Jump to content

SpaceX Starship

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Alalch E. (talk | contribs) at 18:18, 11 May 2023 (Reverting edit(s) by 2A0C:5A82:6101:6000:1A6C:5A2D:E5F8:688B (talk) to rev. 1154312443 by Sub31k: Non-constructive edit (UV 0.1.4)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article is about SpaceX's Starship in general. For its namesake second stage in particular, see SpaceX Starship (spacecraft).

Starship
Launch of SpaceX's Starship during its orbital test flight
Function
Manufacturer
Country of origin
  • United States
Size
Height
  • 121.3 m
  • 398 ft
Diameter
  • 9 m
  • 29.5 ft
Mass
  • 5,000 t
  • 11,000,000 lb
Capacity
Payload to low Earth orbit
Mass
  • 150 t
  • 330,000 lb
Volume
  • 1,000 m³
  • 35,000 ft³
Launch history
Launch sitesSpaceX Starbase
Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A (planned)
Total launches1
Success(es)0
Failure(s)1[a]
First flight20 April 2023
First stage – Super Heavy
Height
  • 71 m
  • 232 ft
Diameter
  • 9 m
  • 30 ft
Empty mass
  • 200 t
  • 440,000 lb
Propellant mass
  • 3,400 t
  • 7,500,000 lb
Powered by
Maximum thrust
  • 7,590 Tf
  • 74,500,000 N
  • 16,700,000 lbf
Propellant
Second stage – Starship
Height
  • 50 m
  • 164 ft
Diameter
  • 9 m
  • 30 ft
Empty mass
  • 100 t
  • 220,000 lb
Gross mass
  • 1,300 t
  • 2,900,000 lb
Propellant mass
  • 1,200 t
  • 2,650,000 lb
Powered by
Maximum thrust
  • 14,700,000 N
  • 1,500 Tf
  • 3,300,000 lbf
Propellant
[edit on Wikidata]

Starship is a super heavy-lift space vehicle under development by SpaceX. At 120 metres (390 feet) in height and with a liftoff mass of 5,000 metric tons (11,000,000 pounds), Starship is the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown.[2]

The space vehicle consists of the first-stage Super Heavy booster and the second-stage spacecraft also named Starship. Both stages are powered by Raptor rocket engines, which burn liquid oxygen and liquid methane propellants in a highly complex but efficient full-flow staged combustion power cycle. Both are designed to be fully reusable, performing controlled landings on the launch tower and reflown within hours. Starship is designed to have a payload capacity of 150 tonnes (330,000 lb) to low Earth orbit in a fully reusable configuration and 250 t (550,000 lb) when expended.[3] Starship vehicles in low Earth orbit are planned to be refilled with propellant launched in tanker Starships to enable transit to higher energy destinations such as geosynchronous orbit, the Moon, and Mars.

Plans for a heavy-lift vehicle at SpaceX date to 2005, with the earliest concept resembling the modern vehicle announced in 2016. SpaceX's Starship development follows an iterative and incremental approach involving frequent, often destructive test flights of incomplete vehicles.[4] The first orbital test flight was attempted on 20 April 2023, when an anomaly caused the vehicle to tumble out of control four minutes after launch. SpaceX activated the flight termination system, destroying both stages. After the test, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) grounded the launch program pending results of a standard “mishap investigation.”[5]

SpaceX intends Starship to become its primary space vehicle, superseding the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launch vehicles as well as the Dragon spacecraft currently used as part of NASA's commercial crew program to the International Space Station. Starship is often coupled with the company's Mars ambitions. Planned Starship flights include the development of SpaceX's Starlink internet constellation, crewed flights under the Polaris and dearMoon programs, and a crewed lunar landing with a modified Starship spacecraft under the Artemis program.

History

In 2007, Elon Musk set a personal goal of enabling human exploration and settlement of Mars.[6][7] SpaceX began developing the Raptor rocket engine (the engine used in Starship) before 2014. From 2011 to 2014, Musk made various statements expressing his hope that SpaceX would send humans to Mars in the 2020s to 2030s.[7][8][9][10]

Mars Colonial Transporter

In October 2012, Musk first publicly articulated a plan to build a fully reusable rocket system with substantially greater capabilities than the Falcon 9.[11] The launch vehicle was described as part of the company's Mars system architecture, then known as "MCT" or Mars Colonial Transporter/Mass Cargo Transport.[8] The idea included reusable rocket engines, launch vehicles and space capsules to transport humans to Mars and return them to Earth.[12] SpaceX COO Gwynne Shotwell mentioned that the payload could reach 150–200 tons to low Earth orbit.[11] The MCT vehicle was to be "an evolution of SpaceX's Falcon 9 booster ... much bigger [than Falcon 9]."[8][13] In February 2014, the principal payload for the MCT was announced to be a large interplanetary spacecraft, capable of carrying up to 100 tonnes (220,000 lb) of passengers and cargo.[14] According to SpaceX engine development head Tom Mueller, SpaceX could use nine Raptor engines on a single rocket, just as the Falcon 9 booster used nine Merlin engines.[15] The rocket would be at least 10 meters (33 ft) in diameter—nearly three times the diameter and over seven times the cross-sectional area of the Falcon 9 booster cores. It was expected to have up to three cores totaling at least 27 engines.[12]

Interplanetary Transport System

2016 artist concept of the ITS Interplanetary Spaceship, in orbit near the rings of Saturn

In 2016, Musk abandoned the Mars Colonial Transporter name, as the system would be able to "go well beyond Mars", in favor of Interplanetary Transport System (ITS).[16] That year he unveiled details of the space mission architecture, launch vehicle, spacecraft, and Raptor engines. The first firing of a Raptor engine occurred on a test stand in September 2016.[17][18] In October 2016, Musk indicated that the initial prepregnated carbon-fiber tank test article, built with no sealing liner, had performed well in cryogenic fluid testing. A pressure test at about 2/3 of the design burst pressure was completed in November 2016.[19]

In July 2017, Musk indicated that the architecture had evolved since 2016 in order to support commercial transport via Earth-orbit and cislunar launches.[20]

Design

The ITS stack was composed of two stages. The first stage was to be a booster, while the second stages would be either an "Interplanetary Spaceship" for crewed transport or an "ITS tanker" for orbital refueling. Both stages were to be powered by Raptor engines, like the current Starship configuration.

The Raptor was a bipropellant liquid rocket engine in a full flow staged combustion cycle, with liquid methane fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer.[21] Both propellants would enter the combustion chamber in the gas phase.[12] A bleed-off of the high-pressure gas would provide autogenous pressurization of the propellant tanks, eliminating the Falcon 9's problematic high-pressure helium pressurization system.[22][23][17]

The overall launch vehicle height, (first and second stages), was 122 m (400 ft).[24] Both stages were to have been constructed of carbon fiber, including the cryogenic propellant tanks, a major change from the Falcon 9's aluminum-lithium alloy tank and structure material. Both stages were to be fully reusable and land vertically.[22][23] Gross liftoff mass was to be 10,500 t (1,650,000 st) at a lift-off thrust of 128 meganewtons (29,000,000 lbf). ITS was to carry a payload to low Earth orbit of 550 tonnes (1,210,000 lb) in expendable-mode and 300 tonnes (660,000 lb) in reusable mode.[25]

ITS booster
2016 artist's concept of the ITS booster returning to the launch pad

The ITS booster was a 12 m-diameter (39 ft), 77.5 m-high (254 ft), reusable first stage, to be powered by 42 engines each producing 3,024 kilonewtons (680,000 lbf) of thrust. Total booster thrust would have been about 128 MN (29,000,000 lbf) at liftoff, several times the 36 MN (8,000,000 lbf) thrust of the Saturn V.[22] The engine configuration included 21 engines in an outer ring and 14 in an inner ring. The center cluster of seven engines was to be gimbaled for directional control, although some directional control was to be performed via differential thrust on the fixed engines. Thrust on each engine was aimed to vary between 20 and 100 percent of rated thrust.[23]The main propellants, in gaseous phase, would also power the reaction control thrusters. These thrusters were intended to control booster orientation in space and improve accuracy during landing.[23]

The design goal was to achieve a separation velocity of about 8,650 km/h (5,370 mph) while retaining about 7% of the initial propellant to achieve a vertical landing at the launch pad.[23][26]The design called for grid fins to guide the booster during atmospheric reentry.[23] The booster return flights were expected to encounter loads lower than the Falcon 9, principally because the ITS would have both a lower mass ratio and a lower density.[27] The booster was to be designed for 20 g nominal loads, and possibly as high as 30–40 g.[27]

In contrast to the landing approach used on SpaceX's mid-2010s reusable rocket first stages—either a large, flat concrete pad or downrange floating landing platform, the ITS booster was to designed to land on the launch mount itself, for immediate refueling and relaunch.[23]

Second stage

The ITS did not have a dedicated single-function second stage for achieving orbit. Instead, the second stage function of reaching orbit was a secondary role for a spacecraft capable of long-duration spaceflight. Two variants were proposed, each intended to be reusable.[22]

The Interplanetary Spaceship was a large passenger-carrying spacecraft design proposed in September 2016. The ship would operate as a second-stage, and as an interplanetary transport vehicle for cargo and passengers. The Interplanetary Spaceship would be able to transport up to 450 tonnes (990,000 lb) per trip to Mars following refueling in Earth orbit.[22] The three sea-level Raptor engines would be used for maneuvering, descent, and landing, as well as an initial ascent from the Mars surface.[22]

The ITS tanker was a second stage propellant tanker variant. It was designed to transport up to 380 tonnes (840,000 lb) of propellants to low Earth orbit to refuel Interplanetary Spaceships. After refueling operations, it was to land and be prepared for another flight.[25]

Big Falcon Rocket

File:BFR in orbit, 2017.PNG
Artist's concept of the BFR in orbit, 2017

In September 2017, at the 68th annual meeting of the International Astronautical Congress, Musk announced a new launch vehicle called the Big Falcon Rocket (BFR), saying, "We are searching for the right name, but the code name, at least, is BFR."[28] Its goal was to send two cargo missions to Mars in 2022,[29] with the goal to "confirm water resources and identify hazards" while deploying "power, mining, and life support infrastructure" for future flights. This would be followed by four ships in 2024, two crewed BFR spaceships plus two cargo-only ships carrying equipment and supplies for a propellant plant.[28]

The design balanced objectives such as payload mass, landing capabilities, and reliability. The initial design showed the ship with six Raptor engines (two sea-level, four vacuum) down from nine in the previous ITS design.[28] The engine layout, reentry aerodynamic surface designs, and even the basic material of construction each changed thereafter.

