turkey". Asbarez. 17 March 2010.
- ^ Ozinian, Alin (5 December 2009). "Report: 12,000 Armenian citizens working illegally in Turkey". Today's Zaman.
- ^ a b Ambrosio, Thomas. Ethnic Identity Groups and U.S. Foreign Policy. 2002, p. 12.
- ^ Atabaki, Touraj and Mehendale, Sanjyot. Central Asia and the Caucasus: Transnationalism and Diaspora. 2005, pp. 85–6.
- ^ Kaufman, Stuart J. Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. New York: Cornell University Press, 2001, p. 55.
- ^ Safrastyan, Ruben (29 April 2005). "Genocide Factor in Armenia's Foreign Policy". Global Politician.
- ^ Cameron, Fraser United States foreign policy after the Cold War The Armenain-American'lobby, Routledge 2002 pp.91
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{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Barack Obama Campaign Promise No. 511". Archived from the original on 6 May 2010.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Bevan, Robert. The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. Reaktion Books, 2007, pp. 52–60.
- ^ a b c Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (2009). A Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. New York: Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 0-203-89043-4.
- ^ a b c "Armenian Genocide Descendants File Class Action against Deutsche Bank and Dresdner Bank Announces Kabateck Brown Kellner LLP". Business Wire. 6 May 2010.
- ^ Cultural Genocide in The Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute.
- ^ Bevan, Robert (2006). The destruction of memory architecture at war. London: Reaktion. pp. 52–9. ISBN 1-86189-638-7.
- ^ a b "QUESTION OF THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF ALL PERSONS SUBJECTED TO ANY FORM OF DETENTION OR IMPRISONMENT". United Nations Commission on Human Rights.
- ^ a b Theriault, Henry (6 May 2010). "The Global Reparations Movement and Meaningful Resolution of the Armenian Genocide". Armenian Weekly. Archived from the original on 10 May 2010.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Commission on Human Rights, fifty-third session, Doc. E/CN.4/1997/104. Compare with the first report by Professor Theo van Boven C/CH.4/Sub.2/1993/8 of 2 July 1993, section IX, and the second report C/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/7 of 24 May 1996
- ^ De Zayas, Alfred (December 2007). "The Genocide against the Armenians 1915–1923 and the relevance of the 1948 Genocide Convention". Alfred de Zayas. Archived from the original on 4 May 2010.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Avedian, Vahagn (2012). "State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide" (PDF). European Journal of International Law. 23 (3): 797–820. doi:10.1093/ejil/chs056.
- ^ Toriguian, Shavarsh (1988). The Armenian question and international law (2nd ed.). La Verne, Calif., U.S.A.: ULV Press. pp. 45–8. ISBN 0-911707-13-1.
- ^ a b Brophy, Alfred L. (2006). Reparations: Pro & Con. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 119–120. ISBN 0-19-530408-X.
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- ^ Ergenekon document reveals MİT's assassination secrets, Today's Zaman, 19 August 2008. Template:En icon
- ^ Sarkisyan, Henry (1975). Works of the State History History Museum of Armenia. Vol. IV: Armenian Theme in Russian Medallic Art. Yerevan: Hayastan. p. 136.
- ^ Document: Armin T. Wegner's Letter to German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, Berlin, Easter Monday, April 11, 1933 – Gerlach and Templer 8 (3): 395 – Holocaust and Genocide Studies
- ^ "Autorenseite Wegners" (in German). DE: Aktion Patenschaften für verbrannte Bücher.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Wolfgang Höbel and Alexander Smoltczyk. "Armenian Genocide at the Berlin Film Festival: "The Lark Farm" Wakens Turkish Ghosts". Spiegel Online.
- ^ Herrera, Hayden (2005). Arshile Gorky: His Life and Work. Macmillan. ISBN 1-4668-1708-9.
- ^ Mari Terzian. "The status of Armenian communities living in the United States". Azad-Hye. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Gospel Artist Given Standing Ovation By Armenian Government Officials". ANS. Archived from the original on 9 October 2007.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Abrahamian, Line (14 September 2006). "Talking With Turks and Armenians About the Genocide". Reader's Digest Canada.
- ^ Galás, Diamanda. "Defixiones: Orders from the Dead". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Old Dominion University (18 March 2008). "Old Dominion University Calendar | Diehn CREO Concert: The Synergy of Dance, Art and Music". Ww2.odu.edu.
