Interleukin-1 family
| Interleukin-1 / 18 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Identifiers | |||||||||
| Symbol | IL1 | ||||||||
| Pfam | PF00340 | ||||||||
| InterPro | IPR000975 | ||||||||
| PROSITE | PDOC00226 | ||||||||
| SCOP2 | 1i1b / SCOPe / SUPFAM | ||||||||
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The Interleukin 1 family (IL-1 family) is a group of 11 cytokines, which plays a central role in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses to infections or sterile insults.
Discovery
The history of discovery of these cytokines begins with studies on the pathogenesis of fever. The studies were performed by Menkin and Beeson in 1943-1948 on the fever producing properties of proteins released from rabbit peritoneal exudate cells. These studies were followed by contributions of several investigators, who were primarily interested in the link between fever and infection/inflammation. The basis for the term "interleukin" was to streamline the growing number of biological properties attributed to soluble factors from macrophages and lymphocytes. IL-1 was the name given to the macrophage product, whereas IL-2 was used to define the lymphocyte product. At the time of the assignment of these names, there was no amino acid sequence analysis known and the terms were used to define biological properties. In 1985 two distinct, but distantly related complementary DNAs encoding proteins sharing human IL-1 activity were reported to be isolated from a macrophage cDNA library, thus defining two individual members of the IL-1 family – IL-1α and IL-1β.[1][2][3]
The Interleukin-1 superfamily
IL-1 family is a group of 11 cytokines, which inducts a complex network of proinlammatory cytokines and via an expression of integrins on leukocytes and endothelial cells regulates and initiates inflammatory responses. [4]
IL-1α and IL-1β are the most studied of them, because they were discovered first and because they have strongly proinflamatory effect. They have a natural antagonist IL-1Ra (IL-1 receptor antagonist). All three of them binds IL-1 receptor (IL-1R) and activates signaling via MyD88, which is described in part Signaling of this page. Il-1Ra regulates IL-1α and IL-1β proinflammatory activity by competing with them about binding sites of the receptor. [4]
Synthesis
All of the members of IL-1 family, except of IL-1Ra, are first synthesized as a precursor protein, which means it is synthesized as a long form of protein which has to be processed to a shorter, active molecule, which is generally called mature protein. IL-1 family precursors do not have a clear signal peptide for processing and secretion and none of them are found in the Golgi. The similar feature of IL-1α and IL-33 is that their precursor forms can bind to their respective receptor and can activate signal transduction. But this is not a common feature for IL-1 family, because IL-1β and IL-18 precursor forms do not bind their receptors and require cleavage by either intracellular caspase-1 or extracellular neutrophilic proteases. [4]
Nomenclature
The interleukin-1 superfamily has nowadays 11 members, which have similar gene structure, although it originally has only four members IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-1Ra and IL-18. After a discovery of another 5 members it was generally accepted new nomenclature which contained all members of IL-1 cytokine family and was compound from the name of IL-1F and the number of new IL-1 member. Also, the old IL-1 members were renamed as IL-1F1, IL-1F2, IL-1F3 and IL-1F4. [5]
But according to new trends in nomenclature, the old names of IL-1 family returned. In 2010, the laboratories all around the world agreed that IL-1α, IL-1β, Il-1Ra and IL-18 are more familiar in the general knowledge. According to that, they suggested that IL-1F6, IL-1F8 and IL-F9 should have new names IL-36α, IL-36β and IL-36γ, because although they are encoded by distinct genes, they use the same receptor complex IL-1Rrp2 and coreceptor IL-1RAcP and deliver almost identical signals. They also proposed that IL-1F5 should be renamed to IL-36Ra, because it works like antagonist to IL-36α, IL-36β and IL-36γ similarly as IL-Ra for IL-1α and IL-1β. Another novelty is renaming IL-F7 to IL-37, because this suppressing cytokine has many splicing variants, they should be called IL-37a, IL-37b and so on. For there is still no known function of IL-F10, there is no need to call it otherwise, but in the future it is possible that the name IL-38 will be established. [3]
| Name | Family name | Receptor | Coreceptor | Property | Chromosomal location |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IL-1α | IL-1F1 | IL-1RI | IL-1RacP | Proinflammatory | 2q14 |
| IL-1β | IL-1F2 | IL-1RI | IL-1RacP | Proinflammatory | 2q14 |
| IL-1Ra | IL-1F3 | IL-1RI | NA | Antagonist for IL-1α, IL-1β2q | 14.2 |
| IL-18 | IL-1F4 | IL-18Rα | IL-18Rβ | Proinflammatory | 2q14.2 |
| IL-36Ra | IL-1F5 | IL-1Rrp2 | NA | Antagonist for IL-36α, IL-36β, IL-36γ | 2q14 |
| IL-36α | IL-1F6 | IL-1Rrp2 | IL-1RAcP | Proinflammatory | 2q12 - q14.1 |
| IL-37 | IL-1F7 | Unknown | Unknown | Anti-inflammatory | 2q12 – q14.1 |
| IL-36β | IL-1F8 | IL-1Rrp2 | IL-1RAcP | Proinflammatory | 2q14 |
| IL-36γ | IL1-F9 | IL-1Rrp2 | IL-1RAcP | Proinflammatory | 2q12 – q21 |
| IL-38 | IL-1F10 | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | 2q13 |
| IL-33 | IL-1F11 | ST2 | IL-1RAcP | Th2 responses, proinflammatory | 9p24.1 |
Signaling
