Christianity in Turkey

Turkish Christians
Türkiye Hristiyanları

Total population
est. 200,000–320,000
Religions
Christianity (Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, Protestant)
Languages
Turkish, Greek, Ecclesiastical Latin, Koine Greek, Armenian, Syriac, Arabic, Russian, Georgian, English, German, Korean, Persian

Greek-Orthodox metropolises in Asia Minor, c. 1880

Christianity in Turkey has a long history dating back to the early origins of Christianity in Asia Minor during the 1st century AD. In modern times the percentage of Christians in Turkey has declined from 20 to 25 percent in 1914 to 3–5.5 percent in 1927, to 0.3–0.4%, roughly translating to 200,000–320,000 devotees. The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell mainly as a result of the late Ottoman genocides (the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and Assyrian genocide), the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, the emigration of Christians that began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century, and due to events such as the 1942 Varlık Vergisi tax levied on non-Muslim citizens in Turkey and the 1955 Istanbul pogrom against Christian Greeks and Armenians. Exact numbers are difficult to estimate as many former Muslim converts to Christianity often hide their Christian faith for fear of familial pressure, religious discrimination, and persecution.

This was due to events which had a significant impact on the country's demographic structure, such as the First World War, the genocides of Greeks, Armenians, and Assyrians perpetrated by Turkish Muslims, and the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, and the emigration of Christians (such as Assyrians, Greeks, Armenians, etc.) to foreign countries (mostly in Europe and the Americas) that actually began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century, especially during World War I.

Today, there are more than 200,000–320,000 people of different Christian denominations, representing roughly 0.3–0.4 percent of Turkey's population, including an estimated 80,000 population of Oriental Orthodox Christians, 47,000 Turkish Orthodox Christians, 35,000 Roman Catholic Christians, 18,000 Antiochian Greeks, 5,000 Greek Orthodox Christians, 8,000 Protestant Christians, 4,994 Jehovah's Witnesses, and 512 Mormons. There is also a small group of ethnic Orthodox-Christian Turks (mostly living in Istanbul and Izmir) who follow the Greek Orthodox, Turkish Orthodox, or Syriac Orthodox churches, and additionally Protestant Turks who still face difficulties regarding social acceptance, and also historic claims to churches or property in the country because they are former Muslim converts to Christianity from Turkish-Muslim backgrounds (rather than ethnic minorities). Ethnically Turkish Protestants number around 7,000–8,000. In 2009, there were 236 Christian churches open for worship in Turkey. The Eastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Constantinople since the 4th century AD.

Historical background

Early Christianity

Main article: Early history of Christianity

Further information: Christianity in the 1st century and Early centers of Christianity

Fresco of Christ Pantocrator on the ceiling of Karanlık Kilise (The Dark Church), Churches of Göreme. The Roman province of Cappadocia was renowned for its cave churches.

Paul the Apostle lived in Ephesus, Asia Minor. The early Christian community of Ephesus was one of the seven churches addressed in the Book of Revelation.

Philip the Apostle lived and was buried in Hierapolis, Turkey

Constantine the Great, the founder of Constantinople, was the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity.

Hagia Sophia was built in AD 537 during the reign of Justinian I, Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire; it was the world's largest building and an engineering marvel of its time.

The Christianization of ancient Arameans and Armenians most likely began around the 1st century AD. The spread of Christianity beyond Jerusalem is discussed in the Book of Acts.

The Cappadocian Fathers produced some of the earliest hagiographies in the region. In addition to writings about feminine virtue by Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzos, later texts about Nicholas of Sion and Theodore of Sykeon described miracles and rural life.

The historical region of Syria became one of the main centers of miaphisite Christianity, embodied in the Oriental Orthodoxy, which had accepted only the first three ecumenical councils: Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381) and Ephesus (431). Miaphisite Christians were strongly opposed to Chalcedonian Creed that had been established by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Syriac Orthodox Church that originated in Antioch continued to fracture into multiple denominations. Some Armenian miaphysite Christians sought to reunite with Rome in later centuries, but their efforts were unsuccessful.

Constantinople is generally considered to be the center and the "cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization". From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe. The city became famous for its architectural masterpieces, such as Hagia Sophia, the cathedral of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the sacred Imperial Palace where the Emperors lived, the Hippodrome, the Golden Gate of the Land Walls, and opulent aristocratic palaces. The University of Constantinople was founded in the fifth century and contained artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453, including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had 100,000 volumes. The city was the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and guardian of Christendom's holiest relics such as the Crown of thorns and the True Cross. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe. The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed, legally defined system. Additionally, due to the decline of Rome and internal dissension in the other Eastern Patriarchates, the Church of Constantinople became, between the 6th and 11th centuries, the richest and most influential centre of Christendom.

The Eastern Orthodox Church split from Rome during the Great Schism of 1054. With the arrival of the crusaders many Orthodox bishops, particularly in Antioch, were replaced by Latin prelates. After the Mongols defeated the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258, the Armenians and Nestorians had decent relations with the conquering Il-khans for a time, but by the end of the 14th-century many Syrian Orthodox and Nestorian churches were destroyed when the Turco-Mongolian ruler Temür raided West Asia.

Two out of the five centers (Patriarchates) of the ancient Pentarchy are in Turkey: Constantinople (Istanbul) and Antioch (Antakya). Antioch was also the place where the followers of Jesus were called "Christians" for the first time in history, as well as being the site of one of the earliest and oldest surviving churches, established by Saint Peter himself. For a thousand years, the Hagia Sophia was the largest church in the world.

Turkey is also home to the Seven Churches of Asia, where the Revelation to John was sent. Apostle John is reputed to have taken Virgin Mary to Ephesus in western Turkey, where she spent the last days of her life in a small house, known as the House of the Virgin Mary, which still survives today and has been recognized as a holy site for pilgrimage by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, as well as being a Muslim shrine. The cave of the Seven Sleepers is also located in Ephesus.

The death of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (modern day Sivas) is recorded as 320 AD during a persecution by Emperor Licinius. They are mentioned by Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, Ephrem the Syrian and John Chrysostom.

