Turkification

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Turkification (Turkish: Türkleşme when voluntary and Türkleştirme when involuntary) is a process of cultural or political change in which something or someone who is not a Turk becomes one, voluntarily or involuntarily. This has occurred for Anatolian, Balkan, Caucasian and Middle Eastern peoples from different ethnic origins, including Albanians, Arabs, Israelites, Armenians, Circassians, Greeks, Vlachs, Jews, Roma, various Slavic peoples (such as Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks, Bulgarians and Pomaks), Iranian peoples, Kurdish People, (Kurmanj), Zazas, as well as Kartvelian Lazs from all the regions of Ottoman Empire and Iran. An early form of Turkification occurred in the time of the Seljuk Empire among the indigenous peoples of Anatolia, involving religious conversion, cultural and linguistic assimilation, and interethnic relationships.

Contents

Lexicology [edit]

[icon] This section requires expansion. (March 2013)

The term is used in the Greek language since late-byzantine era as "τούρκεμα". It literally means "becoming muslim or Turk". For example: "Είχε τουρκέψει κάτω από βία, τον καιρό της άτυχης εκείνης επανάστασης του 1770, τούρκεμα κανονικό με "σουνέτι" (περιτομή) από Τούρκο παπά (Χότζα)", i.e. "He had been turkified by force, at the time of the unfortunate revolution of 1770. A real turkification, with circumcision by a Turkish priest (Hodja)".[1] Apart from persons, it may refer also to cities that were conqered by Turks or churches that were converted to mosques. It is more frequently used in the form of the verb "τουρκεύω" (turkify, become muslim or Turk)[2][3][4]
In Serbian and other slavonic languages the verb is poturčiti.[5]

Appearance of Turks in Anatolia [edit]

Anatolia was home to many different peoples in ancient times, including the Assyrians, Hittites, Persians, Luwians, Hurrians, Armenians, Greeks, Cimmerians, Scythians, Georgians, Colchians, Carians, Lydians, Lycians, Phrygians, Arameans, Arabs, Corduenes, Cappadocians, Cilicians, Kurdish and scores of others. The presence of many Greeks, and the process of Hellenization, gradually caused many of these peoples to abandon their own languages in favor of Greek, especially in cities and along the western and southern coasts, a process reinforced by Romanization. Nevertheless, in the north and east, especially in rural areas, many of the native languages continued to survive, including both many extinct and a few extant languages such as Armenian and Assyrian Aramaic.[6] Byzantine authorities routinely conducted large-scale population transfers in an effort to impose religious uniformity and the Greek language. They were particularly keen to assimilate the large Armenian population. To that end, in the eleventh century, the Armenian nobility were removed from their lands and resettled throughout western Anatolia. An unintended consequence of this resettlement was the loss of local military leadership along the eastern frontier, opening the path for the inroads of Turkish invaders.[7] Beginning in the eleventh century, war with Turks led to the deaths of many in the native population, while others were enslaved and removed.[8] As areas became depopulated, Turkic nomads moved in with their herds.[9]

Once an area had been conquered, and hostilities had ceased, agricultural villagers may have felt little inconvenience with the arrival of these pastoralists, since they occupied different ecological zones within the same territory.[10] Turkic pastoralists remained only a small minority, however, and the gradual Turkification of Anatolia was due less to in-migration than to the conversion of many Christians and Pagans to Islam, and their adoption of the Turkish language. The reasons for this conversion were first, the weak hold Greek culture had on much of the population, and second, the desire by the conquered population to "retain its property or else to avoid being at a disadvantage in other ways."[11] One mark of the progress of Turkification was that by the 1330s, place names in Anatolia had changed from Greek to Turkish.[12]

Andrew Mango describes the diversity of phenotypes amongst the Turkish people as follows:[13]

