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Jainism
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Jainism (pronounced in English as IPA [ˈdʒeɪ.nɪzm̩]), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is a dharmic religion and philosophy originating in Ancient India. The Jains follow the teachings of Tirthankaras. The 24th Tirthankara, Lord Mahavira lived in ca. 6th century BCE. A small but influential religious minority in modern India, with growing immigrant communities in the United States, Western Europe, Africa, the Far East and elsewhere, Jains continue to sustain the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) or ascetic tradition.

Jains have significantly influenced the religious, ethical, political and economic spheres in India for over two millennia. Jainism stresses spiritual independence and equality of all life with particular emphasis on non-violence. Self-control (व्रत, vratae) is vital for attaining omniscience (kevala jnana) and eventually moksha, or realization of the soul's true nature.

The Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship. The Jains are the best educated religious community in India (Jains in India according to 2001 census), and the Jain libraries are India's oldest.[1]

Beliefs

Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. Tirthankars and Siddhas[clarification needed] are role models only because they have attained Moksha. Jains believe that every human is responsible for his/her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. It insists that we live, think and act respectfully and honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chiefly described as Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Ananta Jnana, Ananta Darshana, Ananta Caritra, and Ananta Sukha). Jains do not believe in an omnipotent supreme being, creator or manager (karta), but rather in an eternal universe governed by natural laws and the interplay of its attributes (gunas) and matter (dravya).

Jain scriptures were written over a long period of time, but the most cited is the Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by the monk-scholar, Umasvati almost 1800 years ago. The primary figures are Tirthankaras. There are two main sects called Digambar and Shvetambar, and both believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, sanskar, and jiva.

Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment. To kill any person, no matter what crime they committed, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Some Indian regions have been strongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local non-Jain population has also become vegetarian. History suggests that various strains of Hinduism became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences. In many towns, Jains run animal shelters. For example, Delhi has a bird hospital run by Jains.

Jainism's stance on nonviolence goes much beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many are vegan due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.[2]. Potatoes, garlic and onions in particular are avoided by Jains. [3] Devout Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset.

Anekantavada, a foundation of Jain philosophy, literally means "The Multiplicity of Reality", or equivalently, "Non-one-endedness". Anekantavada consists of tools for overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on any topic or in reality in general. Another tool is The Doctrine of Postulation, Syādvāda. Anekantavada is defined as a multiplicity of viewpoints, for it stresses looking at things from others' perspectives.

Jains are usually very welcoming and friendly toward other faiths and often help with interfaith functions. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jains.

A palpable presence in Indian culture, Jains have contributed to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, science, and to Mohandas Gandhi's politics, which led to the mainly non-violent movement for Indian independence.[1]

Universal history and Jain cosmology

File:Bhavajale.jpg
Bhaktamara Stotra: A Tirthankara is a shelter from ocean of rebirths.
Main article: Jain cosmology

According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. Time is divided into Utsarpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avsarpinis (Regressive Time Cycle). An Utsarpini and a Avsarpini constitute one Time Cycle (Kalchakra). Every Utsarpini and Avsarpini is divided into six unequal periods known as Aras. During the Utsarpini half cycle, ethics, progress, happiness, strength, age, body, religion, etc., go from the worst conditions to the best. During the Avsarpini half-cycle, these notions deteriorate from the best to the worst. Jains believe we are currently in the fifth Ara of the Avsarpini phase, with approximately 19,000 years until the next Ara. After this Avsarpini phase, the Utsarpini phase will begin, continuing the infinite repetition of the Kalchakra.

Jains also believe that at the upswing of each time cycle, people will lose religion again. All things people want will be given by wish-granting trees (Kalpavrksa), and people will be born in sets of twins (Yugalika) with one boy and one girl who stay together all their lives. This can be seen as a symbol of an integrated human with male and female characteristics balanced.