Ottoman Empire

Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul built in Istanbul during Ottoman Empire.

Bulgarian St. Stephen Church built in Istanbul during Ottoman Empire.

In accordance with the traditional custom of the time, the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II allowed his troops and his entourage three full days of unbridled pillage and looting in the Christian city of Constantinople, capital of the Roman Empire since its foundation by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great in the 4th century AD, shortly after it was captured in 1453. Once the three days passed, he would then claim its remaining contents for himself. However, by the end of the first day, he proclaimed that the looting should cease as he felt profound sadness when he toured the looted and enslaved city. The cathedral of Hagia Sophia was not exempted from the pillage and looting and specifically became its focal point, as the Ottoman Turks believed it to contain the greatest treasures and valuables of the city. Shortly after the defence of the Walls of Constantinople, the city collapsed and the Ottoman troops entered victoriously; the pillagers and looters made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battered down its doors before storming in.

Throughout the period of the siege of Constantinople, the trapped Christian worshippers of the city participated in the Divine Liturgy and the Prayer of the Hours at the Hagia Sophia and the church formed a safe-haven and a refuge for many of those who were unable to contribute to the city's defence, which comprised women, children, elderly, the sick, and the wounded. Being trapped in the church, the many congregants and yet more refugees inside became spoils-of-war to be divided amongst the Ottoman invaders. The building was desecrated and looted, with the helpless occupants who sought shelter within the church being enslaved. While most of the elderly, the infirm/wounded, and sick were killed, and the remainder (mainly teenage males and young boys) were chained up and sold into slavery.

The women of Constantinople also suffered from rape and sexual violence at the hands of Ottoman forces. According to historian Barbaro, "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city". According to historian Philip Mansel, widespread persecution of the city's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes, and 30,000 civilians being enslaved or forcibly deported. George Sphrantzes says that people of both genders were raped inside the church of Hagia Sophia.

Letter of Suleiman the Magnificent to Francis I of France regarding the protection of Christians in his states. September 1528. Archives Nationales, Paris, France.

The first capitulation concluded between the Ottoman Empire and a foreign state was that of 1535, granted to the Kingdom of France. The Ottoman Empire was then at the height its power, and the French king Francis I had shortly before sustained a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Pavia. His only hope of assistance lay in the Ottoman sultan Suleiman I. The appeal to Suleiman on the ground of the common interest of the Kingdom of France and the Ottoman Empire in overcoming the power of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V overweening power was successful; thus was established the Franco-Ottoman alliance, and in 1536 the capitulations were signed. They amounted to a treaty of commerce and a treaty allowing the establishment of Christian Frenchmen in Ottoman Turkey and fixing the jurisdiction to be exercised over them: individual and religious liberty was guaranteed to them, the King of France was empowered to appoint consuls in Ottoman Turkey, the consuls were recognized as competent to judge the civil and criminal affairs of French subjects in Ottoman Turkey according to French law, and the consuls may appeal to the officers of the sultan for their aid in the execution of their sentences. This, the first of the capitulations, can be seen as the prototype of its successors.

Anglican, American Presbyterian, and German Lutheran missionaries arrived in the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. During the same period, there were nationalistic campaigns against Assyrians which often had the assistance of Kurdish paramilitary support. In 1915, Turks and Kurds massacred tens of thousands Assyrians in Siirt. Assyrians were attacked in the Hakkari mountains by the Turkish army with the help of Kurdish tribes, and many Christians were deported and about a quarter million Assyrians were murdered or died due to persecution. This number doubles if the killings during the 1890s are included. Kurds saw the Assyrians as dangerous foreigners and enforcers of the British colonizers, which made it justifiable to them to commit ethnic cleansing. The Kurds fought the Assyrians also due to fears that the Armenians, or European colonial powers backing them, would assume control in Anatolia. Kurdish military plundered Armenian and other Christian villages.

In the 1890s the Hamidiye (Kurdish paramilitary units) attacked Armenians in a series of clashes that culminated in the Hamidian massacres of 1894-1896 and the Adana massacre in 1909. It is estimated that between 80,000 and 300,000 Armenians were killed during these pre-War massacres. Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox, members of the Armenian Apostolic Church or Catholic Levantines.

First World War

Main articles: Late Ottoman genocides, Armenian genocide, Assyrian genocide, Greek genocide, Great Famine of Mount Lebanon, and Dersim Massacre

Of this photo, the U.S. ambassador Henry Morgenthau, Sr. wrote, "Scenes like this were common all over the Armenian provinces, in the spring and summer months of 1915. Death in its several forms—massacre, starvation, exhaustion—destroyed the larger part of the refugees. The Turkish policy was that of extermination under the guise of deportation".

Greek Christians in 1922, fleeing their homes from Kharput to Trebizond. In the 1910s and 1920s the Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian genocides were perpetrated by the Ottoman Empire.

During the tumultuous period of the First World War, up to 3 million indigenous Christians are alleged to have been killed. Prior to this time, the Christian population stood at around 20% -25% of the total. According to professor Martin van Bruinessen, relations between Christians and Kurdish and other Muslim peoples were often bitter and during World War I "Christians of Tur Abdin (in Turkey) for instance have been subjected to brutal treatment by Kurdish tribes, who took their land and even their daughters".

Kurdish-dominated Hamidiye slaughtered Christian Armenians in Tur Abdin region in 1915. It is estimated that ten thousand Assyrians were killed, and reportedly "the skulls of small children were smashed with rocks, the bodies of girls and women who resisted rape were chopped into pieces live, men were mostly beheaded, and the clergy skinned or burnt alive...." In 1915, Turks and Kurds plundered the Assyrian village of Mar-Zaya in Jelu and slaughtered the population, it is estimated that 7,000 Assyrians were slaughtered during this period. In September 1914 more than 30 Armenian and Assyrian villages were burnt by Kurdish and Turkish mobs in the Urmia region. After the Russian army retreated, Turkish troops with Kurdish detachments organized mass slaughters of Assyrians, in the Assyrian village of Haftvan 750 men were beheaded and 5,000 Assyrian women were taken to Kurdish harems. Turks and Kurds also slaughtered Christians in Diarbekir. There was a policy during the Hamidian era to use Kurdish tribes as irregulars (Hamidiye units) against the Armenians.