The Turkish nation took shape in the centuries of Seljuk and Ottoman power. The nomadic Turkish conquerors did not displace the original local inhabitants: Hellenized Anatolians (or simply Greeks), Armenians, people of Caucasian origins, Kurds, Assyrians and – in the Balkans – Slavs, Albanians and others. They intermarried with them, while many local people converted to Islam and 'turned Turk'. They were joined by Muslims from the lands north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus, by Persian craftsmen and Arab scholars, and by European adventurers and converts, known in the West as renegades. As a result, the Turks today exhibit a wide variety of ethnic types. Some have delicate Far Eastern, others heavy local Anatolian features, some, who are descended from Slavs, Albanians or Circassians, have light complexions, others are dark-skinned, many look Mediterranean, others Central Asian, many appear Persian. A numerically small, but commercially and intellectually important, group is descended from converts from Judaism. One can hear Turks describe some of their fellow countrymen as 'hatchet-nosed Lazes' (a people on the Black Sea coast), 'dark Arabs' (a term which includes descendants of black slaves), or even 'fellahs'. But they are all Turks.

The imprecise meaning of Türk [edit]

During the 19th century, the word Türk was a mildly opprobrious term used to refer to Anatolian villagers; the Ottoman elite identified themselves as Ottomans, not as Turks.[14] In the late 19th century, as European ideas of nationalism were adopted by the Ottoman elite, and as it became clear that the Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, the term Türk took on a much more positive connotation.[15] During Ottoman times, the millet system defined communities on a religious basis, and a residue of this remains today in that Turkish villagers will commonly consider as Turks only those who profess the Sunni faith, and will consider Turkish-speaking Jews, Christians, or even Alevis to be non-Turks.[16] The imprecision of the appellation Türk can also be seen with other ethnic names, such as Kürt, which is often applied by western Anatolians to anyone east of Adana, even those who speak only Turkish.[16] On the other hand, Kurdish-speaking or Arabic-speaking Sunnis of eastern Anatolia are often considered to be Turks.[17] Thus, the category Türk, like other ethnic categories popularly used in Turkey, does not have a uniform usage. In recent years, centrist Turkish politicians have attempted to redefine this category in a more multi-cultural way, emphasizing that a Türk is anyone who is a citizen of the Republic of Turkey.[18] Now article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as anyone who is "bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship".

Genetic testing of language replacement hypothesis in Anatolia, Caucasus and Balkans [edit]

The region of the Anatolia represents an extremely important area with respect to ancient population migration and expansion, and the spread of the Caucasian, Semitic, Indo-European and Turkic languages, as well as the extinction of the local Anatolian languages. During the late Roman Period, prior to the Turkic conquest, the population of Anatolia had reached an estimated level of over 12 million people.[19][20][21] The extent to which gene flow from Central Asia has contributed to the current gene pool of the Turkish people, and the role of the 11th century invasion by Turkic peoples, has been the subject of several studies. These studies conclude that local Anatolian groups are the primary source of the present-day Turkish population.[22] DNA results suggests the lack of strong genetic relationship between the Mongols and the Turks despite the historical relationship of their languages.[23]

Anatolians do not significantly differ from other Mediterranean populations, indicating that while the Asian Turks carried out an invasion with cultural significance (language and religion), the genetic significance is only weakly detectable.[24] Recent genetic research has suggested the local Anatolian origins of the Turkic Asian peoples might have been slight.[25] These findings are consistent with a model in which the Turkic languages, originating in the Altai-Sayan region of Central Asia and northwestern Mongolia, were imposed on the indigenous peoples with relatively little genetic admixture, possible example of elite cultural dominance-driven linguistic replacement.[26] These observations also may be explained by Anatolia having the lowest migrant/resident ratio at the time of Turkic migrations. Analysis suggested that, genetically, Anatolians are more closely related also with Balkan populations than to the Central Asian populations.[27][28] Analogical results have been received in neighbouring Caucasus region by testing Armenian and Turkic speaking Azerbaijani populations, therefore representing language replacements, possibly via elite dominance involving primarily male migrants.[29] In conclusion, today the major DNA components in Anatolian population are shared with European and neighboring Near Eastern populations and contrast with only a minor share of haplogroups related to Central Asian, South Asian and African affinity, which supports the language replacement hypothesis in the region.[30]