By September 2017, Raptors had been test-fired for a combined total of 20 minutes across 42 test cycles. The longest test was 100 seconds, limited by the size of the propellant tanks. The test engine operated at 20 MPa (200 bar; 2,900 psi). The flight engine aimed for 25 MPa (250 bar; 3,600 psi), on the way to 30 MPa (300 bar; 4,400 psi) in later iterations.[28] In November 2017, Shotwell indicated that about half of all development work on BFR was focused on the engine.[30]

SpaceX looked for manufacturing sites in California, Texas, Louisiana,[31] and Florida.[32] By September 2017, SpaceX had started building launch vehicle components: "The tooling for the main tanks has been ordered, the facility is being built, we will start construction of the first ship [in the second quarter of 2018.]"[28]

By early 2018, the first carbon composite prototype ship was under construction, and SpaceX had begun building a new production facility at the Port of Los Angeles.[33]

In March, SpaceX announced that it would manufacture its launch vehicle and spaceship at a new facility on Seaside Drive at the port.[34][35][36] By May, about 40 SpaceX employees were working on the BFR.[31] SpaceX planned to transport the launch vehicle by barge, through the Panama Canal, to Cape Canaveral for launch.[31] Since then the company has pivoted and terminated the agreements to do this.

In August 2018, the US military publicly expressed interest in using BFR. The head of USAF Air Mobility Command was specifically interested in its ability to move up to 150 t (330,000 lb) of cargo anywhere in the world in under 30 minutes, for "less than the cost of a C-5".[37][38]

Design

The BFR was 106 meters (348 ft) tall, 9 meters (30 ft) in diameter, and made of carbon fiber.[29][39]

The upper stage, known as Big Falcon Ship (BFS), included a small delta wing at the rear end with split flaps for pitch and roll control. The delta wing and split flaps were said to expand the flight envelope to allow the ship to land in a variety of atmospheric densities (vacuum, thin, or heavy atmosphere) with a wide range of payloads.[29][28]: 18:05–19:25  The BFS originally had six Raptor engines, with four vacuum and two sea-level. By late 2017, SpaceX added a third sea-level engine (totaling 7) to increase engine-out capability [clarification needed] and allow greater payload landings.[40]

Three BFS versions were described: BFS cargo, BFS tanker, and BFS crew. The cargo version would be used to reach Earth orbit[29] as well as carry cargo to the Moon or Mars. After refueling in an elliptical Earth orbit, BFS could land on the Moon and return to Earth without another refueling.[29][28]: 31:50 

Additionally, the BFR could theoretically carry passengers/cargo in Earth-to-Earth transport, delivering its payload anywhere within 90 minutes.[29]

Starship and Super Heavy

2018 artist's conception of the redesigned BFR/Starship at stage separation

In 2018 Musk announced a planned 2023 lunar circumnavigation mission (#dearMoon project)[41] and showed a redesigned BFR concept with three rear fins and two front canard fins, replacing the previous delta wing and split flaps. The revised design used seven Raptor engines and had two small actuating canard fins near the nose, and three large fins at the base, two of which would actuate, with all three serving as landing legs.[42]

The two major parts were renamed to Starship (second stage) and Super Heavy (booster stage).[43] In 2019, SpaceX began to refer to the Starship/Super Heavy combination as the SpaceX Starship system.[44][45][46][47]

Stainless steel

In January 2019, Musk announced a major design change: Starship and Super Heavy would be made from stainless steel instead of carbon fiber.[48] His stated reason was that "stainless steel was "obviously cheap, it's obviously fast—but it's not obviously the lightest. But it is actually the lightest. If you look at the properties of a high-quality stainless steel, the thing that isn't obvious is that at cryogenic temperatures, the strength is boosted by 50 percent."[49] The high melting point of 300-series steel would eliminate the need for a heat shield on Starship's space-facing side, while the much hotter Earth-facing side would be cooled by allowing fuel or water to bleed through micropores in a double-wall stainless steel skin, removing heat by evaporation.

Both rockets were assemblies of vertically stacked steel cylinders (rings) welded to each other.

Later changes

In 2019, the design reverted to six Raptor engines, with three optimized for sea-level and three optimized for vacuum.[50] Initial Super Heavy test flights would use fewer engines, perhaps about 20.[51]

Later in 2019 Musk stated that Starship was expected to have empty mass of 120,000 kg (260,000 lb) and be able to initially transport a payload of 100,000 kg (220,000 lb), growing to 150,000 kg (330,000 lb) over time. Musk hinted at an expendable variant that could place 250,000 kg into low orbit.[52][failed verification]

The Raptor design was refined, higher thrust versions. The initial 37 engines were reduced to 31 in 2020.[53] Musk stated that SpaceX would complete hundreds of cargo flights before carrying human passengers.[54]

In February 2021 SpaceX completed raising US$3.5 billion in additional equity financing.[55][56] In April, SpaceX publicly forecast that Earth to Earth passenger flights would be common within five years.[56]

After atmospheric descent tests in 2020-2021 SpaceX made Starship's body flaps narrower and lighter.[57]

Ship 20/Booster 4 stack during launch pad testing at SpaceX Starbase, March 2022

Development

Starship's development is iterative and incremental, using intensive tests on a series of rocket prototypes.[58][59] The first prototype, Starhopper, performed several static fires and low-altitude flights.[60] Seven of Starship's upper-stage prototypes were flight tested between August 2020 and May 2021. The last of the seven, a full-size Starship SN15, successfully landed after reaching an altitude of 10 kilometers (6.2 mi).[61] A full-scale orbital test flight of the rocket took place on April 20, 2023.[62]

Low-altitude flights

Short steel rocket with its fins touching the ground
Starhopper under construction, March 2019
Crane hooking onto a steel vessel body
A crane lifting Starship SN5, August 2020

In September 2019, Musk further detailed the lower-stage booster, the upper-stage's method of controlling its descent, the heat shield, orbital refueling capacity, and potential destinations besides Mars.[63] The aft flaps on the spacecraft were reduced from three to two. Starship's body material was changed from carbon composites to stainless steel for its lower cost, higher melting point, strength at cryogenic temperatures, and ease of manufacture.[64]

SpaceX was already constructing the first full-size Starship Mk1 and Mk2 upper-stage prototypes, at the SpaceX facilities in Boca Chica, Texas and Cocoa, Florida respectively.[63] Neither prototype flew: Mk1 was destroyed in November 2019 during a pressure stress test and Mk2's Florida facility was abandoned and deconstructed throughout 2020.[65][66] After the Mk prototypes, SpaceX began naming its new Starship upper-stage prototypes with the prefix "SN", short for "serial number".[58] No prototypes between SN1 and SN4 flew either—SN1 and SN3 collapsed during pressure stress tests, and SN4 exploded after its fifth engine firing.[67]

In June 2020, SpaceX started constructing a launch pad for orbit-capable Starship rockets.[68] In the next month, the company bought two drilling rigs for $3.5 million each from Valaris plc during the latter's bankruptcy proceedings, to repurpose them as offshore spaceports.[69] The first flight-capable Starship SN5 was cylindrical as it had no flaps or nose cone: just one Raptor engine, fuel tanks, and a mass simulator. On 5 August 2020, SN5 performed a 150 m (500 ft) high flight and successfully landed on a nearby pad.[70] On 3 September 2020, the similar-looking Starship SN6 repeated the hop;[71] later that month, the Raptor Vacuum engine was fired in full duration at McGregor.[72]

High-altitude flights

Steel rocket on a mount
Starship SN9 on a mount with its flaps closed, January 2021

SN8 was the first fully complete Starship upper-stage prototype. It underwent four preliminary static fire tests between October and November 2020.[67] On 9 December 2020, SN8 flew, slowly turning off its three engines one by one, and reached an altitude of 12.5 km (7.8 mi). After SN8 dove back to the ground, its engines were hampered by low methane header tank pressure during the landing attempt, which led to a hard impact with the landing pad.[73] Because SpaceX had violated its launch license and ignored warnings of worsening shock wave damage, the Federal Aviation Administration investigated the incident for two months.[74]

On 2 February 2021, Starship SN9 launched to 10 km (6.2 mi) in a flight path similar to SN8. The prototype crashed upon landing because one engine did not ignite properly.[75] A month later, on 3 March, Starship SN10 launched on the same flight path as SN8 and 9. The vehicle landed hard and crushed its landing legs, leaning to one side.[76] A fire was seen at the vehicle's base. It exploded less than ten minutes later,[61] probably due to a propellant tank rupture.[76] On 30 March, Starship SN11 flew into thick fog along the same flight path.[77] The vehicle exploded during descent,[77] possibly due to excess propellant in a Raptor's methane turbopump.[78]

In March 2021, the company disclosed a public construction plan for two sub-orbital launch pads, two orbital launch pads, two landing pads, two test stands, and a large propellant tank farm. The company soon proposed developing the surrounding Boca Chica village into a company town named Starbase;[79] locals raised concerns about SpaceX's authority, power, and a potential threat for eviction through eminent domain.[80] In early April, the orbital launch pad's fuel storage tanks began mounting.[68] A few weeks later, on 16 April, NASA selected the Starship Human Landing System (HLS) as the crewed lunar lander.[81] Blue Origin, a bidding competitor to SpaceX, disputed the decision and began a legal case in August 2021,[82] which was dismissed by the Court of Federal Claims three months later.[83]

Starship prototypes SN12, SN13, and SN14 were scrapped before completion; SN15 was selected to fly instead.[84] SN15 had better avionics, structure, and upgraded engines.[61] On 5 May 2021, SN15 launched, completed the same maneuvers as older prototypes, and landed safely.[84] Even though SN15, like SN10, had a small fire in the engine area after landing, it was extinguished, completing the first successful high-altitude test.[61] According to a later report by SpaceX, SN15 experienced several issues while landing, including the loss of tank pressure and an engine.[85]: 2 