Treaty of Lausanne

The Greek forces who occupied Smyrna in the post-war period were defeated in the Turkish War of Independence which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne. Under the terms of the peace treaty, 1.3 million Christian residents of Turkey were relocated to Greece and around 400,000 Muslims were likewise moved from Greece to Turkey. When the Turkish state was founded in 1923 the remaining Greek population was estimated to be around 111,000; the Greek Orthodox communities in Istanbul, Gökçeada, and Bozcaada numbering 270,000 were exempted. Other terms of the treaty included various provisions to protect the rights of religious minorities and a concession by the Turks to allow the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to remain in Istanbul.

Republic of Türkiye (1923–present)

St. George's Cathedral, Istanbul is the epicenter of Eastern Orthodox Church and Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople home to the spiritual leader of 300 million Orthodox Christians worldwide.

The BBC reported in 2014 that Turkey's Christian population had declined from 20% to 0.2% since 1914.

The U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) designated Turkey a "Country of Particular Concern" for religious freedom, noting “systematic limitations on the freedom of religion or belief” with respect to access to places of worship, religious education and right to train clergy. The report does note some areas of improvement such as better protection of the property rights of non-Muslims.

In the pre-war period American missionaries had been actively involved in the Ottoman education system. Many of the schools were closed down and suffered under stringent regulations and burdensome taxes during the country's secularization. Historically, these schools had worked with the Ottoman Empire's Christian communities, and were regarded with suspicion by the fledgling state.

A number of high-profile incidents targeting non-Muslims, including Christians, have occurred since the modern Turkish Republic was founded in 1923. During the Istanbul pogrom of 1955, non-Muslims (pejoratively called gayrimüslim) were attacked, harassed and killed by Turkish Muslims. In 2007, one German Protestant and two Turkish converts were tortured to death in Malatya by five men in the Zirve Publishing House murders. Turkish media called these killings the "missionary massacres".

In 2001, Turkey's National Security Council reported that it considers Protestant missionaries the third largest threat to Turkey's national security, surpassed only by Islamic fundamentalism and the Kurdish separatist organization PKK. A 2004 report by the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) similarly recommended implementing new laws to curb missionary activity. According to the Turkish Evangelical Churches movement, Turkish Protestant churches had only 3,000 members in 2009—about half of these were converts from Islam, while the others were converts from Armenian and Syriac Christianity. Since Turkish nationality was often perceived exclusively as a Muslim identity after the Balkan Wars, the influence of Protestant missionaries on Turkey's Alevi population has been a concern since the era of Committee of Union and Progress rule. In 2016 the Association of Protestant Churches in Turkey released a report warning of an increase in anti-Christian hate speech.

Turkey's Christian community has been largely non-disruptive, with the notable exception of one convert, who hijacked Turkish Airlines Flight 1476 with the stated intent of flying it to the Vatican to meet the Pope and ask for his help to avoid serving in a "Muslim army".

In 2013, the Washington Post reported that members of the ruling Ak Parti had expressed their desires to convert Hagia Sophia into a mosque. Hagia Sophia, which is called ayasofya in Turkish, is an ancient church dating to 360 AD that was converted into a mosque after Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453. It has been a museum since 1935. Patriarch Bartholomew objected to the government's rhetoric, saying "If it is to reopen as a house of worship, then it should open as a Christian church.” Also in 2013, the government announced that the 5th-century Monastery of Stoudios, located in Istanbul's Samatya neighborhood, would be converted into a mosque. The monastery, one of Byzantium's most important, was sacked during the Crusades and later served as a mosque for a time, until it was converted to a museum during the 20th century.

There is an ethnic Turkish Protestant Christian community in Turkey which number about 7,000–8,000 adherents most of them came from Muslim Turkish background. In 2003, Milliyet newspaper claimed that 35,000 Turkish Muslims had converted to Christianity.

Today the Christian population of Turkey is estimated at around 200,000- 320,000 Christians. 35,000 Catholics of varying ethnicities, 25,000 ethnic "Syriacs" (Template:Lang-tr), (mostly followers of the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Chaldean Catholic Church), 3,000–4,000 Greek Orthodox, 15,000–18,000 Antiochian Greeks and smaller numbers of Bulgarians, Georgians, and Protestants of various ethnicities.

According to Bekir Bozdağ, Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey, there were 349 active churches in Turkey in October 2012: 140 Greek, 58 Assyrian and 52 Armenian.

In 2015, the Turkish government gave permission for the Christian channel SAT-7 to broadcast on the government-regulated Türksat satellite.

Christian communities

St. John's Cathedral is dedicated to John the Evangelist, who in the Book of Revelation sent greetings and instructions to the Seven churches of Asia, including Izmir

By the 21st century, Turkey's Greek Orthodox population had declined to only around 2,000–3,000. There are between 40,000 and 70,000 Christian Armenian citizens of Turkey.

The largest Christian population in Turkey is in Istanbul, which has a large community of Armenians and Greeks. Istanbul is also where the Patriarchate of Greek Orthodox Christianity is located. Antioch, located in Turkey's Hatay province, is the original seat of the namesake Antiochian Orthodox Church, but is now the titular see. The area, known for having ethnic diversity and large Christian community, has 7,000 Christians and 14 active churches. The city has one of the oldest churches in the world as well, called the Church of St Peter, which is said to have been founded by the Saint himself.

Tur Abdin is a large area with a multitude of mostly Syriac Orthodox churches, monasteries and ruins. Settlements in Tur Abdin include Midyat. The Christian community in Midyat is supplemented by a refugee community from Syria and has four operating churches. Some of the most significant Syriac churches and monasteries in existence are in or near Midyat including Mor Gabriel Monastery and the Saffron Monastery.

The Syriac Orthodox Church has a strong presence in Mardin. Many Syriacs left during the genocides in 1915.