A 2011 study concluded "that the profile of Anatolian populations today is the product not of mass westward migrations of Central Asians and Siberians, or of small-scale migrations into an emptied subcontinent, but instead of small-scale, irregular punctuated migration events that engendered large-scale shifts in language and culture among the diverse" indigenous inhabitants (p. 32).[31] Results of a 2012 genetic study by Hodoğlugil and Mahley showed the admixture of Turkish people, which were primarily European and Middle Eastern, with a small Central Asian (9%-15%) component.[32]

Turkification in the late Ottoman era [edit]

During the 19th century and early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire was composed of ethnically diverse populations such as Arabs, Albanians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Pomaks, Armenians, Kurds, Zazas, Circassians, Assyrians, Jews, and Laz people.

With the rise of Turkish nationalism, a belief among some Turkish nationalists was to form a modern homogenized nation state.[33] One of its main supporters was sociologist and political activist Ziya Gokalp who believed that a modern state must become homogeneous in terms of culture, religion, and national identity.[34] This conception of national identity was augmented by his belief in the primacy of Turkishness, as a unifying virtue. As part of this belief, it was necessary to purge from the territories of the state those national groups who could threaten the integrity of a modern Turkish nation state.[35][36] As a result of this policy, the Young Turk government launched a series of initiatives which marginalized, isolated, incarcerated, altered borders, deported, forcefully assimilated, exchanged populations, massacred and conducted genocide against its non-Turkish minority populations.[37] These policies resulted in the Armenian Genocide, Greek Genocide and Assyrian Genocide. The Anatolian Greeks numbered around 1.5 million people, most of them had fled to Greece after the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)[38], and eventually this was legitimized by the governments of Turkey and Greece with the population exchanges. The remaining Pontic Greeks and Karamanlides were exchanged for the Muslims of Greek Macedonia.

This has been considered as ultimately completing a “Turkified” state.[39]
The lingual turcification of Greek-speakers in the 19th century Anatolia is well documented. Speros Vryonis, providing some relevant accounts, believes that the Karamanlides are the result of partial turcification that occured earlier, during the Ottoman period.[40]

Turkification under Turkish Republic [edit]

When the Turkish Republic was founded, nationalism and secularism were two of the founding principals.[41] Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the leader of the early years of the Republic, aimed to create a nation state (Turkish: Ulus) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish People" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation."[42]

The process of forced Turkification continued with the Turkish republic with such policies as:

  • Citizen speak Turkish! (Turkish: Vatandaş Türkçe konuş!) - An initiative created by law students but sponsored by the Turkish government which aimed to put pressure on non-Turkish speakers to speak Turkish in public in the 1930s.[43][44][45][46][47][48][49] In some municipalities, fines were given to those speaking in any language other than Turkish.[46][50][51][52][53][54]
  • Surname law - The surname law forbid certain surnames that contained connotations of foreign cultures, nations, tribes, and religions.[45][49][55][56] As a result, many ethnic Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds were forced to adopt last names of Turkish rendition.[55]
  • Geographical name changes in Turkey - An initiative by the Turkish government to replace non-Turkish geographical and topographic names within the Turkish Republic or the Ottoman Empire, with Turkish names,[67][68][69] as part of a policy of Turkification.[70][71][72] The main proponent of the initiative has been a Turkish homogenization social-engineering campaign which aimed to assimilate or obliterate geographical or topographical names that were deemed foreign and divisive against Turkish unity. The names that were considered foreign were usually of Armenian, Greek, Laz, Bulgarian, Kurdish, Assyrian, or Arabic origin.[67][69][71][72][73] For example, words such as Armenia were banned in 1880 from use in the press, schoolbooks, and governmental establishments and was subsequently replaced with words like Anatolia or Kurdistan.[74][75][76][77][78]
  • 1934 Resettlement Law (also known as the Law no. 2510) - A policy adopted by the Turkish government which set forth the basic principles of immigration.[79] The law however is regarded in academia as a policy of forceful assimilation of non-Turkish minorities through a forced and collective resettlement.[80]
  • Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code) - An article of the Turkish Penal Code which makes it illegal to insult Turkey, the Turkish ethnicity, or Turkish government institutions. It took effect on June 1, 2005, and was introduced as part of a package of penal-law reform in the process preceding the opening of negotiations for Turkish membership of the European Union (EU), in order to bring Turkey up to the Union standards.[81][82]
  • Varlik Vergisi ("Wealth tax" or "Capital tax") - A Turkish tax levied on the wealthy citizens of Turkey in 1942, with the stated aim of raising funds for the country's defense in case of an eventual entry into World War II. Those who suffered most severely were non-Muslims like the Jews, Greeks, Armenians, and Levantines, who controlled a large portion of the economy.[83] Though it was the Armenians who were most heavily taxed.[84] It is argued, a main reason for the tax was to nationalize the Turkish economy by reducing minority populations' influence and control over the country's trade, finance, and industries.

See also [edit]

References [edit]