Development towards first orbital launch

see caption
From left to right: Booster 4, Ship 15, Ship 22, and Ship 20 displayed at Starbase, June 2022

In July 2021, Super Heavy BN3 conducted its first full-duration static firing and lit three engines.[86] Around this time, SpaceX changed their naming scheme from "SN" to "Ship" for Starship crafts,[87] and from "BN" to "Booster" for Super Heavy boosters.[88] A month later, using cranes, Ship 20 was stacked atop Booster 4 to form the full launch vehicle for the first time; Ship 20 was also the first craft to have a body-tall heat shield.[89] In October 2021, the catching mechanical arms, also known as "chopsticks", were installed onto the integration tower and the first tank farm's construction was completed.[68] Two weeks later, NASA and SpaceX announced plans to construct Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 49.[90]

The public spotted the Raptor 2 engine at the start of 2022. Raptor 2 has a simpler design, less mass, wider throat, and an increase in central combustion chamber pressure from 250 bar (3,600 psi) to 300 bar (4,400 psi). These changes yielded an increase in thrust from 1.85 MN (420,000 lbf) to 2.3 MN (520,000 lbf), but a decrease of 3 seconds (~0.9%) of specific impulse.[91] In February 2022, after stacking Ship 20 on top of Booster 4 using mechanical arms, Elon Musk gave a presentation on Starship, Raptor engine and Florida spaceport development at Starbase.[92]

In June 2022, the Federal Aviation Administration determined that Starbase did not need a full environmental impact assessment but that SpaceX must address issues identified in the preliminary environmental assessment.[93] In July, Booster 7 tested spinning the liquid oxygen turbopumps on all thirty-three Raptor engines. An explosion occurred at the vehicle's base, destroying a pressure pipe and causing minor damage to the launchpad.[94] By the end of November, Ship 24 had performed 2- and full 6-engine static fires,[95]: 20  while Booster 7 had performed static fires with 1, 3, 7, 14, 11 engines[96][95]: 20  and finally on 9 February 2023 a static fire with 31 engines at 50% throttle (33 was attempted but one engine was disabled pre-firing, and another engine aborted). In January 2023, Starship underwent a full wet dress rehearsal at Starbase, where it was filled with more than 4,500 t (10,000,000 lb) of propellant.[97]

First attempted orbital test flight

Main article: SpaceX Starship orbital test flight
ship 24 & booster 7 rising from a dark cloud
Ship 24 and Booster 7 lifting off of Launch Pad A in Starbase, April 2023

After a canceled launch attempt on 17 April 2023, due to a frozen valve,[98] Booster 7 and Ship 24 lifted off on 20 April at 14:33 UTC in the first orbital flight test.[99] Even though 3 engines were disabled prior to liftoff and several more shut down during the flight,[100] the vehicle reached a maximum altitude of 24 mi (39 km). The spacecraft also lost hydraulic control of the Raptor engines later in the flight, which lead to multiple unplanned cartwheels. At around 90 seconds following liftoff, the rocket received a command to activate the automated flight termination system. However, the flight termination system's response was delayed by about 40 seconds, leaving the vehicle tumbling at an altitude of 24 mi (39 km).[101][102][103] Had everything proceeded as planned, the spacecraft would have continued to fly with its ground track passing through the Straits of Florida, with a hard splashdown in the Pacific Ocean around 100 km (60 mi) northwest of Kauai in the Hawaiian Islands, having made nearly one revolution around the Earth.[104][105]: 2–4 

Prototype testing

Starship prototype tests can generally be classified into three main types. In proof pressure tests, the vehicle's tanks are pressurized with either gases or liquids to test their strength—sometimes deliberately until they burst. The vehicle then performs mission rehearsals, with or without fuel, to check the vehicle and ground infrastructure. Before a test flight, SpaceX loads the vehicle prototype with propellant and briefly fires its engines in a static fire test.[106]: 18–19  Alternatively, the engines' turbopump spinning can be tested without firing the engines, referred to as a spin prime test.[107]

After successful testing, uncrewed flight tests and launches may commence. During a suborbital launch, Starship prototypes fly to a high altitude and descend, landing either near the launch site, in the sea or onto offshore platforms. During an orbital launch, Starship performs procedures as described in its mission profile.[106]: 19–22  Due to SpaceX's relative openness for outsiders to view the facilities, Starship rocket tests, flights, and launches have received significant media coverage.[108]

Design

Stacked and fueled, Starship is about 5,000 t (11,000,000 lb) by mass,[b] 9 m (30 ft) wide,[111] and 120 m (390 ft) high. While the prototype versions of Starship are not reused, Starship is designed to be a fully reusable and orbital rocket to reduce launch costs and maintenance between flights.[112] Its fully reusable configuration has a payload capacity of 150 t (330,000 lb) to low Earth orbit, and the expanded configuration has a payload capacity of 200–250 t (440,000–550,000 lb).[3]

The rocket consists of the Super Heavy first-stage or booster, and the Starship second-stage or spacecraft,[2] powered by the Raptor and Raptor Vacuum engines.[113] The bodies of both rocket stages are made from stainless steel, giving Starship its strength for atmospheric entry and distinctive look.[114]

According to Eric Berger of Ars Technica, the manufacturing process starts with rolls of steel, which are unrolled, cut, and welded along the cut edge to create a cylinder of 9 m (30 ft) in diameter, 2 m (7 ft) in height, and 4 mm (0.16 in) thick, and around 1,600 kg (4,000 lb) in mass. These cylinders, along with the nose cones, are stacked and welded along their edges to form the outer layer of the rocket. Inside, the methane and oxygen tanks are separated by tank domes.[115]

Raptor engine

Main article: SpaceX Raptor
A rocket engine with nozzle and intricate plumbing
Sea level–optimized Raptor engine, May 2020

Raptor is a family of rocket engines developed by SpaceX exclusively for use in Starship and Super Heavy. It burns liquid oxygen and methane in a highly efficient full-flow staged combustion power cycle. The Raptor engine uses methane as the fuel of choice over other rocket propellants because it produces less soot[116] and can be directly synthesized from carbon dioxide and water.[117]

The engine structure itself is mostly aluminum, copper, and steel; oxidizer-side turbopumps and manifolds subject to corrosive oxygen-rich flames are made of an Inconel-like SX500 superalloy.[91] Raptor's main combustion chamber can contain 300 bar (4,400 psi) of pressure, the highest of all rocket engines.[116] Certain components are 3D printed. The Raptor's gimbaling range is 15°, higher than the RS-25's 12.5° and the Merlin's 5°. In mass production, SpaceX aims to produce each engine at a unit cost of US$250,000.[91]

Raptor operates with an oxygen-to-methane mixture ratio of about 3.6:1, lower than the stoichiometric mixture ratio of 4:1 necessary to burn all propellants completely. Operation at the stoichiometric ratio provides better performance in theory but usually results in overheating and destruction of the engine.[109] The propellants leave the pre-burners. They are injected into the main combustion chamber as hot gases instead of liquid droplets, enabling much higher power density as propellants mix rapidly via diffusion.[116] The methane and oxygen are at such high temperatures and pressures that they ignite on contact, eliminating the need for igniters in the main combustion chamber.[91]

At sea level, the standard Raptor engine produces 2.3 MN (520,000 lbf) at a specific impulse of 327 seconds, increasing to 350 seconds in a vacuum.[91] Raptor Vacuum, used on the Starship upper stage, is modified with a regeneratively cooled nozzle extension made of brazed steel tubes, increasing its expansion ratio to about 90 and its specific impulse in vacuum to 380 seconds.[109] Another engine variant, Raptor Boost, is exclusive to the Super Heavy booster; the engine variant lacks thrust vectoring and has limited throttle capability in exchange for increased thrust.[118][91]

Super Heavy booster

SpaceX Starship's Superheavy Booster 7 being tested on the orbital launch pad at Starbase, Boca Chica, Texas in February 2023
Large steel cylinder with complex engine mounts and wiring
Underside of the Super Heavy booster prior to engine installation
Main article: SpaceX Super Heavy

The first-stage booster, named Super Heavy, is 70 m (230 ft) tall, 9 m (30 ft) wide,[111] and contains thirty-three Raptor engines arranged in concentric rings.[119] The outermost ring of 20 engines are of the "Raptor Boost" configuration with gimbal actuators removed to save weight and a modified injector with reduced throttle performance in exchange for greater thrust.[118] At full power, all engines produce a collective 75.9 MN (17,100,000 lbf) of thrust.[120]

The booster's tanks can hold 3,600 t (7,900,000 lb) of propellant, consisting of 2,800 t (6,200,000 lb) of liquid oxygen and 800 t (1,800,000 lb) of liquid methane.[c][106] The final design will have a dry mass between 160 t (350,000 lb) and 200 t (440,000 lb), with the tanks weighing 80 t (180,000 lb) and the interstage 20 t (44,000 lb).[109]

The booster is equipped with four electrically actuated grid fins, each with a mass of 3 t (6,600 lb). Adjacent pairs of grid fins are only spaced sixty degrees apart instead of being orthogonal (as is the case on Falcon 9) to provide more authority in the pitch axis. Also, unlike Falcon 9, the grid fins do not retract and remain extended during ascent.[109] The booster can be lifted through protruding hardpoints located between gridfins.[68] During unpowered flight in vacuum, control authority is provided by cold gas thrusters fed with residual ullage gas.