Jain philosophy is based upon eternal, universal truths, according to its followers. During the first and last two Aras, these truths lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached enlightenment or total knowledge (Kevala Jnana), during the third and fourth Aras. Traditionally, in our universe and in our time, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ) is regarded as the first to realize the truth. Lord Vardhamana (Mahavira, महावीर) was the last Tirthankara to attain enlightenment (599-527 BCE), preceded by twenty-three Tirthankaras making a total of twenty-four Tirthankaras.

It is important to note that the above description stands true "in our universe and in our time" for Jains believe there have been infinite sets of 24 Tirthankaras, one for each half of the time cycle, and this will continue in the future. Hence, Jainism does not trace its origins to Rishabh Deva, the first, or Mahavira, the twenty-fourth, Tirthankara.

List of twenty-four Tirthankaras
Sr. No Name Sr. No Name
1 Shri Adinath Bhagavan [1] 2 Shri Ajit Nath Bhagavan [2]
3 Shri Sambhav Nath Bhagavan [3] 4 Shri Abhinadan Swami Bhagavan [4]
5 Shri Sumati Nath Bhagavan [5] 6 Shri Padmaprabha Bhagavan [6]
7 Shri Suparshva Nath Bhagavan [7] 8 Shri Candraprabhu Bhagavan [8]
9 Shri Pushpdanth Bhagavan [9] 10 Shri Sheetal Nath Bhagavan [10]
11 Shri Shreyans Nath Bhagavan [11] 12 Shri Vasupujya Bhagavan [12]
13 Shri Vimal Nath Bhagavan [13] 14 Shri Anant Nath Bhagavan [14]
15 Shri Dharm Nath Bhagavan [15] 16 Shri Shanti Nath Bhagavan [16]
17 Shri Kunthu Nath Bhagavan [17] 18 Shri Arah Nath Bhagavan [18]
19 Shri Malli Nath Bhagavan [19] 20 Shri Munisuvrat Nath Bhagavan [20]
21 Shri Nami Nath Bhagavan [21] 22 Shri Nemi Nath Bhagavan [22]
23 Shri Parshva Nath Bhagavan [23] 24 Shri Mahavira Bhagavan [24]

Karma theory

Main article: Karma in Jainism

The Jain religion places great emphasis on the theory of Karma. Essentially, it means that all jivas reap what they sow. A happy or miserable existence is influenced by actions in previous births. These results may not occur in the same life, and what we sow is not limited to physical actions. Physical, verbal, and mental activities play a role in future situations. Karma has long been an essential component of Jainism, and other Indian religions such as Buddhism,Hinduism and Sikhism. It is believed generally that the Jainist God has foreseen all things, before many modern scientists.

Nine Tattvas

The backbone of the Jain philosophy, the nine Tattvas show how to attain moksha. Without knowing them, one cannot progress towards liberation. Jainism explains that Karma theory is intertwined with these nine principles. They are:

  1. Jiva - Souls and living things
  2. Ajiva - Non-living things
  3. Punya - Good karma {Counted as Padaarth}
  4. Paap - Bad karma {Counted as Padaarth}
  5. Asrava - Influx of karma
  6. Bandha - The bondage of karma
  7. Samvara - The stoppage of influx of karma
  8. Nirjara - Shedding of karma
  9. Moksha - Liberation or Salvation

Some scriptures do not include Punya and Paap as Tattvas, as it is found that they consist of Karman particles, which are seen as Ajiv.

Beliefs and practices

File:Jain hand.svg
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa, meaning non-violence. The word in the middle is "ahimsa." The wheel represents the dharmacakra, to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.

Jain monks practice strict asceticism and strive to make this, or one of the coming births, their last. The laity, who pursue less rigorous practices, strive to attain rational faith and to do as much good as possible. Following strict ethics, the laity usually choose professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid violent livelihoods.

Jains practice Samayika, which is a Sanskrit word meaning equanimity and derived from samaya (the soul). The goal of Samayika is to attain equanimity. Samayika is begun by achieving a balance in time. If this current moment is defined as a moving line between the past and the future, Samayika happens by being fully aware, alert and conscious in that moving time line when one experiences Atma, one's true nature, common to all life. Samayika is especially significant during Paryushana, a special period during the monsoon, and is practiced during the ritual known as Samvatsari Pratikramana.