By some estimates, in the early 2000s there were between 10,000 and 20,000 Catholics and Protestants in Turkey. Since 1960 a growing number of Muslims in Turkey are converting to Christianity, estimates range from 4,000 to 35,000 by various sources.

Archbishop Martin Kmetec told Aid to the Church in Need, in an interview, that ecumenical relations are generally good in the country. "In general, our relations with other Christian churches are good. The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, Bartholomew I, for example, has a good relationship with the Focolare Movement and the new Apostolic Vicar of Istanbul, Bishop Massimiliano Palinuro. Likewise, here in Izmir we get together with the Orthodox Christians, but also with the Anglicans, on various Christian feast days. Armenian priests recently celebrated an Armenian liturgy at our Catholic Church of St. Polycarp because they do not have their own church in Izmir. We also worked together with the Armenians in Izmir to open a small book shop for the Bible Society. These are promising signs of an ecumenical dialogue."

Churches in Turkey

Armenian Apostolic Church

Main article: Armenian Apostolic Church

Further information: Armenians in Turkey

Armenian Apostolic church in Vakifli, Turkey

The Armenian Apostolic Church traces its origins to St. Gregory the Illuminator who is credited with having introduced the Armenian king Tiridates III to Christianity. It is one of the most ancient churches. Historically, the Armenian Church accepted only the first three Ecumenical Councils, rejecting the Council of Chalcedon in 451; its Christology is sometimes described as "non-Chalcedonian" for this reason. The Bible was first translated into the Armenian language by Mesrop Mashtots.

Turkey's Armenian Christian community is led by the Armenian Patriarchates of Istanbul and Jerusalem. As of 2008 estimates of Turkey's Armenian Orthodox population range from between 50,000 and 70,000.

There are 35 churches maintained by the religious foundation in Istanbul and its surrounding areas. Besides Surp Asdvadzadzin Patriarchal Church (translation: the Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Patriarchal Church) in Kumkapi, Istanbul, there are tens of Armenian Apostolic churches. There are other churches in Kayseri, Diyarbakır, Derik, İskenderun, and Vakifli Koyu that are claimed by foundations as well. Around 1,000 Armenian churches throughout Turkey sit on public or privately owned land as well, with them all either being re-purposed or abandoned and/or in ruins.

• Armenian Catholic Church - There are several Armenian Catholic churches in Istanbul, including a large cemetery. In Mardin one remains as a Museum and occasional religious center.
• Armenian Evangelical Church - The Armenian Protestants have three churches in Istanbul from the 19th century.

Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate

Main article: Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate

Further information: General Congregation of the Anatolian Turkish Orthodox

Official insignia of the Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate

Meryem Ana (Virgin Mary) Orthodox Church of the Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate in Galata, Istanbul

The Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate (Template:Lang-tr), also referred to as the Turkish Orthodox Church, is an unrecognized Eastern Orthodox Christian denomination based in Turkey. It was founded in Kayseri by Pavlos Karahisarithis, a supporter of the General Congregation of the Anatolian Turkish Orthodox (Template:Lang-tr), in 1922. Pavlos Karahisarithis became the Patriarch of this new Orthodox church, and took the name of Papa Eftim I. He was supported by 72 other Turkish Orthodox clerics.

The start of the Patriarchate can be traced to the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922). In 1922 a pro-Turkish Eastern Orthodox group, the General Congregation of the Anatolian Turkish Orthodox, was set up with the support from the Orthodox bishop of Havza, as well as a number of other congregations representing a genuine movement among the Turkish-speaking, Orthodox Christian population of Anatolia who wished to remain both Orthodox and Turkish. There were calls to establish a new Patriarchate with Turkish as the preferred language of Christian worship.

In 1924, Karahisarithis started to conduct the Christian liturgy in Turkish, and quickly won support from the new Turkish Republic formed after the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922). He claimed that the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople was ethnically centered and favored the Greek population. Being excommunicated by the Greek Orthodox Church for claiming to be a bishop while still having a wife and due to the fact that married bishops are not allowed in Orthodoxy, Karahisarithis, who later changed his name into Zeki Erenerol, called a Turkish ecclesial congress, which elected him Patriarch in 1924.

Greek Orthodox Church

Main article: Greek Orthodox Church

Further information: Greeks in Turkey

Pammakaristos Church, also known as the Church of Theotokos Pammakaristos (Greek: Θεοτόκος ἡ Παμμακάριστος, "All-Blessed Mother of God"), is one of the most famous Greek Orthodox Byzantine churches in Istanbul

Chora Church medieval Byzantine Greek Orthodox church preserved as the Chora Museum in the Edirnekapı neighborhood of Istanbul

Kısıl Kilise (“Red Church”) near Güzelyurt, Aksaray.

Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire from 330/395 to 1453 AD, became established in the ecclesiastical hierarchy at the Council of Constantinople in 381 AD. The legendary origins of the Patriarchate of Constantinople go back to St. Andrew, Metrophanes and Alexander of Constantinople. Constantinople's primacy over the Patriarchates of Alexandria and Antioch was reaffirmed at the Council of Chalcedon in 481, after which the papacy in Rome supported Constantinople in its dispute with Alexandria over monophysitism. Later, when Rome sought to assert its primacy over Byzantium, the Eastern Orthodox Church developed the doctrine of pentarchy as a response.

During the 8th and 9th centuries, Byzantium was embroiled in the Iconoclastic persecution. The Photian schism was also 9th century power struggle for the Patriarchate between Ignatios, backed by Pope Nicholas I, and Photios I of Constantinople.

The Byzantine Rite is similar to mass in the Catholic Church and the Divine Office (cycle of eight non-Mass services in the Catholic faith). In addition to the Hours of the Office, the Byzantine rite is used for sacraments (including marriage and baptism), ordination, funerals, blessings and other occasions. The three divine liturgies of the Byzantine rite are John Chrysostom’s, Basil’s, and the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts.

Roman Catholic Church

Main article: Catholic Church in Turkey

The Catholic Church in Turkey is represented by jurisdictions of Western and Eastern rites. Though the Armenian Apostolic Church was no longer in union with Rome and Byzantium after the Council of Chalcedon, a number of Armenians have converted to Catholicism over the years. After the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II extended formal recognition to Roman Catholics, an Armenian Catholic Patriarchate was established in Constantinople.