Starship spacecraft

Panorama of stainless steel spacecraft
Leeward angle of Starship SN16 spacecraft
This section is an excerpt from SpaceX Starship (spacecraft) § Design.[edit]
Diagram of a Block 1 Starship's internal structure. Not shown in this diagram are the flaps: the aft flaps are placed at the bottom (or left in this orientation), and the forward flaps are placed at the top (here, right) portion of the spaceship.
The current Block 1 of the Starship spacecraft is 50.3 m (165 ft) tall, 9 m (30 ft) in diameter, and has 6 Raptor engines, 3 of which are optimized for use in outer space.[121][122] The future Block 3 of the Starship spacecraft is planned to have an additional 3 Raptor Vacuum engines for increased payload capacity. Starship Block 1's payload bay, measuring 17 m (56 ft) tall by 8 m (26 ft) in diameter, is the largest of any active or planned launch vehicle; its internal volume of 1,000 m3 (35,000 cu ft) is slightly larger than the International Space Station's pressurized volume.[123] SpaceX will also provide a 22 m (72 ft) tall payload bay configuration for even larger payloads.[124]
Starship's flap

Starship has a total propellant capacity of 1,200 t (2,600,000 lb)[125] across its main tanks and header tanks.[126] The header tanks are better insulated due to their position and are reserved for use to flip and land the spacecraft following reentry.[127] A set of reaction control thrusters, which use the pressure in the fuel tank, control attitude while in space.[128]

The spacecraft has four body flaps to control the spacecraft's orientation and help dissipate energy during atmospheric entry,[129] composed of two forward flaps and two aft flaps. According to SpaceX, the flaps replace the need for wings or tailplane, reduce the fuel needed for landing, and allow landing at destinations in the Solar System where runways do not exist (for example, Mars).[130]: 1  Under the forward flaps, hardpoints are used for lifting and catching the spacecraft via mechanical arms.[131] The flap's hinges are sealed in aero-covers because they would otherwise be easily damaged during reentry.[132]
S20's heat shield being repaired.

Variants

Starship stacks with 3 upper stage variants: HLS, propellant tanker and propellant depot. The vented interstage, located between the Starship spacecraft and Super Heavy booster, is not included in this render.

For satellite launch, Starship is planned to have a large cargo door that opens to release payloads, similar to NASA's Space Shuttle, and close upon reentry instead of a jettisonable nosecone fairing. Instead of a cleanroom, payloads are integrated directly into Starship's payload bay, which requires purging the payload bay with temperature-controlled ISO class 8 clean air.[124] To deploy Starlink satellites, the cargo door is to be replaced with a slot and dispenser rack, whose mechanism has been compared to a Pez candy dispenser.[133]

Crewed Starship vehicles would replace the cargo bay with a pressurized crew section and have a life-support system. For long-duration missions, such as crewed flights to Mars, SpaceX describes the interior as potentially including "private cabins, large communal areas, centralized storage, solar storm shelters, and a viewing gallery".[124] Starship's life support system is expected to recycle resources such as air and water from waste.[134]

Starship will be able to be refueled by docking with separately launched Starship propellant tanker spacecraft in orbit. Doing so increases the spacecraft's mass capacity and allows it to reach higher-energy targets,[d] such as geosynchronous orbit, the Moon, and Mars.[135] A Starship propellant depot could cache methane and oxygen on-orbit and be used by Starship to replenish its fuel tanks.

Starship Human Landing System (HLS) is a crewed lunar lander variant of the Starship vehicle that would be modified for landing, operation, and takeoff from the lunar surface.[136] It features landing legs, a body-mounted solar array,[137] a set of thrusters mounted mid-body to assist with final landing and takeoff,[137] two airlocks,[136] and an elevator to lower crew and cargo onto the lunar surface.[138]

Varying estimates have been given about the number of tanker launches required to fully fuel HLS, ranging from between "four and eight" to a number "in the high teens".[139][140] These launches will reportedly have to be in "rapid succession" in order to manage schedule constraints and cryogenic fuel boil-off.[139] When fully fueled, Starship HLS is designed to land 100 t (220,000 lb) of payload on the Moon.[141][142][143]

Mission profile

Animation of Super Heavy's integration to the launch mount, using mechanical arms

The payload is integrated into Starship at a separate facility and then rolled out to the spaceport.[106] After Super Heavy and Starship are stacked onto their launch mount by lifting from hardpoints, they are loaded with fuel via the quick disconnect arm and support.[68] Roughly four hundred truck deliveries are needed for one launch, although some commodities are provided on-site via an air separation unit.[106] Then, the arm and mount detach, all thirty-three engines of Super Heavy ignite, and the rocket lifts off.[68]

A short animation of Super Heavy's landing on mechanical arms. The actual landing speed is a few times slower

After two minutes,[144] at an altitude of 65 km (40 mi), Super Heavy cuts off its engines. It releases the inter-stage latches, causing the rocket stages to be separate.[106][109] The booster then flips its orientation and ignites its engines briefly. As the booster returns to the launch site via a controlled descent, it will be caught by a pair of mechanical arms.[145] After six minutes of flight, about 20 t (44,000 lb) of propellant remains inside the booster.[144][109]

Meanwhile, the Starship spacecraft accelerates to orbital velocity. Once in orbit, the spacecraft can be refueled by one or more tanker variant Starships, increasing the spacecraft's capacity.[146] To land on bodies without an atmosphere, such as the Moon, Starship will fire its engines and thrusters to slow down.[147] To land on bodies with an atmosphere such as the Earth and Mars, Starship first slows down by entering the atmosphere via a heat shield.[112] The spacecraft then performs a "belly-flop" maneuver by diving back through the atmosphere body at a 60° angle to the ground,[64] and controls its fall using the four flaps.[73]

Shortly before landing, the Raptor engines fire,[73] using fuel from the header tanks,[148] causing the spacecraft to resume vertical orientation. At this stage, Raptor engines' gimbaling, throttle, and reaction control system's firing help to precisely maneuver the craft.[73] A pseudospectral optimal control algorithm by the German Aerospace Center predicted that the landing flip would tilt up to 20° from the ground's perpendicular line, and the angle would be reduced to zero on touchdown.[149]: 10–12  Future Starships are envisioned to be caught by mechanical arms, like the booster.[68]

If Starship's rocket stages land on a pad, a mobile hydraulic lift moves them to a transporter vehicle. If the rocket stages land on a floating platform, they will be transported by a barge to a port and finally transported by road. The recovered Super Heavy and Starship will either be positioned on the launch mount for another launch or refurbished at a SpaceX facility.[106]: 22  Super Heavy and Starship estimated flight turnaround times are not precise. The previous generation Falcon 9 tightest turnaround interval as of March 2023 is 21 days.[150]

Potential uses

Further information: List of SpaceX Starship launches

Starship's reusability is expected to reduce launch costs, expanding space access to more payloads and entities.[151] Musk has predicted that a Starship orbital launch will eventually cost $1 million. Eurospace's director of research, Pierre Lionnet, however, stated that Starship's launch price would likely be higher because of the rocket's development cost.[152]

Crewed and cargo launches

Starship also plans to launch the second generation of SpaceX's Starlink satellites, which deliver global high-speed internet.[153] A space analyst at financial services company Morgan Stanley stated development of Starship and Starlink are intertwined, with Starship launch capacity enabling cheaper Starlink launches, and Starlink's profits financing Starship's development costs.[154]

As of 19 August 2022, the Superbird-9 communication satellite is Starship's first and only known contract for externally made commercial satellites. The satellite weighs 3 t (6,600 lb) dry mass, planned for 2024 launch to a geostationary orbit.[155] In the future, the spacecraft's crewed version could be used for space tourism—for example, the DearMoon project funded by Yusaku Maezawa.[156] Another example is the third flight of the Polaris program announced by Jared Isaacman.[157]

Farther in the future, Starship may host point-to-point flights (called "Earth to Earth" flights by SpaceX), traveling anywhere on Earth in under an hour.[158] SpaceX president and chief operating officer Gwynne Shotwell said point-to-point travel could become cost competitive with conventional business class flights.[159] John Logsdon, an academic on space policy and history, said point-to-point travel is unrealistic, as the craft would switch between weightlessness to 5 g of acceleration.[160] In January 2022, SpaceX was awarded a $102 million five-year contract to develop the Rocket Cargo program for the United States Space Force.[161]

Space exploration

See caption and article
Artemis 3 launch profile of a human landing on the Moon, involving Starship HLS, Starship tanker variants, and Orion spacecraft

Starship's capability could enable large space telescopes such as the Large Ultraviolet Optical Infrared Surveyor, which detects Earth-like exoplanets. Starship might also launch probes orbiting Neptune or Io, or large sample-return missions, potentially giving insight into past volcanism on the Moon and possible extraterrestrial life.[146] The low launch cost could also allow probes to use more common and cheaper materials, such as glass, instead of beryllium for large telescope mirrors.[152]

Opinions differ on how Starship's low launch cost will affect the cost of space science. According to Waleed Abdalati, former NASA Chief Scientist, the low launch cost will cheapen satellite replacement and enable more ambitious missions for budget-limited programs. According to Lionnet, low launch cost might not reduce the overall cost of a science mission significantly: of the Rosetta space probe and Philae lander's mission cost of $1.7  billion, the cost of launch (by the expendable Ariane 5) only made up ten percent.[162]

Starship's lunar lander Starship HLS is critical to the NASA Artemis program for human exploration of the Moon.[163] The lander is accompanied by Starship tankers and propellant depots. The tankers transfer fuel to a depot until it is full, then the depot fuels Starship HLS. The lunar lander is thus endowed with enough thrust to achieve a lunar orbit. Then, the crews on board the Orion spacecraft are launched with the Space Launch System. Orion then docks with Starship HLS, and the crews transfer into the lander. After landing and returning, the lunar crews transfer back to Orion and return to Earth.[164]: 4, 5 

Space colonization

Further information: SpaceX Mars program

Starship is intended to be able to land crews on Mars.[165]: 120  The spacecraft is launched to low Earth orbit, and is then refueled by around five tanker spacecraft before heading to Mars.[166] After landing on Mars, the Sabatier reaction is used to synthesize liquid methane and liquid oxygen, Starship's fuel, in a power-to-gas plant. The plant's raw resources are Martian water and carbon dioxide.[117] On Earth, similar technologies could be used to make carbon-neutral propellant for the rocket.[167]

SpaceX and Musk have stated their goal of colonizing Mars to ensure the long-term survival of humanity,[152][168] with an ambition of sending a thousand Starship spacecraft to Mars during a Mars launch window in a very far future.[169] Musk had maintained an interest in Mars colonization since 2001, when he joined the Mars Society and researched Mars-related space experiments before founding SpaceX in 2002.[170]: 99–100, 102, 112  Musk has made tentative estimates of Starship's Mars landing;[114] in March 2022, he gave a date of 2029 for the first crewed Mars landing.[171] SpaceX has not published technical plans about Starship's life support systems, radiation protection,[172] or in-orbit refueling.[166]

