List of presidents of the United States

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For the 1999 C-SPAN series, see American Presidents: Life Portraits. For other uses, see President of the United States (disambiguation).
This article is part of a series on the
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The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term by the people through the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.

Since the office was established in 1789, 44 men have served as president. The first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms in office (the only president to have done so) and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States; the 45th and current president is Donald Trump (since January 20, 2017). There are currently four living former presidents. The most recent former president to die was George H. W. Bush, on November 30, 2018.

The presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.[1]

Of those who have served as the nation's president, four died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with his own presidency, as opposed to a caretaker president. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tyler's precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this provision when he selected Gerald Ford for the office following Spiro Agnew's resignation in 1973. The following year, Ford became the second to do so when he chose Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him after he acceded to the presidency. As no mechanism existed for filling an intra-term vacancy in the vice presidency prior to 1967, the office was left vacant until filled through the next ensuing presidential election.

Throughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Greatly concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.[2]

Presidents

  Unaffiliated (2)       Federalist (1)       Democratic-Republican (4)       Democratic (15)       Whig (4)       Republican (19)       National Union (2)
Presidency[a] President Prior office[b] Party[c] Election Vice President
1 April 30, 1789
[d]
–
March 4, 1797 		George Washington
1732–1799
(Lived: 67 years)
[3][4][5] 		Commander-in-Chief
of the
Continental Army
(1775–1783) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Independent (politician)/meta/color" |  Unaffiliated
[2] 		1788–89 John Adams
[e][f]
1792
2 March 4, 1797
–
March 4, 1801 		John Adams
1735–1826
(Lived: 90 years)
[6][7][8] 		1st
vice president of the United States
(1789–1797) 		style="background-color:Template:Federalist Party/meta/color" | Federalist 1796 Thomas Jefferson
[g]
3 March 4, 1801
–
March 4, 1809 		Thomas Jefferson
1743–1826
(Lived: 83 years)
[9][10][11] 		2nd
vice president of the United States
(1797–1801) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic-Republican Party/meta/color" | Democratic-
Republican 		1800 Aaron Burr
March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1805
1804 George Clinton
March 4, 1805 – March 4, 1809
4 March 4, 1809
–
March 4, 1817 		James Madison
1751–1836
(Lived: 85 years)
[12][13][14] 		5th
United States secretary of state
(1801–1809) 		rowspan=4 style="background-color:Template:Democratic-Republican Party/meta/color" | Democratic-
Republican 		1808 George Clinton
March 4, 1809 – April 20, 1812
(Died in office)
Office vacant
(Balance of Clinton's term)
1812 Elbridge Gerry
March 4, 1813 – November 23, 1814
(Died in office)
Office vacant
(Balance of Gerry's term)
5 March 4, 1817
–
March 4, 1825 		James Monroe
1758–1831
(Lived: 73 years)
[15][16][17] 		7th
United States secretary of state
(1811–1817) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic-Republican Party/meta/color" | Democratic-
Republican 		1816 Daniel D. Tompkins
1820
6 March 4, 1825
–
March 4, 1829 		John Quincy Adams
1767–1848
(Lived: 80 years)
[18][19][20] 		8th