IL-1α and IL-1β bind to the same receptor molecule, which is called type I IL-1 receptor (IL-1RI). There is a third ligand of this receptor – the Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), which does not activate downstream signaling, so it acts as one of the control mechanisms of IL-1α and IL-1β signaling by competing with them about binding sites of the receptor. <ref=dinarelloCA /> [7]
IL-1α or IL-1β bind first to the first extracellular chain of IL-1RI, that recruits the IL-1 receptor accessory protein (IL-1RAcP), which serves as a coreceptor and is necessary for signal transduction and it is also needed for activation of IL-1RI by IL-18 and IL-33. [7]
After the formation of receptor heterodimeric complex which is assembled by IL-1α or IL-1β, IL-1RI and IL-1RAcP, two intracellular adaptor proteins are assembled by conserved cytosolic regions called Toll- and IL-1R-like (TIR) domains. They are called the myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MYD88) and interleukin-1 receptor-activated protein kinase (IRAK) 4. Phosphorylation of IRAK4 is followed by phosphorylation of IRAK1, IRAK2 and tumor necrosis factor-associated factor (TRAF) 6. TRAF6 is a ubiquitin E3 ligase, that in association with ubiquitin E2 ligase complex attaches K63-linked polyubiquitin chains to some of IL-1signaling intermediates, for instance TGF-β-activated protein kinase (TAK-1). That facilitates the association of TAK-1 with TRAF6 and with MEKK3. [7] These signaling pathways lead to activation of many transcription factors, such as NF-κB, AP-1, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 MAPK. [7]
Biological activity
IL-1 is intensely produced by tissue macrophages, monocytes, fibroblasts, and dendritic cells, but is also expressed by B lymphocytes, NK cells and epithelial cells. They form an important part of the inflammatory response of the body against infection. These cytokines increase the expression of adhesion factors on endothelial cells to enable transmigration (also called diapedesis) of immunocompetent cells, such as phagocytes, lymphocytes and others, to sites of infection. It also affects the activity of hypothalamus, the thermoregulatory center, which lead to a raise of a body temperature, so called fever . That is why IL-1 is called endogenous pyrogen. Besides of fever, IL-1 also cause hyperalgesia (increased pain sensitivity), vasodilation and hypotension. [9] [8]
IL-1α
IL-1α is a “dual-function cytokine”, that means it plays role in the nucleus by affecting transcription, apart from its extracellular receptor-mediated effects as a classical cytokine. Into this group also belongs IL-33. [9]
IL-1α is synthesized as a precursor protein and it is constitutively stored in a cytoplasm of cells with mesenchymal origin and in epithelial cells. On the contrary, monocytes and macrophages do not contain preformed IL-1α precursors, but instead require de novo synthesis. IL-1α precursor is processed to a mature 17-kDa protein by a Ca2+-activated protease calpain by liberating the 16-kDa N-terminal propiece cleavage product (ppIL-1α), which contains a nuclear localization sequence (NLS), translocates to the nucleus and functions as a transcription factor. The precursor form of IL-1α, which has both the N-terminal and C-terminal receptor interacting domain, acts as a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) molecule. DAMPs, also known as alarmins, are recognized by innate immunity cells by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and functions as a danger signal for immune system. In short, DAMPs are released from stressed cells, which undertake immune not-silent death (such as necrosis or pyroptosis) and their intracellular components are let out to extracellular space. Because of misfolding and other oxidative changes of these molecules in the context of altered pH, they are recognized by innate immunity as molecules that should not be in extracellular space in physiological consequences. The reasons why the cell could be stressed are infection, injury, ischemia, hypoxia, acidosis and complement lysis. The IL-33 precursor form acts in the same way as a DAMP molecule. [9]
Interestingly, the inflammatory responses in the absence of infection (such as ischemia) are only dependent to IL-1α signaling via the Interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R), rather than TLRs signaling. IL-1α also stimulates transcription and secretion of IL-1β from monocytes, so the initiator of immune responses is likely IL-1α precursor by induction of neutrophil infiltration and IL-1β seems to be an amplifier of inflammation by recruiting of macrophages] in the context of sterile inflammation. [9][10][11]
IL-1α precursor and mature IL-1β lack a signal peptide which should direct them into the endoplasmic/Golgi-dependent secretion pathway and they are secreted by unconventional protein secretion pathway, which mechanism and regulation are not known. [8]
IL-1β
IL-1β is synthesized as a precursor form protein only after stimulation, in contrary to IL-1α. Its expression is induced by transcription factor NF-κB after exposure of innate immune cells to alarmins. For instance, after exposure of macrophages and dendritic cells to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which binds to TLR4 and acts as pathogen-associated molecular pattern, that is another group of alarmins. [11][8]