Facilities

See also: SpaceX facilities

Testing and manufacturing

Various spacecraft constructed inside bays
A bay at Starbase build site, hosting construction of prototypes

Starbase consists of a manufacturing facility and launch site,[173] and is located at Boca Chica, Texas. Both facilities operate twenty-four hours a day.[115] A maximum of 450 full-time employees may be onsite.[106]: 28  The site is planned to consist of two launch sites, one payload processing facility, one seven-acre solar farm, and other facilities.[106]: 34–36  As of April 2022, the expansion plan's permit has been withdrawn by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, citing lack of information provided.[174] The company leases Starbase's land for the STARGATE research facility, owned by the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. It uses part of it for Starship development.[175]

At McGregor, Texas, the Rocket Development facility tests all Raptor engines. The facility has two main test stands: one horizontal stand for both engine types and one vertical stand for sea-level-optimized rocket engines. Other test stands are used for checking Starship's reaction control thrusters and Falcon's Merlin engines. The McGregor facility previously hosted test flights of landable first stages—Grasshopper and F9R Dev1. In the future, a nearby factory, which as of September 2021 was under construction, will make the new generation of sea-level Raptors while SpaceX's headquarters in California will continue building the Raptor Vacuum and test new designs.[176]

At Florida, a facility at Cocoa purifies silica for Starship heat-shield tiles, producing a slurry that is then shipped to a facility at Cape Canaveral. In the past, workers constructed the Starship Mk2 prototype in competition with Starbase's crews.[177] The Kennedy Space Center, also in Florida, is planned to host other Starship facilities, such as Starship launch sites at Launch Complex 39A, the planned Launch Complex 49, and a production facility at Roberts Road. This production facility is being expanded from "Hangar X," the Falcon rocket boosters' storage and maintenance facility. It will include a 30,000 m2 (320,000 sq ft) building, loading dock, and a place for constructing integration tower sections.[178]

Launch sites

Launch area with a tank farm and launch tower
Starbase Texas in July 2021, showing the integration tower and tank farm under construction

Starbase is planned to host two launch sites, named Pad A and B.[106]: 34  A launch site at Starbase has large facilities, such as a tank farm, an orbital launch mount, and an integration tower. Smaller facilities are present at the launch site: tanks surrounding the area contain methane, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, hydraulic fluid, etc.;[106]: 161  subcoolers near the tank farm cool propellant using liquid nitrogen; and various pipes are installed at large facilities.[68] Each tank farm consists of eight tanks, enough for one orbital launch. The current launch mount on Pad A, has a water sound suppression system, twenty clamps holding the booster, and a quick disconnect mount providing liquid fuel and electricity to the Super Heavy booster.[68]

The integration tower or launch tower consists of steel truss sections, a lightning rod on top,[179] and a pair of mechanical arms that can lift, catch and recover the booster.[68] The decision was made to enable flights and reduce the rocket's mass and part count.[85]: 2  The mechanical arms are attached to a carriage and controlled by a pulley at the top of the tower. The pulley is linked to a winch and spool at the base of the tower using a cable. Using the winch, the carriage, and mechanical arms can move vertically, with support from bearings attached at the sides of the carriage. A linear hydraulic actuator moves the arms horizontally. Tracks are mounted on top of arms, which are used to position the booster or spacecraft precisely. The tower is mounted with a quick disconnect arm extending to and contracting from the Starship spacecraft; its functions are similar to the quick disconnect mount that powers the booster.[68]

Large steel tower next to the Vehicle Assembly Building
Starship launch tower (left) in construction at Kennedy Space Center's LC-39A

Since 2021,[180] the company is constructing a Starship launch pad in Cape Canaveral, Florida in Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A,[178] which is currently used to launch Crew Dragon capsules to the ISS.[180] SpaceX plans to make a separate pad at 39A's north, named Launch Complex 49.[178] Because of Launch Complex 39A's Crew Dragon launches, the company is studying how to strengthen the pad against the possibility of a Starship explosion and proposed to retrofit Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40 instead.[180] The towers and mechanical arms at the Florida launch sites should be similar to the one at Starbase, with improvements gained from the experience at Boca Chica.[178]

Phobos and Deimos were the names of two Starship offshore launch platforms, both in renovation as of March 2022.[181] Before being purchased from Valaris plc in June 2020, they were nearly identical oil platforms named Valaris 8501 and Valaris 8500. However, following futher analysis from SpaceX, it has been announced that the offshore paltforms were not suitable for Starship launches.[182] The platforms were sold earlier in 2023. According to SpaceX's president Gwynne Shotwell, offshore platforms are still in the works for future Starship launches. “We’ll have many pads” to support that high launch rate, she expained. “I think we’ll have a lot of sea-based platforms as well. We have to see how this ship goes.”[182]

Funding

See also: Starship HLS § History

As part of the Artemis HLS program, SpaceX was awarded in 2021 a $2.89 billion contract from NASA to develop the Starship lunar lander for Artemis III.[183][184] This award was contested by Blue Origin who sued NASA and SpaceX in response. The outcome of the lawsuit dismissed Blue origin's complaint and allowed NASA to award SpaceX.[185] In 2022, NASA awarded SpaceX $1.15 billion for a second lunar lander for Artemis 4.[184]

Elon Musk said in April 2023 that he expects to spend about $2 billion on Starship development in 2023.[186]

Community reception

Two large spacecraft next to a v-shaped roof house
Starship SN15 and SN16 juxtaposed with a local tiki bar

Outside the space community, reception to Starship's development among nearby locales has been mixed, especially from cities close to the Starbase spaceport. Proponents of SpaceX's arrival said the company would provide money, education, and job opportunities to the country's poorest areas. Fewer than one-fifth of those 25 or older in the Rio Grande Valley have a bachelor's degree, in comparison to the national average of one-third.[187] The local government has stated that the company boosted the local economy by hiring residents and investing, aiding the three-tenths of the population who live in poverty.[188]

Activist Elias Cantu of the League of United Latin American Citizens said the company encourages Brownsville's gentrification, with an ever-increasing property valuation.[188] Even though Starbase had originally planned to launch Falcon rockets when the original environmental assessment was completed in 2014,[189] the site in 2019 was subsequently used to develop Starship, ultimately requiring a revised environmental assessment.[190] Some of the tests have ended in large explosions, causing major disruption to residents and wildlife reserves. The Carrizo/Comecrudo Tribe and environmental activists also allege that SpaceX have overpoliced the area, disrupting indigenous ceremonies and local fishing.[191] The SpaceX Starship orbital test flight in April 2023 began with large blasts of concrete and silt dust reaching communities within a 10-km (6-mile) radius and led to a small brushfire burning on nearby state parkland,[192] eliciting concerns about the launch's impact on the health of both human residents and endangered species,[193] and bringing about a lawsuit against the FAA from four environmental groups and the Tribe.[194][195][196] The disruption to residents is compounded by SpaceX's frequent closures of the road to the beach for vehicle testing.[190] Some residents have moved away or requested financial reparations from the company.[188]

Notes

  1. ^ Test flight[1]
  2. ^ Super Heavy dry mass: 160 t (350,000 lb) – 200 t (440,000 lb); Starship dry mass: <100 t (220,000 lb); Super Heavy propellant mass: 3,600 t (7,900,000 lb);[109] Starship propellant mass: 1,200 t (2,600,000 lb).[110] The total of these masses is about 5,000 t (11,000,000 lb).
  3. ^ 78% of 3,600 t (7,900,000 lb)[109] is 2,800 t (6,200,000 lb) of liquid oxygen.
  4. ^ Synonymous with increasing the delta-v budget of the spacecraft.