United States secretary of state
(1817–1825) 		style="background-color:Template:Democratic-Republican Party/meta/color" | Democratic-
Republican 		1824 John C. Calhoun
7 March 4, 1829
–
March 4, 1837 		Andrew Jackson
1767–1845
(Lived: 78 years)
[21][22][23] 		U.S. senator from Tennessee
(1797–1798 & 1823–1825) 		rowspan=3 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1828 John C. Calhoun
[h]
March 4, 1829 – December 28, 1832
(Resigned from office)
Office vacant
(Balance of Calhoun's term)
1832 Martin Van Buren
March 4, 1833 – March 4, 1837
8 March 4, 1837
–
March 4, 1841 		Martin Van Buren
1782–1862
(Lived: 79 years)
[24][25][26] 		8th vice president of the United States
(1833–1837) 		style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1836 Richard M. Johnson
9 March 4, 1841
–
April 4, 1841
(Died in office) 		William Henry Harrison
1773–1841
(Lived: 68 years)
[27][28][29] 		United States minister to Colombia
(1828–1829) 		style="background-color:Template:Whig Party (United States)/meta/color" | Whig 1840 John Tyler
(Succeeded to presidency)
10 April 4, 1841
[i]
–
March 4, 1845 		John Tyler
1790–1862
(Lived: 71 years)
[30][31][32] 		10th
vice president of the United States
(1841) 		style="background-color:Template:Whig Party (United States)/meta/color" | Whig
April 4, 1841 – September 13, 1841 		Office vacant
style="background-color:Template:Independent (politician)/meta/color" | Unaffiliated
September 13, 1841 – March 4, 1845
[j]
11 March 4, 1845
–
March 4, 1849 		James K. Polk
1795–1849
(Lived: 53 years)
[33][34][35] 		9th
governor of Tennessee
(1839–1841) 		style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1844 George M. Dallas
12
March 4, 1849
–
July 9, 1850
(Died in office) 		Zachary Taylor
1784–1850
(Lived: 65 years)
[36][37][38] 		Major general of the 1st Infantry Regiment
United States Army
(1846–1849)
(No prior elected office) 		style="background-color:Template:Whig Party (United States)/meta/color" | Whig 1848 Millard Fillmore
(Succeeded to presidency)
13 July 9, 1850
[k]
–
March 4, 1853 		Millard Fillmore
1800–1874
(Lived: 74 years)
[39][40][41] 		12th
vice president of the United States
(1849–1850) 		style="background-color:Template:Whig Party (United States)/meta/color" | Whig Office vacant
14 March 4, 1853
–
March 4, 1857 		Franklin Pierce
1804–1869
(Lived: 64 years)
[42][43][44] 		Brigadier general of the 9th Infantry
United States Army
(1847–1848) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1852 William R. King
March 4 – April 18, 1853
(Died in office)
Office vacant
(Balance of King's term)
15 March 4, 1857
–
March 4, 1861 		James Buchanan
1791–1868
(Lived: 77 years)
[45][46][47] 		United States minister to the
Court of St James's
(1853–1856) 		style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1856 John C. Breckinridge
16 March 4, 1861
–
April 15, 1865
(Died in office) 		Abraham Lincoln
1809–1865
(Lived: 56 years)
[48][49][50] 		U.S. representative for Illinois's 7th District
(1847–1849) 		Republican
(National Union)
[l] 		1860 Hannibal Hamlin
March 4, 1861 – March 4, 1865
style="background-color:Template:National Union Party (United States)/meta/color" | 1864 Andrew Johnson
March 4 – April 15, 1865
(Succeeded to presidency)
17 April 15, 1865
–
March 4, 1869 		Andrew Johnson
1808–1875
(Lived: 66 years)
[51][52][53] 		16th
vice president of the United States
(1865) 		style="background-color:Template:National Union Party (United States)/meta/color" | National Union
April 15, 1865 – c. 1868 		Office vacant
style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic
c. 1868 – March 4, 1869
[m]
18
March 4, 1869
–
March 4, 1877 		Ulysses S. Grant
1822–1885
(Lived: 63 years)
[54][55][56] 		Commanding general of the U.S. Army
(1864–1869)
(No prior elected office) 		rowspan=3 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1868 Schuyler Colfax