Jains believe that Devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help jiva to obtain liberation, which must be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, devas themselves cannot achieve liberation until they reincarnate as humans and undertake the difficult act of removing karma. Their efforts to attain the exalted state of Siddha, the permanent liberation of jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, must be their own.

The strict Jain ethical code for both laity and monks/nuns is:

  1. Ahimsa (Non-violence)
  2. Satya (truth)
  3. Asteya (non-stealing)
  4. Brahmacarya (purity of mind and body)
  5. Aparigraha (non-attachment to temporal possessions)

For laypersons, 'chastity' means confining sexual experiences to marriage. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy.

Nonviolence includes being vegetarian, and some choose to be vegan. Jains are expected to be non-violent in thought, word, and deed, both toward humans and toward every other possible living creature, including even themselves. Jain monks walk barefoot and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid killing any insects. Even though all life is considered sacred by the Jains, human life is deemed by them to be the highest form of life. It is for this reason that it is considered vital never to harm or upset any person.

While performing holy deeds, Shvetambara Jains wear cloths, muhapatti, over their mouths and noses to avoid saliva falling on texts or revered images. Some wear either the muhapatti or possibly a small card over their mouths so as to avoid accidentally inhaling even a single insect when awake.

Many health-giving concepts have been entwined within the Jain religion. For example, Jains do not drink unboiled water because it contains billions of micro-organisms. This practice of drinking boiled water has nothing to do with non-violence as it is often misconstrued, but to do with health. In ancient times, a person might get ill by drinking unboiled water, which in turn would prevent that individual from remaining in equanimity, as illness may precede or engender intolerance.

True spirituality, according to enlightened Jains, starts when a follower attains samyak darshana, or rational perception. Samyak drshti souls are said to be on the correct path to moksha, or 'striving to remain in the nature of the soul', which is characterized by detachment from worldly life, and being in a state of pure knowledge and bliss. Attachment to worldly life binds new karmas, and traps one in a cycle of birth, death, and suffering. The worldly life is recognized by its dualistic nature (for example, the dualities of love and hate, suffering and pleasure, etc.), for the perception of one state cannot exist without the contrasting perception of the other.

Jain Dharma shares some aspects of its beliefs with Hinduism. Both revere the same Devas and Devis (heavenly beings), and share the theory of Karma and reincarnation. However, the Jain version of the Ramayana and Mahabharata is different from Hindu beliefs, for example. Generally, Hindus believe that Rama was a reincarnation of God, while Jains believe he attained moksha (liberation) since they do not believe in God the creator. (Note that some Hindus, such as Yogis, accept many aspects of Jain Dharma.)

Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will toward others and practice forgiveness. They believe that atma (soul) can lead one to becoming Parmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. Jains refrain from all violence (Ahimsa) and recommend that sinful activities should be eradicated. Some of the sinful activities are listed as under:

  1. Pranatipata --- Violence
  2. Mrshavada --- Untruth
  3. Adattadana--- Theft
  4. Maithuna --- Unchaste behaviour
  5. Parigraha --- Possessiveness
  6. Mithyatva --- Wrong belief
  7. Krodha --- Anger
  8. Mana --- Arrogance
  9. Maya --- Illusion
  10. Lobha--- Greed
  11. Raga --- Attachment
  12. Dvesha --- Hate
  13. Kalaha --- (Agitation)
  14. Abhyakhyana --- Accusation
  15. Paishunya --- Gossip
  16. Para-parivada --- Criticism
  17. Rati-Arati --- Likes and Dislikes

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced (particularly through the guidance of Shrimad Rajchandra) by Jain tenets such as peaceful protective living and honesty, and made them an integral part of his own philosophy[2].

Jainism has a very distinct idea underlying Tirthankara worship. The physical form is not to be worshiped, but it is the Gunas (virtues, qualities) which are praised. Tirthankaras are only role-models, and sects such as the Sthanakavasi stringently reject the appearance of worshipping statues.