References

  1. ^ Klotz, Irene. "SpaceX giant rocket explodes minutes after launch from Texas". AP News. The Associated Press. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
  2. ^ a b Amos, Jonathan (6 August 2021). "Biggest ever rocket is assembled briefly in Texas". BBC News. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2022.
  3. ^ a b "Starship". SpaceX. 5 February 2023. Archived from the original on 22 May 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2023. Starship will be the world's most powerful launch vehicle ever developed, with the ability to carry up to 149 metric tonnes to Earth orbit reusable, and up to 250 metric tonnes expendable.
  4. ^ Wall, Mike (21 April 2023). "What's next for SpaceX's Starship after its historic flight test?". Space.com. Archived from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
  5. ^ Kolodny, Lora. "SpaceX Starship explosion spread particulate matter for miles". CNBC. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
  6. ^ Hoffman, Carl (22 May 2007). "Elon Musk Is Betting His Fortune on a Mission Beyond Earth's Orbit". Wired Magazine. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  7. ^ a b "Elon Musk: I'll Put a Man on Mars in 10 Years". Market Watch. New York. 22 April 2011. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  8. ^ a b c "Huge Mars Colony Eyed by SpaceX Founder". Discovery News. 13 December 2012. Archived from the original on 15 November 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
  9. ^ Carroll, Rory (17 July 2013). "Elon Musk's mission to Mars". TheGuardian. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
  10. ^ Messier, Doug (5 February 2014). "Elon Musk Talks ISS Flights, Vladimir Putin and Mars". Parabolic Arc. Archived from the original on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
  11. ^ a b Rosenberg, Zach (15 October 2012). "SpaceX aims big with massive new rocket". Flight Global. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
  12. ^ a b c Belluscio, Alejandro G. (7 March 2014). "SpaceX advances drive for Mars rocket via Raptor power". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
  13. ^ Coppinger, Rod (23 November 2012). "Huge Mars Colony Eyed by SpaceX Founder Elon Musk". Space.com. Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2016. an evolution of SpaceX's Falcon 9 booster ... much bigger [than Falcon 9], but I don't think we're quite ready to state the payload. We'll speak about that next year. ... Vertical landing is an extremely important breakthrough — extreme, rapid reusability.
  14. ^ Heath, Chris (12 December 2015). "How Elon Musk Plans on Reinventing the World (and Mars)". GQ. Archived from the original on 12 December 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
  15. ^ Nellis, Stephen (19 February 2014). "SpaceX's propulsion chief elevates crowd in Santa Barbara". Pacific Coast Business Times. Archived from the original on 26 September 2016. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
  16. ^ Berger, Eric (18 September 2016). "Elon Musk scales up his ambitions, considering going "well beyond" Mars". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
  17. ^ a b Belluscio, Alejandro G. (3 October 2016). "ITS Propulsion – The evolution of the SpaceX Raptor engine". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2016.
  18. ^ 2016 StartmeupHK Venture Forum - Elon Musk on Entrepreneurship and Innovation. StartmeupHK Venture Forum--2016. via InvestHK YouTube channel: Invest Hong Kong. 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 28 January 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2016. (SpaceX discussion at 30:15-31:40) We'll have the next generation rocket and spacecraft, beyond the Falcon and Dragon series ... I'm hoping to describe that architecture later this year at the International Astronautical Congress. which is the big international space event every year. ... first flights to Mars? we're hoping to do that in around 2025 ... nine years from now or thereabouts.
  19. ^ Mosher, Dave (17 November 2016). "The 'trickiest' part of Elon Musk's Mars spaceship -- a giant black orb -- just passed a critical test". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
  20. ^ Elon Musk (19 July 2017). Elon Musk, ISS R&D Conference (video). ISS R&D Conference, Washington DC, USA. Event occurs at 49:48–51:35. Retrieved 13 September 2017 – via YouTube. the updated version of the Mars architecture: Because it has evolved quite a bit since that last talk. ... The key thing that I figured out is how do you pay for it? If we downsize the Mars vehicle, make it capable of doing Earth-orbit activity as well as Mars activity, maybe we can pay for it by using it for Earth-orbit activity. That is one of the key elements in the new architecture. It is similar to what was shown at IAC, but a little bit smaller. Still big, but this one has a shot at being real on the economic front.
  21. ^ Bergin, Chris (11 May 2015). "Falcon Heavy enabler for Dragon solar system explorer". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2015. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
  22. ^ a b c d e f Bergin, Chris (27 September 2016). "SpaceX reveals ITS Mars game changer via colonization plan". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g Richardson, Derek (27 September 2016). "Elon Musk Shows Off Interplanetary Transport System". Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on 1 October 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2016.
  24. ^ Musk, Elon [@elonmusk] (27 September 2016). "12m rocket booster diameter, 17m spaceship diameter, 122 m stack height" (Tweet). Retrieved 22 August 2021 – via Twitter.
  25. ^ a b "Making Humans a Multiplanetary Species" (PDF). SpaceX. 27 September 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 November 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
  26. ^ Berger, Eric (28 September 2016). "Musk's Mars moment: Audacity, madness, brilliance—or maybe all three". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
  27. ^ a b Boyle, Alan (23 October 2016). "SpaceX's Elon Musk geeks out over Mars interplanetary transport plan on Reddit". GeekWire. Archived from the original on 24 October 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
  28. ^ a b c d e f g Making Life Multiplanetary. SpaceX. 29 September 2017. Archived from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021 – via YouTube.
  29. ^ a b c d e f Musk, Elon (1 March 2018). "Making Life Multi-Planetary". New Space. 6 (1): 2–11. Bibcode:2018NewSp...6....2M. doi:10.1089/space.2018.29013.emu.
  30. ^ Henry, Caleb (21 November 2017). "SpaceX aims to follow a banner year with an even faster 2018 launch cadence". SpaceNews. Retrieved 15 January 2018. Shotwell estimated that around 50 percent of the work on BFR is focused on the Raptor engines.
  31. ^ a b c Masunaga, Samantha (19 April 2018). "SpaceX gets approval to develop its BFR rocket and spaceship at Port of Los Angeles". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
  32. ^ Michael DiBernardo (19 April 2018). Port Authority of Los Angeles, Regular Board Meeting (video). LA: The Port of Los Angeles. Event occurs at 35:36. Archived from the original on 22 April 2018. Retrieved 21 April 2018 – via YouTube.
  33. ^ Foust, Jeff (12 March 2018). "Musk reiterates plans for testing BFR". SpaceNews. Retrieved 15 March 2018. Construction of the first prototype spaceship is in progress. 'We're actually building that ship right now,' he said. 'I think we'll probably be able to do short flights, short sort of up-and-down flights, probably sometime in the first half of next year.'
  34. ^ Berger, Eric (19 March 2018). "SpaceX indicates it will manufacture the BFR rocket in Los Angeles". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  35. ^ "Fireside Chat with SpaceX President Gwynne Shotwell". Flickr.com. 11 October 2017. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
  36. ^ Seemangal, Robin (1 February 2018). "SpaceX Gears Up to Finally, Actually Launch the Falcon Heavy". Wired. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 7 March 2018. SpaceX is actively considering expanding its San Pedro, California facility to begin manufacturing its interplanetary spacecraft. This would allow SpaceX to easily shift personnel from headquarters in Hawthorne.
  37. ^ Insinnia, Valerie (2 August 2018). "One possible job for SpaceX's BFR rocket? Taking the Air Force's cargo in and out of space". DefenseNews. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  38. ^ Air Mobility Command Chief Looks Toward Supplying Forces From Space Archived 9 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine, US Department of Defense, 2 August 2018.
  39. ^ Foust, Jeff (29 September 2017). "Musk unveils revised version of giant interplanetary launch system". SpaceNews. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
  40. ^ Foust, Jeff (15 October 2017). "Musk offers more technical details on BFR system". SpaceNews. Retrieved 27 May 2019. [Musk] added that, since the presentation last month, SpaceX has revised the design of the BFR spaceship to add a "medium area ratio" Raptor engine to its original complement of two engines with sea-level nozzles and four with vacuum nozzles. That additional engine helps enable that engine-out capability ... and will "allow landings with higher payload mass for the Earth to Earth transport function."
  41. ^ "Elon Musk Says SpaceX Will Send Yusaku Maezawa (and Artists!) to the Moon". Wired. 18 September 2018. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
  42. ^ Ralph, Eric (14 September 2018). "SpaceX has signed a private passenger for the first BFR launch around the Moon". Archived from the original on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  43. ^ Boyle, Alan (19 November 2018). "Goodbye, BFR … hello, Starship: Elon Musk gives a classic name to his Mars spaceship". GeekWire. Archived from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 22 November 2018. Starship is the spaceship/upper stage & Super Heavy is the rocket booster needed to escape Earth's deep gravity well (not needed for other planets or moons)
  44. ^ "Starship". SpaceX. Archived from the original on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  45. ^ "Starship Users Guide, Revision 1.0, March 2020" (PDF). SpaceX. March 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020. SpaceX's Starship system represents a fully reusable transportation system designed to service Earth orbit needs as well as missions to the Moon and Mars. This two-stage vehicle – composed of the Super Heavy rocket (booster) and Starship (spacecraft)
  46. ^ berger, Eric (5 March 2020). "Inside Elon Musk's plan to build one Starship a week and settle Mars". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 5 March 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2020. Musk tackles the hardest engineering problems first. For Mars, there will be so many logistical things to make it all work, from power on the surface to scratching out a living to adapting to its extreme climate. But Musk believes that the initial, hardest step is building a reusable, orbital Starship to get people and tons of stuff to Mars. So he is focused on that.
  47. ^ Berger, Eric (29 September 2019). "Elon Musk, Man of Steel, reveals his stainless Starship". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  48. ^ D'Agostino, Ryan (22 January 2019). "Elon Musk: Why I'm Building the Starship out of Stainless Steel". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
  49. ^ D'Agostino, Ryan (22 January 2019). "Elon Musk: Why I'm Building the Starship out of Stainless Steel". popularmechanics.com. Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 22 January 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
  50. ^ Musk, Elon [@elonmusk] (23 May 2019). "3 sea level optimized Raptors, 3 vacuum optimized Raptors (big nozzle)" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  51. ^ Musk, Elon [@elonmusk] (23 May 2019). "First flights would have fewer, so as to risk less loss of hardware. Probably around 20" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  52. ^ Musk, Elon [@elonmusk] (6 August 2021). "@NASASpaceflight @BBCAmos Over time, we might get orbital payload up to ~150 tons with full reusabity. If Starship then launched as an expendable, payload would be ~250 tons. What isn't obvious from this chart is that Starship/Super Heavy is much denser than Saturn V." (Tweet). Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021 – via Twitter.
  53. ^ Musk, Elon [@elonmusk] (3 May 2020). "@Kristennetten A little. Will have 31 engines, not 37, no big fins and legs similar to ship. That thrust dome is the super hard part. Raptor SL thrust starts at 200 ton, but upgrades in the works for 250 ton" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021 – via Twitter.
  54. ^ Sheetz, Michael (1 September 2020). "Elon Musk says SpaceX's Starship rocket will launch "hundreds of missions" before flying people". CNBC. Archived from the original on 2 September 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  55. ^ "Elon Musk's SpaceX raises $1.9 billion in funding". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
  56. ^ a b Foust, Jeff (15 April 2021). "SpaceX adds to latest funding round". SpaceNews. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
