Libyan civil war (2011)

2011 Libyan civil war
Part of 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests
● Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces ● Cities controlled by the opposition (supported by coalition forces) ● Ongoing fighting/unclear situation (situation as of 29 April 2011)
Date 15 February 2011 – present Location Libya Status Ongoing
Belligerents
National Transitional Council Free Libyan Army Free Libyan Air Force National Conference for the Libyan Opposition Anti-Gaddafi tribes UN member states enforcing UNSC Resolution 1973: NATO Jordan Qatar Sweden UAE Template:Collapsible bulletlist	Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Libyan Armed Forces Libyan Army Libyan Air Force Libyan Navy Foreign mercenaries
Commanders and leaders
Mustafa Abdul Jalil Omar El-Hariri Abdul Fatah Younis Suleiman Mahmoud Khalifa Belqasim Haftar Charles Bouchard	Muammar Gaddafi Saif al-Islam Gaddafi Saif al-Arab al-Gaddafi † Khamis al-Gaddafi Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr
Strength
Approximately 17,000 volunteers by Mar 24 (1,000 trained men by Mar 23) International Forces: Numerous air and maritime forces (see here)	10,000–20,000+ soldiers, unknown number of militia
Casualties and losses
2,098-2,834 opposition fighters, activists and supporters killed (see here) 1 USAF F-15E Strike Eagle crashed (both pilots survived) 1 UAEAF F-16 Fighting Falcon damaged upon landing	1,044-1,132 soldiers killed (see here), 200 captured
Estimated total killed on both sides including civilians: 3,800–10,000[a]

The 2011 Libyan civil war is an ongoing armed conflict in the North African state of Libya being fought between those seeking to depose Muammar Gaddafi and hold democratic elections, and pro-Gaddafi forces. The situation began as a series of peaceful protests which Gaddafi's security services attempted to repress, beginning on 15 February 2011. Within a week, this uprising had spread across the country and Gaddafi was struggling to retain control. Gaddafi responded with military force and other such measures as censorship and blocking of communications.

The situation then escalated into armed conflict, with rebels establishing a coalition named the Transitional National Council based in Benghazi. The International Criminal Court warned Gaddafi that he and members of his government may have committed crimes against humanity. The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle, and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the actions of the government to the International Criminal Court for investigation. In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. A further U.N. resolution authorized member states to establish and enforce a no-fly zone over Libya. The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it.

Background

Main article: History of Libya under Gaddafi

Leadership

Muammar Gaddafi has been the de-facto ruler of all Libya since the overthrow of King Idris I in 1969. WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables has revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering". While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skillfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.

Development : successes and corruption

Much of the state's income come from its oil production, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world. Its petroleum revenues contributes up to 58% of Libya's GDP. Governments with resource curse revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently feel less pressure to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, they can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters. Libya's oil wealth being spread over a relatively small population has allowed for a relatively high living standard compared to neighbouring states. Gaddafi amassed a vast personal fortune during his 42-year rule.

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were better than in Egypt and Tunisia, whose revolutions preceded the outbreak of protests in Libya. Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educated and to have a high standard of living. This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).

Libya's corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighbouring states that had uprisings preceding Libya's.

According to The Economist, the eastern parts of the state, once a breadbasket of the ancient world, have fared badly. Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region at 21% (latest census), there was a consistent labour shortage with over a million migrant workers present on the market. These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning of hostilities.

The uprising has been viewed as a part of the 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests, which have already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt, with the initial protests all using similar slogans. Social media played an important role in organizing the opposition.

Human rights violations in Libya

File:Bengasi court tribune 0833.jpg

Tribune near the Benghazi court house, a central place for the Free Libya movement

Further information: Human rights in Libya and Human rights violations in 2011 Libyan civil war

The regime has executed opposition activists publicly and have rebroadcast the executions on state television channels. Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison. During late 1980s and early 1990s western languages were removed from the school curriculum. The government has reportedly paid for assassination of its critics around the world. As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for critics, including US$1 million for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.

According to the U.S. State Department, 10 to 20 per cent of Libyans are involved in domestic surveillance committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea. Dissent is illegal under Law 75 of 1973 and Gaddafi has asserted that anyone guilty of founding a political party would be executed. According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored state in the Middle East and North Africa.