• Latin rite:
  • Vicariate Apostolic of Istanbul, with seat in the Cathedral of the Holy Spirit, Istanbul. Basilica: St. Anthony of Padua Church in Istanbul, Istanbul. Jurisdiction: Immediately subjected to the Holy See
  • Vicariate Apostolic of Anatolia, with seat in the Cathedral of the Annunciation, İskenderun, and Co-Cathedral of St. Anthony of Padua, Mersin. Jurisdiction: Immediately subjected to the Holy See
  • Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Izmir, with seat in the St. John's Cathedral, Izmir.
• Armenian rite: Armenian Catholic Archdiocese of Istanbul. Cathedral: Holy Mother of God Armenian Cathedral Church, Istanbul. Jurisdiction: Immediately subjected to the Holy See.
• Byzantine Rite: Greek Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Istanbul. Cathedral: Holy Trinity Greek Catholic Cathedral, Istanbul (Ayatriada Rum Katoliki Kilise). Jurisdiction: Immediately subjected to the Holy See.
• Syriac Rite: Syrian Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Turkey, with seat in Istanbul. Jurisdiction: Subject to the Syriac Catholic Church.
• Chaldaean Rite: Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of Diarbekir. Cathedral: St. Mary's Cathedral, Diyarbakır, but with seat in Beyoğlu, Istanbul. Jurisdiction: Chaldean Catholic Church.

Syriac Orthodox Church

Main article: Syriac Orthodox Church

Further information: Assyrians in Turkey

Mor Hananyo Monastery, Patriarchal Vicarate of Mardin near Mardin, Turkey. After the Romans withdrew from the fortress, Mor Shlemon transformed it into a monastery in 493 AD.

The Syriac Orthodox Church, that follows the West Syriac Rite, was present in various southeastern regions of modern Turkey since the early medieval times. Since the 12th century, the patriarchal seat itself was transferred to Mor Hananyo Monastery (Deir al-Za`faran), in southeastern Anatolia near Mardin (modern Turkey), where it remained until 1924. In modern times, active churches are located in Istanbul, Diyarbakır, Adıyaman, and Elazığ. There are many both active and inactive churches in the traditionally Neo-Aramaic area of Tur Abdin, which is a region centered in the western area of Mardin Province, and has areas that go into Şırnak, and Batman Province. Up until the 1980s the Syriac population was concentrated there as well, but a large amount of the population has fled the region to Istanbul or abroad due to the Kurdish-Turkish conflict. The Church structure is still organized however, with 12 reverends stationed in churches and monasteries there. Churches were also in several other provinces as well, but during the Seyfo the churches in those churches were destroyed or left ruined.

In modern times, Syriac Orthodox Church hase these provinces in Turkey:

• Patriarchal Vicariate of Istanbul and Ankara under the spiritual guidance and direction of Archbishop Filüksinos Yusuf Çetin.
• Patriarchal Vicariate of Mardin under the spiritual guidance and direction of Archbishop Filüksinos Saliba Özmen.
• Patriarchal Vicariate of Turabdin under the spiritual guidance and direction of Archbishop Timotheus Samuel Aktaş.
• Archbishopric of Adıyaman under the spiritual guidance and direction of Archbishop Gregorius Melki Ürek.

Church of the East

Main article: Church of the East

Further information: Assyrians in Turkey

File:Patriarchal Church of Mar Shalita.jpg

The Patriarchal Church of Mar Shalital in Qudshanis village in Hakkâri Province

Historical Church of the East, that followed the East Syriac Rite, was present in various southeastern regions of modern Turkey throughout medieval and early modern times, and the continuation of that presence is embodied in the modern Assyrian Church of the East, and the Ancient Church of the East. Ecclesiastical structure of East Syriac Christianity in the region was almost completely wiped out in the Assyrian genocide. Originally, one of its main centers was in the region of Hakkari, in the village of Qodchanis, that was the seat of Shimun-line patriarchs from the 17th century up to the advent of modern times. Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV of the Assyrian Church of the East visited Turkey in 2012.

Protestant churches

Main article: Protestantism in Turkey

Armenian Protestants own 3 churches in Istanbul since the 19th century. There is an Alliance of Protestant Churches in Turkey. There are Protestant churches for foreigners in compounds and resorts, although they are not counted in lists of churches as they are used only by tourists and expatriates.

Church of England

The Crimea Memorial Church in Turkey is under the jurisdiction of the Church of England

Anglicans in Turkey form part of the Eastern Archdeaconry of the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe. In 2008 the Anglican bishop of Europe, Geoffrey Rowell, caused controversy by ordaining a local man to minister to Turkish-speaking Anglicans in Istanbul.

Evangelical churches

The Armenian Evangelical Church was founded in 1846, after Patriarch Matteos Chouhajian excommunicated members of the "Pietisical Union" who had started to raise questions about a possible conflicts between the Biblical scriptures and Sacred traditions. The new church was recognized by the Ottoman government in 1850 after encouragement from the British Ambassador Henry Wellesley Cowley. There were reportedly 15 Turkish converts in Constantinople in 1864. One church minister said "We wanted the Turks first to become Armenian". Hagop A. Chakmakjian commented that "the implication was that to be Christian meant to be identified with the Armenian people".

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Main article: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Turkey

Recognizing that present-day Ephesus of the New Testament endowed Turkey with historical importance, early leaders of the LDS Church preached in Ottoman Turkey in 1850, and—with the help of British LDS soldiers—organized a congregation in Istanbul in 1854. In 1979, another local community of LDS adherents was organized in Ankara.