  1. ^ Giannes Manousakas, The fugitive, 1980, p. 108. (in Greek).
  2. ^ Skarlatos D. Vyzantios, Dictionnaire Grec-Francais et Francaise-Grec, Athenes, 1856, p. 408 (French part), under term "TURBAN".
  3. ^ Thumb Albert, Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache, Trübner, 1895, p. 233.
  4. ^ Emile Louis Jean Legrand, Chrestomathie grecque moderne, 1899, p. 479. "τουρκεύω, rendre turc, se faire turc.
  5. ^ Josef Dobrovský (1821) Deutsch-böhmisches Wörterbuch, vol. 2. p. 293.
  6. ^ Mitchell, Stephen. 1993. Anatolia: land, men and gods in Asia Minor. Vol. 1, The Celts, and the impact of Roman rule. Clarendon Press. pp.172–176.
  7. ^ Charanis, Peter. 1961. "The Transfer of Population as a Policy in the Byzantine Empire." Comparative Studies in Society and History 3:140–154.
  8. ^ (Vryonis 1971: 172)
  9. ^ (Vryonis 1971: 184–194)
  10. ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 479-480)
  11. ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 481-483)
  12. ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 485)
  13. ^ (Mango 2004:17–18)
  14. ^ (Kushner 1997: 219; Meeker 1971: 322)
  15. ^ (Kushner 1997: 220-221)
  16. ^ a b (Meeker 1971: 322)
  17. ^ (Meeker 1971: 323)
  18. ^ (Kushner 1997: 230)
  19. ^ Late Medieval Balkan and Asia Minor Population. Josiah C. Russell. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Oct., 1960), pp. 265–274
  20. ^ Estimating Population at Ancient Military Sites: The Use of Historical and Contemporary Analogy. P. Nick Kardulias. American Antiquity, Vol. 57, No. 2 (Apr., 1992), pp. 276–287
  21. ^ J.C. Russell, Late Ancient And Medieval Population, published as vol. 48 pt. 3 of the Transactions Of The American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1958.
  22. ^ (2001) HLA alleles and haplotypes in the Turkish population: relatedness to Kurds, Armenians and other Mediterraneans Tissue Antigens 57 (4), 308–317
  23. ^ Tissue Antigens. Volume 61 Issue 4 Page 292–299, April 2003. Genetic affinities among Mongol ethnic groups and their relationship to Turks
  24. ^ Tissue Antigens Volume 60 Issue 2 Page 111-121, August(2002) Population genetic relationships between Mediterranean populations determined by HLA allele distribution and a historic perspective. Tissue Antigens 60 (2), 111–121
  25. ^ Y-chromosomal diversity in Europe is clinal and influenced primarily by geography, rather than by language.
  26. ^ The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 98, No. 18 (Aug. 28, 2001), pp. 10244–10249.
  27. ^ Alu insertion polymorphisms and an assessment of the genetic contribution of Central Asia to Anatolia with respect to the Balkans. Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, 06531 Ankara, Turkey. American Journal of Physical Anthropoly 2008 May;136(1):11-8.
  28. ^ Alu insertion polymorphisms in the Balkans and the origins of the Aromuns. Annals of Human Genetics.Volume 68 Issue 2 Page 120-127, March 2004.
  29. ^ Testing hypotheses of language replacement in the neighbouring Caucasus: evidence from the Y-chromosome. Human genetics. 2003, vol. 112, no3, pp. 255–261. ISSN 0340-6717
  30. ^ Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia. Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305-5120, USA.
  31. ^ Yardumian, A., & Schurr, T. G. (2011). Who Are the Anatolian Turks?. Anthropology & Archeology Of Eurasia, 50(1), 6-42. doi:10.2753/AAE1061-1959500101
  32. ^ Hodoğlugil, U., & Mahley, R. W. (2012). Turkish Population Structure and Genetic Ancestry Reveal Relatedness among Eurasian Populations. Annals Of Human Genetics, 76(2), 128-141. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2011.00701.x [1]
  33. ^ Akçam, Taner. The Young Turks' crime against humanity : the Armenian genocide and ethnic cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15333-9. 
  34. ^ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act. 2006, page 88.
  35. ^ Bloxham. p. 150
  36. ^ Levene (1998)
  37. ^ Üngör, Uğur Ümit (2008). "Geographies of Nationalism and Violence: Rethinking Young Turk ‘Social Engineering’". European Journal of Turkish Studies (7). Retrieved 24 March 2013. 
  38. ^ Peoples on the Move, Pertti Ahonen, page 8, 2008
  39. ^ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide : a comprehensive introduction (2nd ed. ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 0415486181. 
  40. ^ Vryonis Sp. Decline of Medieval Hellinism in Asia Minor, 1971, pp. 452-459.
  41. ^ Findley, Carter Vaughn (2010). Turkey, Islam, nationalism, and modernity : a history, 1789-2007. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300152609. 