- ^ Rutherford, Laine M. "Composer and troupe pay tribute to Armenia." Virginian-Pilot 15 March 2008: E5.
- ^ Rutherford, Laine M. "Tsitsernakabert: Original piece makes a powerful statement." Virginian-Pilot 19 March 2008: E5.
Notes
- ^ The Armenian Genocide is generally associated with 1915, when most of the atrocities took place. The span varies from source to source: 1915–1916, 1915–1917, 1915–1918, 1915–1923, 1894–1915, 1894–1923
- ^ 1.5 million is the most accepted number,[1][2][3] however, estimates vary from 600,000 to 1,800,000[4][5][6]
Further reading
Historical overviews
- Akçam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007.
- Akçam, Taner. The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012.
- Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: HarperCollins, 2003.
- Bloxham, Donald. The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
- Dadrian, Vahakn. The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus. Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1995.
- Dadrian, Vahakn. Warrant for Genocide: Key Elements of Turko-Armenian Conflict. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
- Kévorkian, Raymond. The Armenian Genocide: A Complete History. London: I.B. Tauris, 2011.
Specific issues and comparative studies
- Bobelian, Michael. Children of Armenia: A Forgotten Genocide and the Century-Long Struggle for Justice. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009.
- Dadrian, Vahakn. "Genocide as a Problem of National and International Law: The World War I Armenian Case and its Contemporary Legal Ramifications", Yale Journal of International Law, Volume 14, Number 2, 1989.
- Dadrian, Vahakn. Key Elements in the Turkish Denial of the Armenian Genocide. Toronto: Zoryan Institute, 1999.
- Dadrian, Vahakn. "Patterns of Twentieth Century Genocides: the Armenian, Jewish, and Rwandan Cases". Journal of Genocide Research, 2004, 6 (4), pp. 487–522.
- Güçlü, Yücel, "The Holocaust and the Armenian Case in Comparative Perspective", University Press of America, Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Plymouth, 2012. (ISBN 978-0-7618-5782-2 / eISBN 978-0-7618-5783-9)
- Hovannisian, Richard (ed.) The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992.
- Hovannisian, Richard. Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1998.
- Hovannisian, Richard. The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2007.
- Hovannisian, Richard G. and Simon Payalsian (eds). Armenian Cilicia. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008.
- Mann, Michael. The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, UP, 2004.
- Melson, Robert, Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
- Power, Samantha. "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide. New York: Harper Perennial 2003.
- Sanasarian, Eliz (1989). "Gender Distinction in the Genocide Process: A Preliminary Study of the Armenian Case". Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 4 (4): 449–61. doi:10.1093/hgs/4.4.449. PMID 20684116.
Survivors' testimonies and memory
- Balakian, Grigoris. Armenian Golgotha. Translated by Peter Balakian with Aris Sevag. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.
- Bedoukian, Kerop. Some of Us Survived: The Story of an Armenian Boy. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1978.
- Hartunian, Abraham H. Neither to Laugh nor to Weep: A Memoir of the Armenian Genocide. Translated by Vartan Hartunian. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Armenian Heritage Press, 1986.
- Jacobsen, Maria. Diaries of a Danish missionary: Harpoot, 1907–1919. Princeton: Gomidas Institute, 2001.
- Lang, David Marshall. The Armenians: A People in Exile. London: Allen & Unwin, 1981.
- Miller, Donald E. and Lorna Touryan Miller. Survivors: An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
- Odian, Yervant. Accursed Years: My Exile and Return from Der Zor, 1914–1919. Translated by Ara Stepan Melkonyan. London: Taderon Press, 2009.
- Peroomian, Rubina. Literary Responses to Catastrophe: A Comparison of the Armenian and the Jewish Experience. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993.
- Svazlyan, Verzhine. The Armenian Genocide and Historical Memory. Translated by Tigran Tsulikian. Yerevan: Gitutiun Publishing House, 2004.
Former Armenian communities
- Hovannisian, Richard. Armenian Van/Vaspurakan. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2000.
- Hovannisian, Richard. Armenian Baghesh/Bitlis and Taron/Mush. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2001.
- Hovannisian, Richard. Armenian Karin/Erzerum. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2003.
- Hovannisian, Richard. Armenian Sebastia/Sivas and Lesser Armenia. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2004.