Jain symbols

The fylfot (swastika) is among the holiest of Jain symbols. Worshippers use rice grains to create fylfot around the temple altar.

The holiest symbol is a simple swastika. Another important symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand, symbolizing ahimsa.

Other major Jain symbols include:

  1. Swastika -Signifies peace and well-being
  2. Shrivatsa -A beautiful mark on manifested itself from the heart of the Jina.
  3. Nandhyavarta -Big swastika with nine corners
  4. Vardha­manaka -A shallow earthen dish used for lamps.This symbol is suggestive of increase of wealth, fame and merit due to the grace of the Lord Jina.
  5. Bhadrasana -Meaning throne.It is considered auspicious because it is sanctified by the feet of the blessed Lord Jina
  6. Kalasha -The kalasha filled with pure water, which signifies wisdom and fullness
  7. Minyugala -It is a symbol of Cupid's banners coming to worship the Jina after the defeat of the God of Love
  8. Darpan -The mirror reflects one's true self because of its clarity

Jain fasting

Main article: Fasting in Jainism

Fasting is common among Jains and a part of Jain festivals. Most Jains fast at special times, during festivals, and on holy days. Paryushan is the most prominent festival, lasting eight days in Svetambara Jain tradition and ten days in Digambar Jain tradition during the monsoon. The monsoon is a time of fasting. However, a Jain may fast at any time, especially if he or she feels some error has been committed. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can to maintain whatever self control is possible for the individual.

Some Jains also revere a special practice, wherein a person, who is aware that he or she may die soon, and feels he has completed all duties in this life, ceases to eat or drink unto death. This form of dying is called Sallekhana. It is considered to be an extremely spiritual merit. This has recently led to a controversy in India, where in the State of Rajasthan, a lawyer has filed a writ petition seeking the High Court of Rajasthan to hold that Sallekhana is an illegal practice. However, Jains do not see Sallekhana as a form of suicide, but rather as a ritual.

Jain literature

10th century Kannada writers Chavundaraya and Nemichandra who excelled in Jain literature, © Kamat's Potpourri

The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-Tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatthavartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Shravakachar, mathematics, Nighantus etc). "Aabhidhan Rajendra Kosh" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri, is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand the Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Ardha-Magadhi and other Jain languages, words, their use and references with in oldest Jain literature. Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Hindi (Chhahdhal, Mokshamarg Prakashak, and others), Tamil (Jivakacintamani, Kural, and others), and Kannada (Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Kannada is the only Indian language which has Jain versions of Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Jain worship and rituals

Every day most Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the Navkar Mantra. Jains have built temples, or Basadi or Derasar, where images of Tirthankars are worshiped. Jain rituals may be elaborate because symbolic objects are offered and Tirthankars praised in song. But some Jain sects refuse to enter temples or worship images, considering them simply guides. Sadhumargi Svetambara Jains, such as the Terapanthi, regard holy statues or temples as totally unnecessary.

Jain rituals include:

Jain marriage ceremonies and family rites are usually variations of orthodox Hindu rituals. Further, the similarity among Marwari Jain culture and Hindu culture is so strong that it is difficult to separate them. Many say the reason is because of common roots.[citation needed] Also, Marwari Hindus converted to Jainism so as to leave violence and attain vegetarianism.

Digambar and Shvetambar traditions

The statue of Gomatheswara of Digambara tradition in Karnataka is the tallest monolithic in the world

It is generally believed that the Jain sangha divided into two major sects, Digambar and Svetambar, about 200 years after Mahāvīra's nirvana. Some historians believe there was no clear division until the 5th century. The best available information indicates that the chief Jain monk, Acharya Bhadrabahu, foresaw famine and led about 12,000 Digambar followers to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find the Shvetambar sect and in 453, the Valabhi council edited and compiled traditional Shvetambar scriptures.

In Sanskrit, ambar refers to a covering like a garment. 'Dig', an older form of 'disha', refers to the cardinal directions. Digambar therefore means those whose garment is only the four directions, or "sky-clad". 'Shwet' means white and Svetambaras are those who wear white coverings.