Anti-Gaddafi movement, beginnings of National Transitional Council

Main article: Timeline of the 2011 Libyan civil war

The flag of the former Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions, has been used by many protesters as an opposition flag.

Beginnings of open protest

Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building. By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US$24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations. In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of the Jamahiriya, met with political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.

Organization

Libyan Boy Scouts helping in the social services in Benghazi

See also: National Transitional Council

Many opposition participants called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition to multi-party democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil. In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a centre for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons.

The National Transitional Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي, al-Majlis al-Waṭanī al-'intaqālī) was established on 27 February in an effort to consolidate efforts for change in the rule of Libya. The main objectives of the group did not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world. The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya. The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website. Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister Mustafa Abdel Jalil said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months. On 29 March the political and international affairs committee of the Council presented its eight-point plan for Libya in The Guardian newspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections and draft a national constitution.

An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlled radio stations. Some of the rebels oppose tribalism and wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism". Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used in the past.

Composition of rebel forces

The rebels are composed primarily of civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, and oil workers, and a contingent of professional soldiers that defected from the Libyan Army and joined the rebels. Gaddafi's administration had repeatedly asserted that the rebels included al-Qaeda fighters. NATO commander Admiral Stavridis stated that intelligence reports suggested "flickers" of al-Qaeda activity were present among the rebels, but also added that there is not sufficient information to confirm there is any significant al-Qaeda or terrorist presence. Denials of al-Qaeda membership were issued by the rebels.

Gaddafi's response

Main articles: Muammar Gaddafi's response to the 2011 Libyan civil war and Timeline of the 2011 Libyan civil war

File:Muammar Gaddafi speech, 22 Feb 2011.png

Muammar Gaddafi vowing to hunt down and execute any opposition members who would not surrender

Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafé. He has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol. He later also claimed that the revolt against his rule is the result of a colonialist plot by foreign states, particularly blaming France, the US, and the UK, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. Gaddafi vowed to cleanse Libya house by house until he had crushed the insurrection. Gaddafi declared that people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live".

A Swedish arms trafficking watchdog organization observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus, including visits to a dedicated Belorussian military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment. Pro-Gaddafi forces have allegedly used civilians to protect key sites, like the Bab al-Azizia compound in Tripoli, from air strikes.

Blocking of communications and media

See also: Iman al-Obeidi

Gaddafi shut down all Internet communications in Libya, and arrested Libyans who had given phone interviews to the media. International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government. On 21 February, The New York Times reported that Gaddafi had tried to impose a blackout on information from Libya. Several residents reported that cellphone service was down, and even landline phone service was sporadic. Iman al-Obeidi was forcibly silenced and detained after she attempted to tell the international media of her alleged gang-rape by Gaddafi's troops.

International journalists who have attempted to cover the events have been attacked by Gaddafi's forces. A BBC News crew was beaten and then lined up against a wall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to a journalist's ear and laughed at them. A journalist working for The Guardian and another Brazilian journalist have been detained. An Al-Jazeera journalist Ali Hassan al-Jaber was murdered, and was apparently deliberately targeted. Gaddafi's soldiers held four New York Times journalists – Lynsey Addario, Anthony Shadid, Stephen Farrell and Tyler Hicks – in captivity for a week. Libyan citizen journalist Mohammed Nabbous was shot in the head by Gaddafi's soldiers soon after exposing the Gaddafi regime's false reports related to the cease-fire declaration.

Mercenaries

Soon after Gaddafi started to fight against civilians it became apparent that some Libyan military units refused to shoot protesters and Gaddafi had hired foreign mercenaries to do the job. Gaddafi's ambassador to India Ali al-Essawi confirmed that defection of military units had indeed led to such a decision. Video footage of this started to leak out of the country. Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Misrahi stated in an interview with the Al Jazeera that Nigerien, Malian, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries are among foreign soldiers helping fight the uprising on behalf of Gaddafi. Defecting Libyan Deputy Ambassador Ibrahim Dabbashi called on African nations to stop sending mercenaries to defend the Gaddafi regime.