  57. ^ Musk, Elon [@elonmusk] (22 July 2021). "@AlexSvanArt @Neopork85 Flight tests showed that we could make body flaps narrower & lighter" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 20 August 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021 – via Twitter.
  58. ^ a b Berger, Eric (21 February 2020). "SpaceX pushing iterative design process, accepting failure to go fast". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 25 December 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2022.
  59. ^ Reichhardt, Tony (14 December 2021). "Marsliner". Air & Space/Smithsonian. Archived from the original on 6 May 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  60. ^ Harwood, William (27 August 2019). "SpaceX launches "Starhopper" on dramatic test flight". CBS News. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
  61. ^ a b c d Foust, Jeff (5 May 2021). "Starship survives test flight". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  62. ^ Berger, Eric (14 April 2023). "Green light go: SpaceX receives a launch license from the FAA for Starship". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  63. ^ a b Ryan, Jackson (29 September 2019). "Elon Musk says SpaceX Starship rocket could reach orbit within 6 months". CNET. Archived from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2021.
  64. ^ a b Chang, Kenneth (29 September 2019). "SpaceX Unveils Silvery Vision to Mars: 'It's an I.C.B.M. That Lands'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  65. ^ Grush, Loren (20 November 2019). "SpaceX's prototype Starship rocket partially bursts during testing in Texas". The Verge. Archived from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  66. ^ Bergeron, Julia (6 April 2021). "New permits shed light on activity at SpaceX's Cidco and Roberts Road facilities". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
  67. ^ a b Kanayama, Lee; Beil, Adrian (28 August 2021). "SpaceX continues forward progress with Starship on Starhopper anniversary". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  68. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Weber, Ryan (31 October 2021). "Major elements of Starship Orbital Launch Pad in place as launch readiness draws nearer". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  69. ^ Sheetz, Michael (19 January 2021). "SpaceX bought two former Valaris oil rigs to build floating launchpads for its Starship rocket". CNBC. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  70. ^ Mack, Eric (4 August 2020). "SpaceX Starship prototype takes big step toward Mars with first tiny 'hop'". CNET. Archived from the original on 16 December 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  71. ^ Sheetz, Michael (3 September 2020). "SpaceX launches and lands another Starship prototype, the second flight test in under a month". CNBC. Archived from the original on 16 December 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  72. ^ Kooser, Amanda (26 September 2020). "Watch SpaceX fire up Starship's furious new Raptor Vacuum engine". CNET. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  73. ^ a b c d Wattles, Jackie (10 December 2020). "Space X's Mars prototype rocket exploded yesterday. Here's what happened on the flight". CNN. Archived from the original on 10 December 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
  74. ^ Roulette, Joey (15 June 2021). "SpaceX ignored last-minute warnings from the FAA before December Starship launch". The Verge. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  75. ^ Mack, Eric (2 February 2021). "SpaceX Starship SN9 flies high, explodes on landing just like SN8". CNET. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  76. ^ a b Chang, Kenneth (3 March 2021). "SpaceX Mars Rocket Prototype Explodes, but This Time It Lands First". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 June 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  77. ^ a b Mack, Eric (30 March 2021). "SpaceX Starship SN11 test flight flies high and explodes in the fog". CNET. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
  78. ^ Foust, Jeff (6 April 2021). "Engine explosion blamed for latest Starship crash". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  79. ^ Berger, Eric (8 March 2021). "SpaceX reveals the great extent of its starport plans in South Texas". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  80. ^ Keates, Nancy; Maremont, Mark (7 May 2021). "Elon Musk's SpaceX Is Buying Up a Texas Village. Homeowners Cry Foul". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  81. ^ Roulette, Joey (30 April 2021). "NASA suspends SpaceX's $2.9 billion moon lander contract after rivals protest". The Verge. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
  82. ^ Pruitt-Young, Sharon (17 August 2021). "Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin Sues NASA Over A Lunar Lander Contract Given To Rival SpaceX". NPR. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  83. ^ Sheetz, Michael (4 November 2021). "Bezos' Blue Origin loses NASA lawsuit over SpaceX $2.9 billion lunar lander contract". CNBC. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
  84. ^ a b Mack, Eric (7 May 2021). "SpaceX's Mars prototype rocket, Starship SN15, might fly again soon". CNET. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
  85. ^ a b "Starbase Overview" (PDF). SpaceX. 29 March 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  86. ^ Berger, Eric (23 July 2021). "Rocket Report: Super Heavy lights up, China tries to recover a fairing". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  87. ^ Berger, Eric (14 July 2021). "SpaceX will soon fire up its massive Super Heavy booster for the first time". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
  88. ^ Bergin, Chris (5 May 2022). "One year since SN15, Starbase lays groundwork for orbital attempt". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 7 June 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
  89. ^ Sheetz, Michael (6 August 2021). "Musk: 'Dream come true' to see fully stacked SpaceX Starship rocket during prep for orbital launch". CNBC. Archived from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  90. ^ Costa, Jason (15 December 2021). "NASA Conducts Environmental Assessment, Practices Responsible Growth". NASA (Press release). Archived from the original on 16 December 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  91. ^ a b c d e f Sesnic, Trevor (14 July 2022). "Raptor 1 vs Raptor 2: What did SpaceX change?". The Everyday Astronaut. Archived from the original on 19 August 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  92. ^ Mooney, Justin; Bergin, Chris (11 February 2022). "Musk outlines Starship progress towards self-sustaining Mars city". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 10 March 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
  93. ^ Chang, Kenneth (13 June 2022). "SpaceX Wins Environmental Approval for Launch of Mars Rocket". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  94. ^ Dvorsky, George (10 August 2022). "SpaceX Performs Limited Static Fire Test of Starship Booster, Avoids Explosion". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
  95. ^ a b Kshatriya, Amit; Kirasich, Mark (31 October 2022). "Artemis I – IV Mission Overview / Status" (PDF). NASA. Human Exploration and Operations Committee of the NASA Advisory Council. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 November 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
  96. ^ Iemole, Anthony (7 December 2022). "Boosters 7 and 9 in dual flow toward Starbase test milestones". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
  97. ^ Foust, Jeff (24 January 2023). "SpaceX completes Starship wet dress rehearsal". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  98. ^ Wall, Mike (17 April 2023). "SpaceX scrubs 1st space launch of giant Starship rocket due to fueling issue". Space.com. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
  99. ^ Wattles, Jackie; Strickland, Ashley (20 April 2023). "SpaceX's Starship rocket lifts off for inaugural test flight, but explodes midair". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 April 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
  100. ^ Bergin, Chris (3 May 2023). "Elon Musk pushes for orbital goal following data gathering objectives during Starship debut". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
  101. ^ "SpaceX". SpaceX. Archived from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
  102. ^ Klotz, Irene (1 May 2023). "Engine Issue Felled SpaceX First Super Heavy | Aviation Week Network". Aviation Week Network. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  103. ^ Salinas, Sara (20 April 2023). "SpaceX launches towering Starship rocket but suffers mid-flight failure". CNBC. Archived from the original on 20 April 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
  104. ^ Berger, Eric (10 April 2023). "SpaceX's Starship vehicle is ready to fly, just waiting for a launch license". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  105. ^ "Starship Orbital – First Flight FCC Exhibit". SpaceX (PDF). 13 May 2021. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
  106. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Final Programmatic Environmental Assessment for the SpaceX Starship/Super Heavy Launch Vehicle Program at the SpaceX Boca Chica Launch Site in Cameron County, Texas" (PDF). Federal Aviation Administration and SpaceX. June 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 June 2022. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  107. ^ Romera, Alejandro Alcantarilla (28 July 2022). "Awaiting Static Fire as SpaceX sets up Starship's test campaign". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
  108. ^ Wattles, Jackie (9 April 2021). "$200,000 streaming rigs and millions of views: inside the cottage industry popping up around SpaceX". CNN. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  109. ^ a b c d e f g h Sesnic, Trevor (11 August 2021). "Starbase Tour and Interview with Elon Musk". The Everyday Astronaut (Interview). Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  110. ^ Lawler, Richard (29 September 2019). "SpaceX's plan for in-orbit Starship refueling: a second Starship". Engadget. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
  111. ^ a b Dvorsky, George (6 August 2021). "SpaceX Starship Stacking Produces the Tallest Rocket Ever Built". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  112. ^ a b Inman, Jennifer Ann; Horvath, Thomas J.; Scott, Carey Fulton (24 August 2021). SCIFLI Starship Reentry Observation (SSRO) ACO (SpaceX Starship). Game Changing Development Annual Program Review 2021. NASA. Archived from the original on 11 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  113. ^ Ryan, Jackson (21 October 2021). "SpaceX Starship Raptor vacuum engine fired for the first time". CNET. Archived from the original on 9 June 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  114. ^ a b Chang, Kenneth (28 September 2019). "Elon Musk Sets Out SpaceX Starship's Ambitious Launch Timeline". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  115. ^ a b Berger, Eric (5 March 2020). "Inside Elon Musk's plan to build one Starship a week—and settle Mars". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  116. ^ a b c O'Callaghan, Jonathan (31 July 2019). "The wild physics of Elon Musk's methane-guzzling super-rocket". Wired UK. Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
  117. ^ a b Sommerlad, Joe (28 May 2021). "Elon Musk reveals Starship progress ahead of first orbital flight of Mars-bound craft". The Independent. Archived from the original on 23 August 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
  118. ^ a b Bergin, Chris (19 July 2021). "Super Heavy Booster 3 fires up for the first time". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
  119. ^ Bergin, Chris (9 June 2022). "Starbase orbital duo preps for Static Fire campaign – KSC Starship Progress". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 19 June 2022. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
  120. ^ "Starship official website". SpaceX. Archived from the original on 3 July 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  121. ^ Dvorsky, George (6 August 2021). "SpaceX Starship Stacking Produces the Tallest Rocket Ever Built". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  122. ^ Petrova, Magdalena (13 March 2022). "Why Starship is the holy grail for SpaceX". CNBC. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  123. ^ Garcia, Mark (5 November 2021). "International Space Station Facts and Figures". NASA. Archived from the original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  124. ^ a b c "Starship Users Guide" (PDF). SpaceX. March 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 August 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
  125. ^ Lawler, Richard (29 September 2019). "SpaceX's plan for in-orbit Starship refueling: a second Starship". Engadget. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  126. ^ Sheetz, Michael (30 March 2021). "Watch SpaceX's launch and attempted landing of Starship prototype rocket SN11". CNBC. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
  127. ^ Kooser, Amanda (1 October 2019). "Elon Musk video lets us peep inside SpaceX Starship". CNET. Archived from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  128. ^ Wattles, Jackie (10 December 2020). "Space X's Mars prototype rocket exploded yesterday. Here's what happened on the flight". CNN. Archived from the original on 10 December 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