  • Digambar Jain monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes are like other possessions, increasing dependency and desire for material things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow.
  • Svetambar Jain monks wear white seamless clothes for practical reasons and believe there is nothing in Jain scripture that condemns wearing clothes. Sadhvis (nuns) of both sects wear white. These differing views arise from different interpretations of the same holy books. There are minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's literature.
  • Digambars believe that women cannot attain moksha in the same birth, while Svetambars believe that women may attain liberation and that Mallinath, a Tirthankar, was female.
  • Digambars believe that Mahavir was not married, whereas Shvetambars believe the princely Mahavir was married and had a daughter.
  • They also differ on the origin of Mata Trishala, the mother of Mahavira.
  • Apart from doubts about women attaining moksha, another difference is in the first Jain prayer, the Namokara Mantra. Sthanakavasis and Digambars believe that only the first five lines are formally part of the Namokara Mantra, whereas Svetambaras believe all nine form the mantra. Other differences are minor and not based on major points of doctrine.

Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the Kushana period. Tirthankaras are represented without clothes and monks, with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as 'ardhaphalaka' and mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniya sect, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, follows Digambara nudity, along with several Shvetambara beliefs.

Shvetambaras are further divided into sub-sects, such as Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi and Deravasi. Some are murtipujaka (idol worshippers) while non-murtipujaka Jains refuse statues or images. Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices. In 1974, a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text called the Samana Suttam.

Geographical spread and influence

File:RanakpurJainTem.jpg
Jain temple in Ranakpur

Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. At various times, Jainism was found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka and what are now Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Afghanistan.

The pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar possibly gave rise to Buddhism. The Buddhists have always maintained that during the time of Buddha and Mahavira, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism.

Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion has been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals may be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.

Though Jainism is slowly declining in India, it is rapidly expanding in the West as non-Indians convert to the religion. With 10 to 12 million followers,[4] Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more than these numbers would suggest. Jains live throughout India; Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large following in Punjab, especially in Ludhiana and Patiala, and there were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947, after which many fled to India.

There are many Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak local languages or follow different rituals but essentially follow the same principles.

Outside India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) have large Jain communities today. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States and several Jain temples have been built there. American Jainism accommodates all the sects. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, South Africa, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Fiji, and Suriname.

Jain contributions to Indian culture

While Jains represent only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India are considerable. Jains have wielded great influence on the culture and language of Karnataka and Southern India.[citation needed]

Jainism has influenced Gujarat most significantly. The earliest known Gujarati text, Bharat-Bahubali Ras, was written by a Jain monk. Some of the most important people in Gujarat's Jain history were Acarya Hemacandra Suri and his pupil, the Calukya ruler Kumarapala.

Jains are both among the wealthiest of Indians and the most philanthropic. They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are some of the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat. [3]

Jains have greatly influenced Gujarati cuisine. Gujarat is predominantly vegetarian (as is Jainism; see Jain vegetarianism), and its food has a mild aroma as onions and garlic are omitted.

Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups and parallels Christian clergy.

The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community and that India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions.

Literature

Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature. For example, almost all early Kannada literature is of Jain origin.

  • Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
  • Several Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
  • Practically all the known texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.

Jainism and Indian archaeology

Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BCE) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan India, before the migration of Indo-Aryans into the region.

Kalinga (Modern Orissa) was home to many Jains in the past. Rishabhnath was revered and worshipped in the ancient city Pithunda which was destroyed by Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and brought the idol of Rishabhnath to his capital in Magadh. Rishabhnath is revered as 'Kalinga Jin'. Ashoka's invasion and his Buddhist policy also subjugated Jains greatly in Kalinga. However Emperor Kharvela in the 1st century BC conquered Magadha and brought back Rishabhnath's idol and installed it in Udaygiri near his capital Shishupalgarh. The Khandagiri and Udaygiri caves near Bhubaneswar are the only stone monuments dedicated to Jainism surviving in Orissa. Much of the earlier buildings were in wood which were destroyed.