In Mali, members of the Tuareg tribe confirmed that a large number of men from the tribe went to Libya in late February. Locals in Mali said they were promised $10,000 upfront payment and compensation up to $1000 per day. Gaddafi has used Malian Tuaregs in his political projects before, sending them to fight in places like Chad, Sudan and Lebanon and recently they have fought against Niger government, a war which Gaddafi has allegedly sponsored. Malian government officials told BBC that it's hard to stop the flow of fighters from Mali to Libya. A recruitment center for Malian soldiers leaving to Libya was found in a Bamako hotel.

Reports from Ghana state that the men who went to Libya were offered as much as $2500 per day. Advertisements seeking mercenaries were seen in Nigeria. One group of mercenaries from Niger, who had been allegedly recruited from the streets with promises of money, included a soldier of just 13 years of age. The Daily Telegraph studied the case of a sixteen-year-old captured Chadian child soldier in Al-Bayda. The boy, who had previously been a shepherd in Chad, told that a Libyan man had offered him a job and a free flight to Tripoli, but in the end he had been airlifted to shoot opposition members in Eastern Libya.

The Serbian newspaper Alo! stated that Serbs were hired to help Gaddafi in the early days of the conflict. Rumors of Serbian pilots participating on the side of Gaddafi appeared early in the conflict. In response to these allegations, the Serbian Ministry of Defence denied that any of its active or retired personnel were participating in the events in Libya.

A self-identifying Belarusian mercenary told the Russian newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda that he and several hundred others from Belarus, an Eastern European country with friendly ties to Gaddafi's regime, had been recruited to advise Gaddafi's forces during the civil war. According to the newspaper report, published in early April, the Belarusian mercenary advisers are paid about $3,100 per month and were instrumental in crafting strategies for Tripoli's brigades to avoid decimation by the NATO-led coalition's air assault. "For now the Belarusian partisans are winning!" Komsomolskaya Pravda reported, according to The Daily Telegraph's Moscow correspondent.

On 7 April, Reuters reported that soldiers loyal to Gaddafi were sent into refugee camps to intimidate and bribe black African migrant workers into fighting for the regime during the war. Some of these "mercenaries" have been compelled to fight against their wishes, according to a source inside one of the refugee camps.

A person associated with Human Rights Watch reported in early March that he had not seen evidence of mercenary activity during his stint in the country.

According to the EUobserver, Gadaffi hired between 300 and 500 mercenaries of European origin at high wages. These rumours are not confirmed by other sources.

According to numerous accounts by witnesses, mercenaries repeatedly fired into demonstrations and even went house to house, killing civilians. One university student in Bayda said that mercenaries had killed 150 people in two days. The mercenaries quickly earned a reputation for brutality, as they reportedly did not hesitate to kill protesters. A doctor in Benghazi said that "they know one thing: to kill whose in front of them. Nothing else. They're killing people in cold blood".

In several cases, mercenaries were captured and subsequently lynched by the protesters.

Treatment of dissidents

During the protests, security forces repeatedly fired into demonstrations and funeral processions. As the protests progressed, the Libyan government employed snipers, artillery, helicopter gunships, anti-aircraft weaponry, and warships against demonstrations. A Scottish doctor reported that young children were deliberately targeted by security forces. Amnesty International reported that writers, intellectuals and other prominent opposition sympathizers disappeared during the early days of the conflict in cities controlled by Gaddafi, and that they may have been subjected to torture or execution. Amnesty International reported that security forces also targeted paramedics helping injured protesters. In multiple incidents, people also documented Gaddafi's forces using ambulances in their attacks. Injured demonstrators were sometimes denied access to hospitals and ambulance transport. The government also banned giving blood transfusions to people who have taken part in the demonstrations. Members of Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees stormed hospitals in Tripoli and summarily executed injured protesters. They then confiscated the bodies, possibly for cremation.

Military commanders summarily executed soldiers who refused to fire on protesters. The International Federation for Human Rights reported a case where Gaddafi's commanders executed 130 soldiers who had refused to support Gaddafi. Some of those executed were burned alive.

Gaddafi suppressed the protests in Tripoli by distributing automobiles, money and weapons for hired followers to drive around Tripoli and attack people showing signs of dissent. The International Federation for Human Rights concluded that Gaddafi is implementing a strategy of scorched earth and seeks to eliminate and suppress Libyan citizens who stood up against his regime.