List of church buildings in Turkey

Churches of the Armenian rite

Church name	Picture	Status
Church of the Apparition of the Holy Cross (Kuruçeşme, Istanbul) Yerevman Surp Haç Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Archangels Armenian Church (Balat, Istanbul) Surp Hıreşdagabed Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Cross Armenian Church (Kartal, Istanbul) Surp Nişan Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Cross Armenian Church (Üskudar, Istanbul) Surp Haç Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Hripsimiants Virgins Armenian Church (Büyükdere, Istanbul) Surp Hripsimyants Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Apostolic Church (Bakırköy, Istanbul) Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Church (Beşiktaş, Istanbul) Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Church (Eyüp, Istanbul) Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Church (Ortaköy, Istanbul) Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Church (Yeniköy, Istanbul) Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Resurrection Armenian Church (Kumkapı, Istanbul) Surp Harutyun Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Resurrection Armenian Church (Taksim, Istanbul) Surp Harutyun Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Three Youths Armenian Church (Boyacıköy, Istanbul) Surp Yerits Mangants Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Trinity Armenian Church (Galatasaray, Istanbul) Surp Yerrortutyun Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Narlıkapı Armenian Apostolic Church (Narlıkapı, Istanbul) Surp Hovhannes Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Elijah The Prophet Armenian Church (Eyüp, Istanbul) Surp Yeğya Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Garabed Armenian Church (Üsküdar, Istanbul) Surp Garabet Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Armenian church in Vakıflı Vakıflıköy Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. John The Evangelist Armenian Church (Gedikpaşa, Istanbul) Surp Hovhannes Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Galata, Istanbul)		active
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Kuzguncuk, Istanbul) Surp Krikor Lusaroviç Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Karaköy, Istanbul) Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Kınalıada, Istanbul) Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. James Armenian Church (Altımermer, Istanbul) Surp Hagop Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Nicholas Armenian Church (Beykoz, Istanbul) Surp Nigoğayos Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Nicholas Armenian Church (Topkapı, Istanbul) Surp Nigoğayos Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Santoukht Armenian Church (Rumelihisarı, Istanbul) Surp Santuht Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Saviour Armenian Chapel (Yedikule, Istanbul) Surp Pırgiç Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Sergius Armenian Chapel (Balıklı, Istanbul) Surp Sarkis Anıt Mezar Şapeli		active
St. Stephen Armenian Church (Karaköy, Istanbul) Surp Istepanos Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Stephen Armenian Church (Yeşilköy, Istanbul) Surp Istepanos Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Takavor Armenian Apostolic Church (Kadıkoy, Istanbul) Surp Takavor Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Saints Thaddeus and Barholomew Armenian Church (Yenikapı, Istanbul) Surp Tateos Partoğomeos Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Vartanants Armenian Church (Feriköy, Istanbul) Surp Vartanants Ermeni Kilisesi		active
The Twelve Holy Apostles Armenian Church (Kandilli, Istanbul) Surp Yergodasan Arakelots Ermeni Kilisesi		active
Holy Forty Martyrs of Sebastea Armenian Church (Iskenderun, Hatay) Surp Karasun Manuk Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. George Armenian Church (Derik, Mardin) Surp Kevork Ermeni Kilisesi		active
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Kayseri) Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Ermeni Kilisesi		services held once or twice a year
St. Gregory The Enligtener Armenian Church (Kırıkhan, Hatay) Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Kilisesi		active
Cathedral of Kars		converted into a mosque
Narekavank		destroyed, mosque built on the site
St. Giragos Armenian Church (Diyarbakır) Surp Giragos Ermeni Kilisesi		closed – confiscated by the Turkish State
Ktuts monastery		abandoned
Cathedral of Ani		abandoned following 1319 earthquake
St. George (Sourp Kevork) Armenian Church (Samatya, Istanbul)		unknown
St. John the Baptist Armenian Church (Uskudar)		unknown
Cathedral of Mren		ruins
Holy Apostles Monastery		ruins
Horomos		ruins
Karmravank (Vaspurakan)		ruins
Kaymaklı Monastery		ruins
Khtzkonk Monastery		ruins
Varagavank		ruins, protected
Saint Bartholomew Monastery		ruins
Saint Karapet Monastery		destroyed, village built on the site
St. Marineh Church, Mush		ruins
St. Stepanos Church		destroyed
Tekor Basilica		destroyed
Vank Church in Şenkaya		destroyed by treasure hunters in 2021
Virgin Mary Church, Kayseri		museum (converted into a library)