  42. ^ Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National Education. "Turkish National Education System". T.C. Government. Retrieved 2008-02-20. 
  43. ^ Kieser, ed. by Hans-Lukas (2006). Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). London [u.a.]: Tauris. p. 45. ISBN 9781845111410. Retrieved 7 January 2013. 
  44. ^ Ertürk, Nergis. Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199746682. 
  45. ^ a b Toktas, Sule (2005). "Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey’s Jewish Minority". Journal of Historical Sociology 18 (4). Retrieved 7 January 2013. 
  46. ^ a b Sofos, Umut Özkırımlı & Spyros A. (2008). Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167. ISBN 9780231700528. 
  47. ^ editor, Sibel Bozdoǧan, Gülru Necipoğlu, editors ; Julia Bailey, managing (2007). Muqarnas : an annual on the visual culture of the Islamic world. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004163201. 
  48. ^ Aslan, Senem (April 2007). ""Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics (Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group) 13 (2): 245–272. 
  49. ^ a b Suny, edited by Ronald Grigor; Goçek,, Fatma Müge; Naimark, Norman M. A question of genocide : Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195393743. 
  50. ^ Soner, Çağaptay (2006). Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil ve Etnisite (in Turkish). Istanbul. pp. 25–26. 
  51. ^ Bali, Rifat N. (1999). Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945) (in Turkish) (7. bs. ed.). İstanbul: İletişim. pp. 137–147. ISBN 9789754707632. 
  52. ^ İnce, Başak. Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 61. ISBN 9781780760261. Retrieved 8 January 2013. 
  53. ^ Clark, Bruce (2006). Twice a stranger : the mass expulsion that forged modern Greece and Turkey. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674023680. 
  54. ^ (eds.), Ferhad Ibrahim (2000). The Kurdish conflict in Turkey : obstacles and chances for peace and democracy. Münster: Lit [u.a.] ISBN 9780312236298. 
  55. ^ a b İnce, Başak. Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9781780760261. 
  56. ^ Aslan, Senem. "Incoherent State: The Controversy over Kurdish Naming in Turkey". European Journal of Turkish Studies. Retrieved 16 January 2013. "the Surname Law was meant to foster a sense of Turkishness within society and prohibited surnames that were related to foreign ethnicities and nations" 
  57. ^ "Turkey renames 'divisive' animals". BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation. 8 March 2005. Retrieved 26 January 2013. 
  58. ^ Gunaysu, Ayse (March 4, 2009). "Learnings from the Sari Gelin Case". Armenian Weekly. Retrieved 26 January 2013. 
  59. ^ Shahrzad: history. JRP Ringier. 2005. p. 97. Retrieved 26 January 2013. "Turkey Renames Armenian Animals" 
  60. ^ Grigoriadis, Ioannis N. (2009). Trials of Europeanization : Turkish political culture and the European Union (1st ed. ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230612150. 
  61. ^ Morris, Chris (2006). The new Turkey : the quiet revolution on the edge of Europe (Paperback ed. ed.). London: Granta Books. ISBN 9781862078659.  "A species of red fox known as Vulpes Vulpes Kurdistanica will henceforth be plain Vulpes Vulpes, while a species of wild sheep called Ovis Armeniana has been renamed Ovis Orientalis Anatolicus. Foreign scientists, the Ministry noted.. "
  62. ^ Revue des deux mondes 2006 "L'espèce de moutons appelée Ovis armeniana a été renommée Ovis orientalis anatolicus. De même, le chevreuil dit Capreolus caprelus armenius a été rebaptisé Capreolus caprelus capreolus. « Les noms de ces espèces animales auraient ..." "
  63. ^ La Recherche Numéros 393 à 398 Société d'éditions scientifiques (Paris, France) - 2006 - Page 96 "Ovis Armeniana devient Ovis Orientalis Anatolicus, Capreolus Capreolus Armenius se transforme en Capreolus Caprelus Capreolus, et Vulpes Vulpes Kurdistanicum, le renard roux du Kurdistan, s'appelle désormais en Turquie Vulpes ..."
  64. ^ MacDonald, David B. (2008). Identity politics in the age of genocide : the Holocaust and historical representation (1. publ. ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 125–126. ISBN 9780415430616. Retrieved 26 January 2013.  "The Ovis Armeniana (wild sheep) is now the Ovis Orientalis Anatolicus, while the roe deer, formerly known as Capreolus Capreolus Armenus, has become Capreolus Cuprelus Capreolus. These previous names have disappeared thanks to ..."