March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1873
1872 Henry Wilson
March 4, 1873 – November 22, 1875
(Died in office)
Office vacant
(Balance of Wilson's term)
19 March 4, 1877
–
March 4, 1881 		Rutherford B. Hayes
1822–1893
(Lived: 70 years)
[57][58][59] 		29th & 32nd
governor of Ohio
(1868–1872 & 1876–1877) 		style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1876 William A. Wheeler
20 March 4, 1881
–
September 19, 1881
(Died in office) 		James A. Garfield
1831–1881
(Lived: 49 years)
[60][61][62] 		U.S. representative for Ohio's 19th District
(1863–1881) 		style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1880 Chester A. Arthur
(Succeeded to presidency)
21 September 19, 1881
[n]
–
March 4, 1885 		Chester A. Arthur
1829–1886
(Lived: 57 years)
[63][64][65] 		20th
vice president of the United States
(1881) 		style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican Office vacant
22 March 4, 1885
–
March 4, 1889 		Grover Cleveland
1837–1908
(Lived: 71 years)
[66][67][68] 		28th
governor of New York
(1883–1885) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1884 Thomas A. Hendricks
March 4 – November 25, 1885
(Died in office)
Office vacant
(Balance of Hendricks's term)
23 March 4, 1889
–
March 4, 1893 		Benjamin Harrison
1833–1901
(Lived: 67 years)
[69][70][71] 		U.S. senator from Indiana
(1881–1887) 		style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1888 Levi P. Morton
24 March 4, 1893
–
March 4, 1897 		Grover Cleveland
1837–1908
(Lived: 71 years)
[66][67][68] 		22nd
president of the United States
(1885–1889) 		style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1892 Adlai Stevenson
25 March 4, 1897
–
September 14, 1901
(Died in office) 		William McKinley
1843–1901
(Lived: 58 years)
[72][73][74] 		39th
governor of Ohio
(1892–1896) 		rowspan=3 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1896 Garret Hobart
March 4, 1897 – November 21, 1899
(Died in office)
Office vacant
(Balance of Hobart's term)
1900 Theodore Roosevelt
March 4 – September 14, 1901
(Succeeded to presidency)
26 September 14, 1901
–
March 4, 1909 		Theodore Roosevelt
1858–1919
(Lived: 60 years)
[75][76][77] 		25th
vice president of the United States
(1901) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican Office vacant
September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1905
1904 Charles W. Fairbanks
March 4, 1905 – March 4, 1909
27 March 4, 1909
–
March 4, 1913 		William Howard Taft
1857–1930
(Lived: 72 years)
[78][79][80] 		42nd
United States secretary of war
(1904–1908) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1908 James S. Sherman
March 4, 1909 – October 30, 1912
(Died in office)
Office vacant
(Balance of Sherman's term)
28 March 4, 1913
–
March 4, 1921 		Woodrow Wilson
1856–1924
(Lived: 67 years)
[81][82][83] 		34th
governor of New Jersey
(1911–1913) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1912 Thomas R. Marshall
1916
29 March 4, 1921
–
August 2, 1923
(Died in office) 		Warren G. Harding
1865–1923
(Lived: 57 years)
[84][85][86] 		U.S. senator from Ohio
(1915–1921) 		style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1920 Calvin Coolidge
(Succeeded to presidency)
30 August 2, 1923
[o]
–
March 4, 1929 		Calvin Coolidge
1872–1933
(Lived: 60 years)
[87][88][89] 		29th
vice president of the United States
(1921–1923) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican Office vacant
August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1925
1924 Charles G. Dawes
March 4, 1925 – March 4, 1929
31
March 4, 1929
–
March 4, 1933 		Herbert Hoover
1874–1964
(Lived: 90 years)
[90][91][92] 		3rd
United States secretary of commerce
(1921–1928)
(No prior elected office) 		style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1928 Charles Curtis
32 March 4, 1933
–
April 12, 1945
(Died in office) 		Franklin D. Roosevelt
1882–1945
(Lived: 63 years)
[93][94][95] 		44th