Decipherment of Brahmi by James Prinsep in 1788 enabled the reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism.

Jain archaeological findings are often from Maurya, Sunga, Kushan, Gupta, Kalachuries, Rashtrakut, Chalukya, Chandel and Rajput and later periods.

Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan, who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.

Jain Monks (Sadhu or Muni or Maharaj)

In India there are thousands of Jain Monks, of which categories have been defined like Acharya, Acharyakalp, Balacharya, Ailacharya, Upadhyaya, Muni, Ganeni Ariyaka, Ariyka, Ailak, Chullak, Chullika etc. Some famous Jain monks (sadhu or muni or maharaj) are defined as follows

Acharya Mahaprajna

You can find more information at following link:

Jain Magazines and Books

There are thousands of books written by Jain monks on all subjects under the Sun. Lot of books are handwritten on wood, paper, cloth and palm leaves. Currently, hundreds of Jain newspapers and Jain magazines are published in India and from centres such as London and New York.

Famous Jain Magazines

Jain Books Which Are Available Online

Famous Jain Books

Holy sites

Palitana Tirtha
Main article: List of Jain Temples (Holy Sites of Jains)

West

Holy days

Jain Calendar 2007

The Jain Calendar 2007 gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vrats and fairs.

Main article: Legal Status of Jainism as a Distinct Religion

In 2005, the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus towards granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court noted that Jains have been declared a minority in 5 states already, and left it to the rest of the States to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.[4]

U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad Judgment

In 2006, the Supreme Court opined that "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion". (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India) [2]

Jainism and other religions

File:Divine encounters jain.jpg
Medieval Rajasthani Jain painting - Lord Mahavira near Hindu gods.

South Asia has a rich history of diverse philosophies. Connections among these are discussed at:

  • Relationship between Jainism and Hinduism-To quote from the Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Hinduism,[5]"...With Jainism which always remained an Indian religion, Hinduism has so much in common, especially in social institutions and ritual life, that nowadays Hindus tend to consider it a Hindu sect. Many Jains also are inclined to fraternization..." Like Hinduism, Jains have too claimed to be a part of the Sanatan Dharma ("Tollaram"), Atma Dharma and Arya Dharma.
    • Controversy - Also from the Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Hinduism: "...Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, it is one of the three most ancient Indian religious traditions still in existence. ...While often employing concepts shared with Hinduism and Buddhism, the result of a common cultural and linguistic background, the Jain tradition must be regarded as an independent phenomenon. It is an integral part of South Asian religious belief and practice, but it is not a Hindu sect or Buddhist heresy, as earlier scholars believed."[6] The author Koenraad Elst in his book, Who is a Hindu?, summarises on the similaries between Jains and the mainstream Hindu socicety.

Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. Comparisons with Abrahamic religions can be found at:

Jain Languages

Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, Hindi, Gujarati, Kutchi, Kannada, Tulu, Telugu, Tamil, Marwari and Marathi

Prominent Jains

  • Bhattaraka Devendrakirti, founder of Chanderi and Gandhar/Rander seat.
  • Singhai Lakshmana, who installed Lord Shantinatha at Deogarh in 1436.
  • Tarana Swami (1448-) (founder of Tarana Pantha)
  • Manju Chaudhary Maratha Empire administrator of Cuttack, Orissa, 1720-1785.
  • Seth Mathuradas Taraiya of Lalitpur 1872-1918
  • Pandit Nathuram Premi, Historian, publisher and editor (26 November, 1881 - 30 January, 1960)
  • Dr Hiralal Jain, Sanskritist and Jain Scholar best remembered for his work on the Satkhandāgama
  • Dr Mahendrakumar Nyayacarya, Jain Scholar and Nyaya specialist, best remembered for his editing of the Nyayakumudacandra,

Akalankagranthatraya, Prameyakamalamartanda and his original work, Jaina Darsana.''