  65. ^ Ungor; Polatel, Ugur; Mehmet (2011). Confiscation and Destruction: The Young Turk Seizure of Armenian Property. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 224. ISBN 1441130551. Retrieved 22 December 2012. 
  66. ^ "Revisiting the Turkification of Confiscated Armenian Assets". Armenian Weekly. April 17, 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2013. 
  67. ^ a b (Turkish) Nişanyan, Sevan (2010). Adını unutan ülke: Türkiye'de adı değiştirilen yerler sözlüğü (1. basım. ed.). İstanbul: Everest Yayınları. ISBN 978-975-289-730-4. 
  68. ^ (Turkish) Halis, Mujgan (30 July 2011). "Norşin'den Potamya'ya hayali coğrafyalarımız". Sabah. Retrieved 12 January 2013. 
  69. ^ a b Jongerden, edited by Joost; Verheij, Jelle. Social relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870–1915. Leiden: Brill. p. 300. ISBN 978-90-04-22518-3. 
  70. ^ Sahakyan, Lusine (2010). Turkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey. Montreal: Arod Books. ISBN 978-0-9699879-7-0. 
  71. ^ a b Simonian, edited by Hovann H. (2007). The Hemshin: history, society and identity in the highlands of northeast Turkey (Repr. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-7007-0656-3. 
  72. ^ a b Jongerden, Joost (2007). The settlement issue in Turkey and the Kurds : an analysis of spatial policies, modernity and war ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill. p. 354. ISBN 978-90-04-15557-2. Retrieved 12 January 2013. 
  73. ^ Korkut, Tolga (14 May 2009). "Names of 12,211 Villages Were Changed in Turkey". Bianet. Retrieved 12 January 2013. 
  74. ^ (Russian) Modern History of Armenia in the Works of Foreign Authors [Novaya istoriya Armenii v trudax sovremennix zarubezhnix avtorov], edited by R. Sahakyan, Yerevan, 1993, p. 15
  75. ^ Blundell, Roger Boar, Nigel (1991). Crooks, crime and corruption. New York: Dorset Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-88029-615-1. 
  76. ^ Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. HarperCollins. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-06-186017-1. 
  77. ^ Books, the editors of Time-Life (1989). The World in arms : timeframe AD 1900–1925 (U.S. ed.). Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8094-6470-8. 
  78. ^ K. Al-Rawi, Ahmed (2012). Media Practice in Iraq.. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-230-35452-4. Retrieved 16 January 2013. 
  79. ^ Cagatay, Soner 2002 ‘Kemalist donemde goc ve iskan politikaları: Turk kimligi uzerine bir calısma (Policies of migration and settlement in the Kemalist era: a study on Turkish identity), Toplum ve Bilim, no. 93, pp. 218-41.
  80. ^ Jongerden, Joost (2007). The settlement issue in Turkey and the Kurds : an analysis of spatial policies, modernity and war ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 9789004155572. 
  81. ^ "Turkey's new penal code touches raw nerves," EurActiv June 2, 2005, updated November 14, 2005.
  82. ^ Leicht, Justus (2006-02-06). "Turkey: Court drops prosecution of writer Orhan Pamuk". World Socialist Web site. ICFI. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-29. 
  83. ^ Güven, Dilek (2005-09-06). Türkiye. "6-7 Eylül Olayları (1)". Radikal (in Turkish). Retrieved 2008-10-25. "Nitekim 1942 yılında yürürlüğe giren Varlık Vergisi, Ermenilerin, Rumların ve Yahudilerin ekonomideki liderliğine son vermeyi hedeflemiştir...Seçim dönemleri CHP ve DP'nin Varlık Vergisi'nin geri ödeneceği yönündeki vaatleri ise seçim propagandasından ibarettir." 
  84. ^ Smith, Thomas W. (August 29 - September 2, 2001.). Constructing A Human Rights Regime in Turkey: Dilemmas of Civic Nationalism and Civil Society. p. 4. "One of the darkest events in Turkish history was the Wealth Tax, levied discriminatory against non-Muslims in 1942, hobbling Armenians with the most punitive rates." 

Sources [edit]

  • Langer, William L. and Robert P. Blake. 1932. “The Rise of the Ottoman Turks and its Historical Background.” The American Historical Review 37:468-505.
  • Kushner, David. 1997. “Self-Perception and Identity in Contemporary Turkey.” Journal of Contemporary History 32:219-233.
  • Mango, Andrew. 2004. The Turks Today. Overlook Press.
  • Meeker, M. E. 1971. “The Black Sea Turks: Some Aspects of Their Ethnic and Cultural Background.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 2:318-345.
  • Vryonis, Speros. 1971. The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century. University of California Press.
 This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2009)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turkification&oldid=555720290"