Churches of the Byzantine and Greek Orthodox rite

Church name	Picture	Status
Church of St. George, Istanbul		active
Church of St. Mary of Blachernae (Istanbul)		active
Church of St. Mary of the Mongols		active
İskenderun St. Nicholas Church		damaged due to 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake
Mersin Orthodox Church		active
Church of St. Kyriaki, Istanbul		active
Meryem Ana Church		active
Bulgarian St. Stephen Church		active
St. Demetrius Church in Feriköy, Istanbul		active
Hagia Triada Greek Orthodox Church in Beyoğlu, Istanbul		active
Saint Andrew in Krisei		converted into a mosque
Chora Church		converted into a mosque
Church of Christ Pantokrator (Constantinople)		converted into the Zeyrek Mosque
Church of Christ Pantepoptes (Constantinople)		converted into a mosque
Monastery of Gastria		converted into a mosque
Hagia Sophia		converted into a mosque
Church of the Holy Apostles		demolished, Fatih Mosque built on top
Church of Saint John the Baptist at Lips (Constantinople)		converted into a mosque
Monastery of Stoudios		to be converted into a mosque
Church of Saint John the Baptist en to Trullo (Constantinople)		converted into a mosque
Myrelaion		converted into a mosque
Church of Saint Nicholas of the Caffariotes (Istanbul)		converted into a mosque
Pammakaristos Church		converted into a mosque
Church of Sergius and Bacchus		converted into a mosque
Saint Irene church		converted into a mosque
Church of Vefa		converted into a mosque
Holy Martyrs Menodora, Metrodora, and Nymphodora		converted into a mosque
Saint Mary of Constantinople		converted into a mosque
Church of Hagia Thekla tu Palatiu ton Blakhernon		converted into a mosque
Church of Hagios Theodoros (Constantinople)		converted into a mosque
Church of Hagias Theodosias en tois Dexiokratus		converted into a mosque
Church of Saint Thomas		converted into a mosque
Church of the Theotokos Kyriotissa (Constantinople)		converted into a mosque
Nakip Mosque		converted into a mosque
Hagios Eugenios Church		converted into a mosque
Panagia Chrysokephalos Church		converted into a mosque
Virgin Mary Church		converted into a mosque
Hagia Sophia, Trabzon		converted into a mosque
Hagia Sophia, İznik		converted into a mosque
Church of Christ and Saint Stephen		converted into a mosque
Toklu Dede Mosque		converted into a mosque (before was a church of unknown dedication)
Alâeddin Mosque		converted into a mosque (before was a basilica of unknown dedication)
Saint Paul Cathedral		converted into a mosque
Aya Panagia Greek Church (Yaman Dede Mosque), Talas, Kayseri		converted into a mosque
St. Gregory of Nazianzos Church, (Kilise Camii), Güzelyurt, Aksaray.		converted into a mosque
Hagia Irene		museum
Sümela Monastery		museum
Virgin Mary Monastery		museum
House of the Virgin Mary		museum
Church of St Nicholas of Myra(Santa Claus) (Demre)		ruins, museum
Taşbaşı Church, Ordu province		museum
Saint John's Church, Gülşehir		museum
Saint Michael Church in Akçaabat		now used for social and cultural activities and museum by the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism, built in 1332
Kuruköprü Monumental Church		museum
Saint Paul's Church, Tarsus		museum
Ayazma Church (Faneromeni Church) in Ayvalık		After Greeks left in 1925 due to the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey, it turned into an olive oil factory, for a period, and because of that the interior of the building changed. There are plans to be turned into a museum.
Church of St. Polyeuctus		archaeological site
Basilica of St. John		archaeological site
Çanlı Kilise		archaeological site
Cave monastery of İnceğiz		archaeological site
Gümüşler Monastery		archaeological site
Eskigümüş Monastery		archaeological site
35 churches and chapels in caves at the Ayazini		archaeological site
Church on the Küçük Tavşan Adası		archaeological site. A church of the 6th century.
Selime Cathedral at the Ihlara Valley in Cappadocia		archaeological site
Virgin Mary Church at the Ihlara Valley in Cappadocia		archaeological site
Saint George Church at Diyarbakır		built around 200 AD, now an art gallery
Church of St. John, Tirilye		transferred to private property after the Greek population was expelled in 1923 and now is a residence
St. Basil's Church, Tirilye		became a Stone School (being used for the workshops for carpentry and iron works) and the “Dündar House" (used as a mess house)
Palace of Antiochos		ruins
Church of the Virgin of the Pharos		ruins
Kuştul Monastery		ruins
Bodrum Aya Nikola Church[TR]		ruins
Jason Church		ruins
Saint Anne Church, Trabzon		ruins
Saint Gregory of Nyssa Church, Trabzon		destroyed
Meryem Ana Monastery		ruins
Vazelon Monastery		ruins
Panagia Theoskepastos Monastery, Trabzon		ruins
Sinope Koimesis Church		ruins
Göreği Monastery, Fatsa district		ruins
Pavrezi Chapel, Gümüşhane		ruins
Hagios Georgios Monastery, Gümüşhane		ruins
Çakırkaya Monastery, Gümüşhane		ruins undergoing restoration
Panagia Monastery, Gümüşhane		ruins
Seven or more ruined churches in Santa		ruins
Church within Kaymakli/Anakou Underground City		ruins
Hagia Triada Church, Ayvalık		ruins
Kamışlı Kilisesi/Çakrak Church, Alucra district		ruins
Üçayak Byzantine Church		ruins
Hasanaliler Church		ruins
Hodegon Monastery		ruins
Pelekete monastery		ruins
Medikion monastery		ruins
Batheos Rhyakos Monastery		ruins, some buildings are used as animal shelters
Niğde Küçükköy Church		ruins
Niğde Prodromos Church		ruins
St. Theodore Church (Üzümlü Kilise), Derinkuyu		ruins
Üzümlü Church		abandoned
Heliou Bomon monastery		abandoned
Saint Demetrius Monastery on Cunda Island		ruins, built in 1766 destroyed by treasure hunters in 2020
Saint Georgios Church in Nilüfer, Bursa		ruins, built in 1896 and fell down in 2020, because it was neglected
Hutura Hagios Monastery Church in Gümüşhane		ruins, built in the 14th century, it is often plundered by treasure hunters. The library of the monastery is also destroyed.
St. Yuannis Church (Aziz Yuannis Kilisesi), Ürgüp	ruins
St. Spyridon Church (Kizil Kilise), Güzelyurt.		ruins
Saint Analipsis Church (Yüksek Kilise), Aksaray		ruins

Catholic churches

Church name	Picture	Status
Cathedral of the Holy Spirit, Istanbul		active
St. Anthony of Padua Church in Istanbul		active
Cathedral of the Annunciation, İskenderun		active
Church of St. Anthony, Mersin		active
St. John's Cathedral, Izmir		active
Church of SS Peter and Paul, Istanbul		active
Church of Saint Benoit, Istanbul		active
Church of St. Mary Draperis, Istanbul		active
Saint Paul Church, Adana		active
St. Mary's Church, İzmir		active
St. Térèse Church, Ankara		active
St. George's Catholic Church		active
Notre-Dame de L’Assomption, İstanbul		active
Church of San Domenico (Constantinople)		converted into a mosque
Church of St Peter		museum

Churches of the Georgian rite

Turkey's historical Georgian churches are located in the northeast of the country.