  • Pandit Phulacandra Shastri, Traditional Jain Scholar, best remembered for his work on the Satkhandāgama and the Kasāyapāhuda
  • Pandit Hiralal Shastri (Sadumal), Traditional Jain Scholar, Prakritist and Nyaya specialist, remembered for his Hindi tr. of the Kasāyapāhuda mula patha along with the Curni by Yativrsabha.
  • Pandit Balacandra Shastri, Traditional Jain Scholar, best remembered for his work on the Satkhandāgama and the Kasāyapāhuda
  • Osho (1931-1990)
  • Pandit Jaganmohanlal Shastri, Traditional Jain Scholar
  • Seth Jineshvaradas Taraiya (1918-1998) of Lalitpur, philanthropist; Hon. Magistrate of Lalitpur; best remembered for his renovation of the Deogarh Tirthakshetra
  • Dr Duli Chandra Jain, Prof of Physics at CUNY, New York; founder of the Jain Study Circle and Publisher and Editor of the [Jain Study Circular]
  • Pandit Sukhlal, Traditional Jain Scholar and Sanskritist
  • Pandit Bechardas Doshi, Traditional Jain Scholar and Sanskritist
  • Pandit Amritlal Bhojak, Traditional Jain Scholar and Prakritist
  • Muni Jinavijaya, Traditional Jain Scholar, Sanskritist and visionary
  • Muni Jambuvijaya, Jain Scholar, Editor and Polyglot, best known for his editing of the Shvetambara canon
  • Acarya Rajendra, Traditional Jain Scholar, Sanskritist and Lexicographer best known for his Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha, the best known Encyclopedia of Jainism
  • Acarya Ratnacandra, Traditional Jain Scholar, Sanskritist and Lexicographer best known for his Ardhamagadhi Kosha
  • Kshullaka Jinendra Varni, Jain Scholar and Lexicographer best known for his Jainendra Siddhanta Kosha
  • Acarya Tulsi, prominent Jain saint who tried to take the Anuvratas beyond the Jain community and established the world's only exclusively Jain university, Jain Vishva Bharati, at Ladnun in Rajasthan.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Jain Knowledge Warehouses: Traditional Libraries in India, John E. Cort, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 115, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1995), pp. 77-87
  2. ^ "Viren, Jain" (PDF). RE Today. Retrieved 2007-06-14. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  3. ^ "At the Root of Root Vegetables" (PDF). Anekant Education Foundation. Retrieved 2007-06-14. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  4. ^ Basic Faith Group Information

References

Introductory
  • Jain, Duli C. (Editor), Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
  • Parik, Vastupal Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002.
Detailed Introduction
  • Jaini, Padmanabh S., Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
  • Titze, Kurt, Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
  • Wiley, Kristi, Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
  • Mishra, Mamta, Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000.
  • Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord, University of California Press, 1996.
  • Vallely, Anne, Guardians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. (Jain nuns)
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001. (Jain laywomen)
  • The Assembly of Listeners, edited by Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey, 5-14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  • Clermont & Dix Edited by Dilip Surana Jainisme and temples of Mount Abu and Ranakpur. Jodhpur India Gyan Gaurav publishers Revised print 2006
Specialized sources
  • Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
  • Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
  • Campbell, Joseph, Oriental Mythology, 1962.
  • Nakamura, Hajime, Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
  • Ramachandran, T.N., Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
  • Subramaniyam, Ka Naa, Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
  • Thomas, Edward, Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
  • Cort, John, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India', New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen
  • Vallely, Anne, Guardians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2002.
  • Balcerowicz, Piotr, Essays in Jaina Philosophy and Religion [Proceedings of the International Seminar on Jainism “Aspects of Jainism”,. Warsaw University 8th–9th September, 2000]. [Editor], Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi 2003.
  • Balcerowicz, Piotr, Jaina Epistemology In Historical And Comparative Perspective - A Critical Edition And An Annotated Translation Of Siddhasena Mahamati’s Nyayavatara, Siddharsiganin’s Nyayavatara-vivrti And Devabhadrasuri’s Nyayavatara-tippana. Volume I & II. Second revised edition. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi 2006. [548 pages].


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