  129. ^ Sheetz, Michael (3 March 2021). "SpaceX Starship prototype rocket explodes after successful landing in high-altitude flight test". CNBC. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  130. ^ "Starbase Overview" (PDF). SpaceX. 29 March 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  131. ^ Weber, Ryan (31 October 2021). "Major elements of Starship Orbital Launch Pad in place as launch readiness draws nearer". NASASpaceflight. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  132. ^ Sesnic, Trevor (11 August 2021). "Starbase Tour and Interview with Elon Musk". The Everyday Astronaut (Interview). Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  133. ^ Dvorsky, George (6 June 2022). "Musk's Megarocket Will Deploy Starlink Satellites Like a Pez Dispenser". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 9 June 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
  134. ^ Grush, Loren (4 October 2019). "Elon Musk's future Starship updates could use more details on human health and survival". The Verge. Archived from the original on 8 October 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
  135. ^ Scoles, Sarah (12 August 2022). "Prime mover". Science. 377 (6607): 702–705. Bibcode:2022Sci...377..702S. doi:10.1126/science.ade2873. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 35951703. S2CID 240464593. Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  136. ^ a b Burghardt, Thomas (20 April 2021). "After NASA taps SpaceX's Starship for first Artemis landings, the agency looks to on-ramp future vehicles". NASASpaceflight. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  137. ^ a b Kurkowski, Seth (2 November 2023). "Leaked new SpaceX Starship HLS renders show a much more refined design". Space Explored. Archived from the original on 5 December 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2023.
  138. ^ Foust, Jeff (24 August 2022). "Starship uncrewed lunar lander test a "skeleton" of crewed lander". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 23 February 2024. Retrieved 21 November 2023.
  139. ^ a b Foust, Jeff (17 November 2023). "Starship lunar lander missions to require nearly 20 launches, NASA says". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 23 February 2024. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
  140. ^ Harwood, William (9 January 2024). "NASA delays first Artemis astronaut flight to late 2025, moon landing to 2026". CBS News. Archived from the original on 18 February 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  141. ^ Satter, Raphael; Jin, Hyunjoo; Vengattil, Munsif (16 April 2021). "'NASA rules,' Musk says as SpaceX wins $2.9 billion moon lander contract". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
  142. ^ Berger, Eric (2 May 2022). "SpaceX engineer says NASA should plan for Starship's "significant" capability". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 11 December 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
  143. ^ Davenport, Christian (16 April 2023). "SpaceX's launch of Starship could remake space exploration". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
  144. ^ a b Moon, Mariella (11 February 2022). "SpaceX shows what a Starship launch would look like". Engadget. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
  145. ^ Cuthbertson, Anthony (30 August 2021). "SpaceX will use 'robot chopsticks' to catch massive rocket, Elon Musk says". The Independent. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  146. ^ a b O'Callaghan, Jonathan (7 December 2021). "How SpaceX's massive Starship rocket might unlock the solar system—and beyond". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
  147. ^ Foust, Jeff (6 January 2021). "SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Dynetics Compete to Build the Next Moon Lander". IEEE Spectrum. Archived from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
  148. ^ Kooser, Amanda (1 October 2019). "Elon Musk video lets us peep inside SpaceX Starship". CNET. Archived from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  149. ^ Sagliano, Marco; Seelbinder, David; Theil, Stephan (25 June 2021). SPARTAN: Rapid Trajectory Analysis via Pseudospectral Methods (PDF). 8th International Conference on Astrodynamics Tools and Techniques. German Aerospace Center. Bremen. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  150. ^ List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters: Falcon 9 #B 1062, 21-day turnaround on April 29, 2022;
  151. ^ Mann, Adam (20 May 2020). "SpaceX now dominates rocket flight, bringing significant benefits—and risks—to NASA". Science. doi:10.1126/science.abc9093. Archived from the original on 7 November 2021. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
  152. ^ a b c Scoles, Sarah (12 August 2022). "Prime mover". Science. 377 (6607): 702–705. Bibcode:2022Sci...377..702S. doi:10.1126/science.ade2873. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 35951703. Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  153. ^ Sheetz, Michael (19 August 2021). "SpaceX adding capabilities to Starlink internet satellites, plans to launch them with Starship". CNBC. Archived from the original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  154. ^ Sheetz, Michael (19 October 2021). "Morgan Stanley says SpaceX's Starship may 'transform investor expectations' about space". CNBC. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
  155. ^ Rainbow, Jason (18 August 2022). "Sky Perfect JSAT picks SpaceX's Starship for 2024 satellite launch". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 19 August 2022. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  156. ^ Ryan, Jackson (15 July 2021). "SpaceX moon mission billionaire reveals who might get a ticket to ride Starship". CNET. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  157. ^ Sheetz, Michael (14 February 2022). "Billionaire astronaut Jared Isaacman buys more private SpaceX flights, including one on Starship". CNBC. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  158. ^ Sheetz, Michael (4 June 2021). "The Pentagon wants to use private rockets like SpaceX's Starship to deliver cargo around the world". CNBC. Archived from the original on 1 September 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  159. ^ Sheetz, Michael (18 March 2019). "Super fast travel using outer space could be US$20 billion market, disrupting airlines, UBS predicts". CNBC. Archived from the original on 29 October 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
  160. ^ Ferris, Robert (29 September 2017). "Space expert calls Elon Musk's plan to fly people from New York to Shanghai in 39 minutes 'extremely unrealistic'". CNBC. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  161. ^ Erwin, Sandra (19 January 2022). "SpaceX wins $102 million Air Force contract to demonstrate technologies for point-to-point space transportation". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
  162. ^ Bender, Maddie (16 September 2021). "SpaceX's Starship Could Rocket-Boost Research in Space". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  163. ^ Burghardt, Thomas (20 April 2021). "After NASA taps SpaceX's Starship for first Artemis landings, the agency looks to on-ramp future vehicles". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  164. ^ NASA's management of the Artemis missions (PDF) (Report). NASA Office of Inspector General. 15 November 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  165. ^ Goldsmith, Donald; Rees, Martin J. (19 April 2022). The End of Astronauts: Why Robots Are the Future of Exploration. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-25772-6. OCLC 1266218790.
  166. ^ a b Pearson, Ben (3 June 2019). "SpaceX beginning to tackle some of the big challenges for a Mars journey". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 11 October 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  167. ^ Killelea, Eric (16 December 2021). "Musk looks to Earth's atmosphere as source of rocket fuel". San Antonio Express-News. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
  168. ^ Chang, Kenneth (27 September 2016). "Elon Musk's Plan: Get Humans to Mars, and Beyond". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
  169. ^ Kooser, Amanda (16 January 2020). "Elon Musk breaks down the Starship numbers for a million-person SpaceX Mars colony". CNET. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
  170. ^ Vance, Ashlee (2015). Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-230123-9. OCLC 881436803.
  171. ^ Torchinsky, Rina (17 March 2022). "Elon Musk hints at a crewed mission to Mars in 2029". NPR. Archived from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  172. ^ Grush, Loren (4 October 2019). "Elon Musk's future Starship updates could use more details on human health and survival". The Verge. Archived from the original on 8 October 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
  173. ^ Berger, Eric (2 July 2021). "Rocket Report: Super Heavy rolls to launch site, Funk will get to fly". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  174. ^ Grush, Loren (6 April 2022). "Army Corps of Engineers closes SpaceX Starbase permit application citing lack of information". The Verge. Archived from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  175. ^ "STARGATE – Spacecraft Tracking and Astronomical Research into Gigahertz Astrophysical Transient Emission". University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. Archived from the original on 5 August 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
  176. ^ Davenport, Justin (16 September 2021). "New Raptor Factory under construction at SpaceX McGregor amid continued engine testing". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  177. ^ Bergeron, Julia (6 April 2021). "New permits shed light on the activity at SpaceX's Cidco and Roberts Road facilities". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  178. ^ a b c d Bergin, Chris (22 February 2022). "Focus on Florida – SpaceX lays the groundwork for East Coast Starship sites". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  179. ^ Berger, Eric (16 April 2021). "Rocket Report: SpaceX to build huge launch tower, Branson sells Virgin stock". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  180. ^ a b c Roulette, Joey (13 June 2022). "SpaceX faces NASA hurdle for Starship backup launch pad". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  181. ^ Bergin, Chris (6 March 2022). "Frosty Texas vehicles and groundwork in Florida ahead of Starship evolution". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 17 March 2022. Retrieved 22 March 2022.
  182. ^ a b Foust, Jeff (14 February 2023). "SpaceX drops plans to convert oil rigs into launch platforms". SpaceNews. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
  183. ^ Brown, Katherine (16 April 2021). "NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on Moon". NASA. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  184. ^ a b "SpaceX Awarded $1.15 Billion Contract to Build NASA's Second Lunar Lander". Yahoo News. Archived from the original on 23 November 2022. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  185. ^ Sheetz, Michael. "Bezos' Blue Origin loses NASA lawsuit over SpaceX $2.9 billion lunar lander contract". CNBC. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  186. ^ Sheetz, Michael. "SpaceX to spend about $2 billion on Starship this year, as Elon Musk pushes to reach orbit". CNBC. Archived from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  187. ^ Fouriezos, Nick (9 March 2022). "SpaceX launches rockets from one of America's poorest areas. Will Elon Musk bring prosperity?". USA Today. Archived from the original on 10 March 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
  188. ^ a b c Sandoval, Edgar; Webner, Richard (24 May 2021). "A Serene Shore Resort, Except for the SpaceX 'Ball of Fire'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 April 2022. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
  189. ^ Klotz, Irene (11 July 2014). "FAA Ruling Clears Path for SpaceX Launch site in Texas". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 17 July 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
  190. ^ a b Kramer, Anna (7 September 2021). "SpaceX's launch site may be a threat to the environment". Protocol.com. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
  191. ^ ""Colonizing Our Community": Elon Musk's SpaceX Rocket Explodes in Texas as Feds OK New LNG Projects". Democracy Now!. 21 April 2023. Archived from the original on 21 April 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  192. ^ Grush, Loren; Hull, Dana (26 April 2023). "SpaceX's Starship Launch Sparked Fire on State Park Land". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  193. ^ Kolodny, Lora (24 April 2023). "SpaceX Starship explosion spread particulate matter for miles". CNBC. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  194. ^ Center for Biological Diversity et al. v. Federal Aviation Administration (D.C. Cir. 2023), Text.
  195. ^ Kolodny, Lora (1 May 2023). "FAA sued over SpaceX Starship launch program following April explosion". CNBC – via NBC News.
  196. ^ Gorman, Steve (1 May 2023). "Environmentalists sue FAA over SpaceX launch license for Texas". Reuters. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to SpaceX Starship.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SpaceX_Starship&oldid=1154323671"