governor of New York
(1929–1932) 		rowspan=4 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1932 John N. Garner
March 4, 1933 – January 20, 1941
[p]
1936
1940 Henry A. Wallace
January 20, 1941 – January 20, 1945
1944 Harry S. Truman
January 20 – April 12, 1945
(Succeeded to presidency)
33 April 12, 1945
–
January 20, 1953 		Harry S. Truman
1884–1972
(Lived: 88 years)
[96][97][98] 		34th
vice president of the United States
(1945) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic Office vacant
April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1949
1948 Alben W. Barkley
January 20, 1949 – January 20, 1953
34
January 20, 1953
–
January 20, 1961 		Dwight D. Eisenhower
1890–1969
(Lived: 78 years)
[99][100][101] 		Supreme Allied Commander Europe
(1949–1952)
(No prior elected office) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1952 Richard Nixon
1956
35 January 20, 1961
–
November 22, 1963
(Died in office) 		John F. Kennedy
1917–1963
(Lived: 46 years)
[102][103][104] 		U.S. senator from Massachusetts
(1953–1960) 		style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1960 Lyndon B. Johnson
(Succeeded to presidency)
36 November 22, 1963
–
January 20, 1969 		Lyndon B. Johnson
1908–1973
(Lived: 64 years)
[105][106][107] 		37th
vice president of the United States
(1961–1963) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic Office vacant
November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1965
1964 Hubert Humphrey
January 20, 1965 – January 20, 1969
37 January 20, 1969
–
August 9, 1974
(Resigned from office) 		Richard Nixon
1913–1994
(Lived: 81 years)
[108][109][110] 		36th
vice president of the United States
(1953–1961) 		rowspan=4 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1968 Spiro Agnew
January 20, 1969 – October 10, 1973
(Resigned from office)
1972
Office vacant
October 10 – December 6, 1973
Gerald Ford
December 6, 1973 – August 9, 1974
(Succeeded to presidency)
38 August 9, 1974
–
January 20, 1977 		Gerald Ford
1913–2006
(Lived: 93 years)
[111][112][113] 		40th
vice president of the United States
(1973–1974) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican Office vacant
August 9 – December 19, 1974
Nelson Rockefeller
December 19, 1974 – January 20, 1977
39 January 20, 1977
–
January 20, 1981 		Jimmy Carter
Born 1924
(99 years old)
[114][115][116] 		76th
governor of Georgia
(1971–1975) 		style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1976 Walter Mondale
40 January 20, 1981
–
January 20, 1989 		Ronald Reagan
1911–2004
(Lived: 93 years)
[117][118][119] 		33rd
governor of California
(1967–1975) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1980 George H. W. Bush
1984
41 January 20, 1989
–
January 20, 1993 		George H. W. Bush
1924–2018
(Lived: 94 years)
[120][121][122] 		43rd
vice president of the United States
(1981–1989) 		style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 1988 Dan Quayle
42 January 20, 1993
–
January 20, 2001 		Bill Clinton
Born 1946
(77 years old)
[123][124][125] 		40th & 42nd
governor of Arkansas
(1979–1981 & 1983–1992) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 1992 Al Gore
1996
43 January 20, 2001
–
January 20, 2009 		George W. Bush
Born 1946
(77 years old)
[126][127] 		46th
governor of Texas
(1995–2000) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 2000 Dick Cheney
2004
44 January 20, 2009
–
January 20, 2017 		Barack Obama
Born 1961
(62 years old)
[128][129] 		U.S. senator from Illinois
(2005–2008) 		rowspan=2 style="background-color:Template:Democratic Party (United States)/meta/color" | Democratic 2008 Joe Biden
2012
45 January 20, 2017
–
Incumbent 		Donald Trump
Born 1946
(77 years old)
[130][131]
President and Chairman of The Trump Organization
(1971–2017)
(No prior elected office) 		style="background-color:Template:Republican Party (United States)/meta/color" | Republican 2016 Mike Pence