Church name	Picture	Status
Our Lady of Lourdes Church, Istanbul (Bomonti Gürcü Katolik Kilisesi)		active
Khakhuli Monastery (Haho/Bağbaşı)		converted into a mosque
Doliskana (Dolishane/Hamamlıköy)		converted into a mosque
Ishkhani (İşhan)		protected (since 1987)
Parkhali (Barhal/Altıparmak)		protected
Otkhta Eklesia (Dörtkilise)		abandoned
Oshki (Öşki Manastırı/Öşk Vank/Çamlıyamaç)		abandoned
Khandzta		ruins
Ekeki		ruins
Parekhi		ruins
Makriali St. George church, Kemalpaşa, Artvin		ruins
St. Barlaam Monastery (Barlaham Manastırı), Yayladağı		ruins
Ancha monastery		ruins
Okhvame, Ardeşen		ruins
Tskarostavi monastery		ruins
Bana cathedral (Penek)		ruins
Tbeti Monastery (Cevizli)		ruins
old Georgian Church, Ani		ruins
Opiza		ruins

Protestant churches

Anglican churches

Church name	Picture	Status
Christ Church, Istanbul		active
St. John the Evangelist's Anglican Church, Izmir		active

Other churches

Church name	Picture	Status
Buca Protestant Baptist Church[TR]		active
Kreuzkirche, İstanbul[DE]		active
Samsun Protestant Church		active
Church of the Resurrection, İzmir		active
All Saints' Church, Moda		active

Churches of the Syriac rite

Church name	Picture	Status
Mor Sharbel Syriac Orthodox church in Midyat		active
Mor Gabriel Monastery		active
Mor Hananyo Monastery		active
Mor Yuhanna Monastery in Eğil		museum
Zuqnin Monastery

See also

• Armenians in Turkey
• Assyrians in Turkey
• Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate
• Catholic Church in Turkey
• Christianity and Islam
• Christianity in Cyprus
• Christianity in the Ottoman Empire
• Eastern Orthodoxy in Turkey
• Freedom of religion in Turkey
• Human rights in Muslim-majority countries#Turkey
• Human rights in Turkey#Freedom of religion
• Irreligion in Turkey
• Islam in Turkey
• Karamanlides, a Greek Orthodox Turkish-speaking people
• Kurds in Turkey
• Nestorian rebellion
• Persecution of Christians in the Muslim world
• Protestantism in Turkey
• Religion in the Middle East
• Religion in Turkey
• Religious minorities in Turkey
• Secularism in Turkey

Sources

• Aboona, Hirmis (2008). Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: Intercommunal Relations on the Periphery of the Ottoman Empire. Amherst: Cambria Press. ISBN 9781604975833. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved December 26, 2020.
• Armbruster, Heidi (2002). "Homes in Crisis: Syrian Orthodox Christians in Turkey and Germany". New Approaches to Migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home. London: Routledge. pp. 17–33. ISBN 9781134523771. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2021.
• Atto, Naures; Barthoma, Soner O. (2017). "Syriac Orthodox Leadership in the Post-Genocide Period (1918–26) and the Removal of the Patriarchate from Turkey". Let Them Not Return: Sayfo - The Genocide Against the Assyrian, Syriac, and Chaldean Christians in the Ottoman Empire. New York-Oxford: Berghahn Books. pp. 113–131. ISBN 9781785334993. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2021.
• Baum, Wilhelm (2004). "Die sogenannten Nestorianer im Zeitalter der Osmanen (15. bis 19. Jahrhundert)". Zwischen Euphrat und Tigris: Österreichische Forschungen zum Alten Orient. Münster-Wien: LIT Verlag. pp. 229–246. ISBN 9783825882570. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved December 26, 2020.
• Beitrag, Onders (2012). "Minority Rights in Turkey: Quo Vadis, Assyrians?". The Slow Disappearance of the Syriacs from Turkey and of the Grounds of the Mor Gabriel Monastery. Münster: LIT Verlag. pp. 99–120. ISBN 9783643902689. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2021.
• Brock, Sebastian P. (2012). "The Monastery of Mor Gabriel: A Historical Overview and Its Wider Significance Today". The Slow Disappearance of the Syriacs from Turkey and of the Grounds of the Mor Gabriel Monastery. Münster: LIT Verlag. pp. 181–200. ISBN 9783643902689. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2021.
• Çelik, Zeynep (1993). The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08239-7.
• Fischbach, Ingrid (2012). "Persecution of Christians in Turkey". The Slow Disappearance of the Syriacs from Turkey and of the Grounds of the Mor Gabriel Monastery. Münster: LIT Verlag. pp. 171–177. ISBN 9783643902689. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2021.
• Frazee, Charles A. (2006) [1983]. Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521027007. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved December 26, 2020.
• Jakob, Joachim (2014). Ostsyrische Christen und Kurden im Osmanischen Reich des 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhunderts. Münster: LIT Verlag. ISBN 9783643506160. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved December 26, 2020.
• Murre van den Berg, Heleen (2009). "Chaldeans and Assyrians: The Church of the East in the Ottoman Period". The Christian Heritage of Iraq. Piscataway: Gorgias Press. pp. 146–164. ISBN 9781607241119. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved December 26, 2020.
• Murre van den Berg, Heleen (2015). Scribes and Scriptures: The Church of the East in the Eastern Ottoman Provinces (1500-1850). Louvain: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9789042930797. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved December 26, 2020.
• Nieper, Jens (2012). "The Syrian Orthodox Church: The Aramean Community as an Ecumenical Entity in a Transnational Dimension". The Slow Disappearance of the Syriacs from Turkey and of the Grounds of the Mor Gabriel Monastery. Münster: LIT Verlag. pp. 57–62. ISBN 9783643902689. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2021.
• Sommer, Renate (2012). "The Role of Religious Freedom in the Context of the Accession Negotiations between the European Union and Turkey - The Example of the Arameans". The Slow Disappearance of the Syriacs from Turkey and of the Grounds of the Mor Gabriel Monastery. Münster: LIT Verlag. pp. 157–170. ISBN 9783643902689. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2021.
• Meyendorff, John (1982). The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church. Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-913836-90-3.

Further reading

• Benny Morris; Dror Ze’evi (April 24, 2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-91645-6.
• "Christians have lived in Turkey for two millennia – but their future is uncertain". Ramazan Kılınç. The Conversation.
• "Persecution of Christians in Turkey" (PDF). Armenian National Committee of America.
• "The 30-year genocide of Christians in Turkey". Sakis Ioannidis. ekathimrini.com.

External links

• Arestakes Simavoryan, CHRISTIANS IN TODAY’S TURKEY (Protestants and Catholics)
• Turkish Christians Network