World responses and foreign testimony
- Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. "'Down in Turkey, far away': Human Rights, the Armenian Massacres, and Orientalism in Wilhelmine Germany", Journal of Modern History Volume, 79, Number 1, March 2007, pp. 80–111. in JSTOR
- Barton, James L. Turkish Atrocities: Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917. Ann Arbor: Gomidas Institute, 1997.
- Bryce, James and Arnold Toynbee. The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden, Uncensored ed. Edited and with an introduction by Ara Sarafian. Princeton: Gomidas Institute, 2000. complete text
- Dadrian, Vahakn N. Documentation of the Armenian Genocide in Turkish Sources. Jerusalem: Institute on the Holocaust and Genocide, 1991.
- Davis, Leslie A. The Slaughterhouse Province: An American Diplomat's Report on the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1917. ew Rochelle, N.Y.: A.D. Caratzas, 1989.
- Hovannisian, Richard G. "The Allies and Armenia, 1915–18". Journal of Contemporary History 1968 3(1): 145–168. ISSN: 0022-0094 Fulltext: in Jstor
- Libaridian, Gerard. "The Ideology of the Young Turk Movement", pp. 37–49. In Gerard Libaridian (Ed.) A Crime of Silence, The Armenian Genocide: Permanent Peoples' Tribunal. London: Zed Books, 1985.
- Morgenthau, Henry (1918), Ambassador Morgenthau's Story (Google Books excerpt and text search).
- Nassibian, Akaby (1984), Britain and the Armenian Question: 1915–1923, New York: St. Martin's Press.
- Peterson, Merrill D (2004), "Starving Armenians": America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1930 and After, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
- Power, Samantha (2003), "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide, Harper.
- Severance, Gordon; Severance, Diana (2003), Against the Gates of Hell: The Life & Times of Henry Perry, a Christian Missionary in a Moslem World.
- Safarian, Ara, ed. (2004), United States Official Documents on the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1917, Princeton, New Jersey: Gomidas.
- Winter, Jay, ed. (2004), America and the Armenian Genocide of 1915 (Google Books excerpts and text search), 325 pp.
Memory and historiography
- Auron, Yair [Oron, Ya'ir] (2005) [2003], The Banality of Denial: Israel and the Armenian Genocide, Transaction
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). - Bevan, Robert (2006), "Cultural Cleansing: Who Remembers the Armenians?", The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War (Amazon), pp. 25–60.
- Dyer, Gwynne (January 1976), "Turkish 'Falsifiers' and Armenian 'Deceivers': Historiography and the Armenian Massacres", Middle Eastern Studies, 12, JStor: 99–107.
- Gunter, Michael M (1986), Pursuing the Just Cause of Their People: A Study of Contemporary Armenian Terrorism, Questia.
- Hovannisian, Richard G, ed. (1999), Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide, 316 pp.
- Melson, Robert (1982), "A Theoretical Inquiry into the Armenian Massacres of 1894–1896", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 24: 481–509, doi:10.1017/S0010417500010100.
- ——— (1989), "Revolutionary Genocide: On the causes of the Armenian genocide of 1915 and the Holocaust", Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 4 (2), Hein online: 161–74.
- Peroomian, Rubina (1993), Literary Responses to Catastrophe: A Comparison of the Armenian and the Jewish Experience.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
- Armenian Genocide on the Combat Genocide Association website
- The Armenian Genocide Institute-Museum, Yerevan, AM.
- Armenian National Institute, Washington, D.C. (dedicated to the study, research, and affirmation of the Armenian Genocide).
- Armenian Genocide Debate.
- The Forgotten, videos of interviews with survivors.
- "Armenians 1915", Armenian Genocide Research Center (World Wide Web log), Google Bogger.
- "Fall of the Ottoman Empire", Online Encyclopedia of Mass violence (chronological index & articles).
- Genocide, AM.
- "Screamers", You tube (video) (documentary), Google, about genocide, featuring System of a Down.
- Template:Worldcat subject
- Tavernise, Sabrina, "Armenian Genocide", The New York Times (collected news and coverage).
- Armenian Genocide
- Anti-Armenianism
- Anti-national sentiment
- Committee of Union and Progress
- Ethnic cleansing
- History of Armenia
- History of the Republic of Turkey
- Massacres in the Ottoman Empire
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