Subsequent public office

Three presidents held another U.S. federal office after serving as president.

President Presidency[a] Subsequent service
John Quincy Adams 6 1825–1829 U.S. representative from Massachusetts (1831–1848)
Andrew Johnson 17 1865–1869 U.S. senator from Tennessee (1875)
William Howard Taft 27 1909–1913 Chief Justice of the United States (1921–1930)

Two presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U.S. state or federal elective offices after serving as president.

President Presidency[a] Office sought unsuccessfully
John Quincy Adams 6 1825–1829 Governor of Massachusetts (1833)
Andrew Johnson 17 1865–1869 U.S. senator from Tennessee (1870)
U.S. representative from Tennessee (1872)

Many presidents have campaigned unsuccessfully for another term as president. Five did so after a gap of at least one term since they served:

President Presidency[a] Office sought unsuccessfully
Martin Van Buren 8 1837–1841 President of the United States (1844)
President of the United States (1848)
Millard Fillmore 13 1850–1853 President of the United States (1856)
Ulysses S. Grant 18 1869–1877 President of the United States (1880)
Theodore Roosevelt 26 1901–1909 President of the United States (1912)
Herbert Hoover 31 1929–1933 President of the United States (1940)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d The presidents are numbered according to uninterrupted periods of time served by the same person. For example, George Washington served two consecutive terms and is counted as the first president (not the first and second). Upon the resignation of 37th president Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford became the 38th president even though he simply served out the remainder of Nixon's second term and was never elected to the presidency in his own right. Grover Cleveland was both the 22nd president and the 24th president because his two terms were not consecutive. A vice president who temporarily becomes acting president under the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution is not counted, because the president remains in office during such a period.
  2. ^ Listed here is the most recent office (either with a U.S. state or the federal government) held by the individual prior to becoming president.
  3. ^ Three presidents are counted above with multiple political affiliations: John Tyler (Whig, Unaffiliated), Abraham Lincoln (Republican, National Union), and Andrew Johnson (National Union, Democratic).
  4. ^ Due to logistical delays, instead of being inaugurated on March 4, 1789, the date scheduled for operations of the federal government under the new Constitution to begin, Washington's first inauguration was held 1 month and 26 days later. As a result, his first term was only 1,404 days long (as opposed to the usual 1,461), and was the shortest term for a U.S. president who served a full term.
  5. ^ Political parties had not been anticipated when the Constitution was drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, nor did they exist at the time of the first presidential election in 1788–89. When they did develop, during Washington's first term, Adams joined the faction that became the Federalist Party. The elections of 1792 were the first ones in the United States that were contested on anything resembling a partisan basis.
  6. ^ Due to logistical delays, Adams assumed the office of Vice President 1 month and 17 days after the March 4, 1789 scheduled start of operations of the new government under the Constitution. As a result, his first term was only 1,413 days long, and was the shortest term for a U.S. vice president who served a full term.
  7. ^ The 1796 presidential election was the first contested American presidential election and the only one in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing political parties. Federalist John Adams was elected president, and Jefferson of the Democratic-Republicans was elected vice president.
  8. ^ John Calhoun, formerly a Democratic-Republican, founded the Nullifier Party in 1828 to oppose the Tariff of 1828 and advance the cause of states' rights, but was brought on as Andrew Jackson's running mate in the 1828 presidential election in an effort to broaden the democratic coalition led by Jackson.
  9. ^ John Tyler was sworn in as president on April 6, 1841.
  10. ^ John Tyler, a former Democrat, ran for vice president on the Whig Party ticket with Harrison in 1840. Tyler's policy priorities as president soon proved to be opposed to most of the Whig agenda, and he was expelled from the party in September 1841.
  11. ^ Millard Fillmore was sworn in as president on July 10, 1850.
  12. ^ When he ran for reelection in 1864, Republican Abraham Lincoln formed a bipartisan electoral alliance with War Democrats by selecting Democrat Andrew Johnson as his running mate, and running on the National Union Party ticket.
  13. ^ Democrat Andrew Johnson ran for vice president on the National Union Party ticket with Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1864. Later, while president, Johnson tried and failed to build a party of loyalists under the National Union banner. Near the end of his presidency, Johnson rejoined the Democratic Party.
  14. ^ Chester A. Arthur was initially sworn in as president on September 20, 1881, and then again on September 22.
  15. ^ Calvin Coolidge was initially sworn in as president on August 3, 1923, and then again on August 21.
  16. ^ The Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution (ratified on January 23, 1933) moved Inauguration Day from March 4 to January 20, beginning in 1937. As a result, Garner's first term in office was 1 month and 12 days shorter than a normal term.

References

  1. ^ "The Constitution: Amendments 11–27". U.S. National Archives & Records Administration. Retrieved October 1, 2008.
  2. ^ a b Jamison, Dennis (December 31, 2014). "George Washington's views on political parties in America". The Washington Times. Retrieved July 1, 2016.
  3. ^ "George Washington". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
  4. ^ "George Washington". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
  5. ^ "Life Portrait of George Washington". American Presidents: Life Portraits. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
  6. ^ "John Adams". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
  7. ^ "John Adams". History. Retrieved November 21, 2016.
  8. ^ "Life Portrait of John Adams". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
  9. ^ "Thomas Jefferson". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
  10. ^ "Thomas Jefferson". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
  11. ^ "Life Portrait of Thomas Jefferson". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
  12. ^ "James Madison". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
  13. ^ "James Madison". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
  14. ^ "Life Portrait of James Madison". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
  15. ^ "James Monroe". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
  16. ^ "James Monroe". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
  17. ^ "Life Portrait of James Monroe". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
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  21. ^ "Andrew Jackson". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
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  24. ^ "Martin Van Buren". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
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  33. ^ "James K. Polk". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
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  39. ^ "Millard Fillmore". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
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  42. ^ "Franklin Pierce". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
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