The synthesis of IL-1β precursor (and IL-18) is induced by stimulation of innate immune cells by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) or RIG-like receptors (RLRs), but to gain the ability to bind to IL-1 receptor, IL-1β precursor has to be cleaved by cysteine protease called caspase-1. Caspase-1 needs to activation a formation of inflammasome which is mediated by cytoplazmic pattern recognition receptors signaling. So, the secretion of IL-1β needs these two steps and activation of different receptors to be activated. Under special circumstances IL-1β can be processed also by other proteases, like during high neutrophilic inflammation. [12][8]
IL-18 is also synthesized as precursor which is cleaved by caspase-1. [8]
IL-33
IL-33 is synthesized as a 31-kDa precursor form and binds the ST2 receptor and IL-1RAcP coreceptor, which stimulates signaling, that activates transcription factors as NF-κB and ERK, p38 and JNK MAPKs. The signaling can be triggered by a precursor form of IL-33 in the same way as IL-1α precursor activates signaling through IL-1 receptor. On the other hand, the mature forms IL-3395-270, IL-3399-270 and IL-33109-270, which are processed from a precursor by serine proteases cathepsin G and elastase, are even more potent activators of inflammatory responses. In contrary with IL-1, processing by caspases, like caspase-1, results in IL-33 inactivation. [13] [14] [15]
IL-33 is a dual function cytokine, besides it chromatin-associated function, it is constitutively expressed in healthy endothelial cells, because it acts as DAMPs after its release to extracellular space of cells in the context of immunologic not-silent cell death, and drives cytokine production in natural helper cells, nuocytes, Th2 lymphocytes, mast cells, basophils, eosinophils, invariant natural killer and natural killer T cells. It is involved in allergic and parasite-induced inflammatory responses. [13][14]
Cytokine-induced effector cytokine production
IL-33 has a role in so called cytokine-induced effector cytokine production, which means that a production of effector cytokines by differentiated T helper lymphocytes is cytokine dependent and can happened without antigen stimulation by T-cell receptor of these cells. IL-33 in combination with some STAT5 activator, such as IL-2, IL-7 or TSLP, up-regulates expression of his own receptor on already differentiated Th2 lymphocytes, because naive T helper cells nor Th1 nor Th17 populations do not have ST2 receptors. This up-regulation works as a positive feedback which causes even more strong activation of IL-33 dependent-signaling pathways in the lymphocyte. This up-regulation is directly controlled by GATA3 transcription factor. IL-33 combined with IL-2, IL-7 or TSLP also stimulates cell proliferation. The effector cytokine which is secreted from IL-33- and STAT5 activator-stimulated Th2 cells is IL-13, which is NF-κB dependent. IL-13 is very similar to IL-4 in amino acid sequence and structure. They also used the same type II IL-4 receptor to activate STAT6. [15]
Similar functions have IL-1 to Th17 cells and IL-18 to Th1 lymphocytes. IL-1 combined with some STAT3 activators, such as IL-6, IL-21 or IL-23, which are important for Th17 lymphocytes differentiation, have similar positive feedback in Th17 cells just like IL-33 and STAT5 activators have in Th2 cells. They highly up-regulate expression of IL-1 receptor and RORγt on the surface of stimulated Th17 lymphocytes. The effector cytokines mediated by this signalization is IL-17A, IL-4 and IL-6. IL-18 with IL-12, which is a STAT4 activator, have similar effects on Th1 cells by up-regulating expression of IL-18R1 receptor and T-bet. [15][16]
IL-1 in disease and its clinical significance
First, because of its characterization as a hematopoetic factor, IL-1 was given to patients after bone marrow transplantation to improve the engraftment. But soon enough was discovered, that these recipients suffer by symptoms and signs of systemic inflammation. So, there was an effort to block IL-1 activity by natural IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), also familiar by its generic name anakinra, but in the end the control trials did not reached statistical significance. [4]
Nowadays, blocking of IL-1 activity (especially IL-1β) is a standard therapy for patients with autoimmune diseases or lymphomas. IL-1Ra is approved for instance as a therapy for patients with rheumatoid arthritis, because it reduces symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis and slows the progressive joint destruction. It has also been subscribed to patients with smoldering/indolent myeloma with a high risk of progression to multiple myeloma. In combination with other medication, IL-1Ra provides a significant increase in the number of years of progression-free disease in its recipients. The benefits of this treatment are the natural structure and no toxicity or gastrointestinal disturbances. [4]
References
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{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Auron PE, Webb AC, Rosenwasser LJ, Mucci SF, Rich A, Wolff SM, Dinarello CA. (1984). "Nucleotide sequence of human monocyte interleukin 1 precursor cDNA". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 81 (24): 7907–11. doi:10.1073/pnas.81.24.7907. PMC 392262. PMID 6083565.
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- ^ a b c d e f Dinarello CA (2011). "Interleukin-1 in the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory diseases". Blood. 117: 3720–32. doi:10.1182/blood-2010-07-273417. PMID 21304099.
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