In late April, United States Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice alleged that soldiers loyal to Gaddafi were given the potency drug Viagra and encouraged to commit rapes in rebel-held or disputed areas. The United States has not provided evidence for this assertion, but human rights groups have previously reported rapes by loyalist fighters during the war, including the rape of children.

Paid protesters

Libyans studying in the US have received phone calls from the Libyan embassy urging them to take part in pro-Gaddafi demonstrations or lose government-funded scholarships. Gaddafi has a history of using paid demonstrators for public relations, including allegedly paying US$2,000 to each hired demonstrator in a pro-Gaddafi rally when he visited the United Nations headquarters in New York City in 2009.

Battles between Gaddafi and opposition

Main article: Timeline of the 2011 Libyan civil war

File:Libya Brega rebel fighters 10 March 2011 - VOA Ittner.jpg

Rebels on the outskirts of Brega

Active resistance to the Gaddafi regime began in Benghazi on 18 February, after three days of protests. Security forces had killed 14 protesters the previous day, and a funeral procession for one of those killed passed the Katiba compound, where clashes erupted. Demonstrators threw rocks at security forces, who used live ammunition, killing 24 protesters. Two of the policemen who had participated in the clash were caught and hanged by the opposition. Protesters around the city and in nearby al-Baida and Derna attacked and overwhelmed government forces, and some police and army units defected and joined the protesters. Security forces were overwhelmed and forced to withdraw. By the end of the day, the area was almost entirely in opposition hands, with the only place still housing a significant number of Gaddafi loyalists being the Katiba compound in Benghazi. On 19 February, another funeral procession passed the compound, and were again fired on. By this time, the Libyan government airlifted 325 African mercenaries to Benghazi and other eastern towns, but were met with retaliatory attacks by opposition forces. Fifty mercenaries were killed by protesters in al-Baida, with some being locked up in a police station which was then burned down, while 15 were lynched in front of the al-Baida courthouse. At least 236 others were captured alive. Meanwhile, opposition forces commandeered bulldozers and tried to breach the walls of the Katiba compound, but were met with withering fire. Protesters also used stones and crude bombs made of tin cans stuffed with gunpowder. As the fighting continued, a mob attacked an army base on the outskirts of Benghazi and disarmed the soldiers. Among the equipment confiscated was three small tanks, which were rammed into the compound. The fighting stopped on February 20, and another 30 people had been killed during the previous 24 hours of fighting. By this time, violent clashes also broke out in Misrata between pro-Gaddafi and anti-Gaddafi forces. A third funeral procession passed the compound, and under the cover of the funeral, a suicide car-bomber destroyed the compound's gates, and opposition fighters resumed their assault, bolstered by reinforcements from al-Baida and Derna. During the final assualt, 42 people were killed. Libyan Interior Minister Abdul Fatah Younis showed up with a special forces squad to relieve the compound, but Younis defected to the opposition and announced safe passage for loyalists out of the city. Gaddafi's troops retreated after executing 130 soldiers who had refused to fire on the rebels. On 23 February, after five days of fighting, rebels also drove out government forces from Misrata. The following day, Gaddafi loyalists attempted to retake Misrata Airport, but were driven back. Officers from a nearby Air Force Academy also mutinied and helped the opposition attack an adjacent military airbase, then disabled fighter jets at the base.

By 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime - former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, resignations and defections of close allies, the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration" and other cities including Tobruk and Misrata reportedly falling with some reports that the government retained control of just a few pockets, mounting international isolation and pressure, and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his regime all but inevitable. By the end of February, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of Libya, including the major cities of Misrata and Benghazi, and the important harbours at Ra's Lanuf and Brega.

On 24 February, loyalist forces in Az Zawiyah fired on a mosque where protesters were holding a sit-in, and were fired on with automatic weapons and an anti-aircraft gun. Afterward's, thousands of people rallied in Martyr's Square. The same day, government forces, including tanks, launched a counterattack on Misrata airbase, engaging in battles with local residents and defecting military units, and managed to retake part of it. On 26 February, government forces fired on rebels and Egyptian migrant workers. By this point, security forces still controlled the outskirts, while rebels controlled the city. 24 rebels had been killed during the previous days of fighting. On 28 February, Gaddafi forces attacked the outskirts of the city, but were repelled, and lost 10 dead and 12-14 captured, of which eight joined the rebels. The town of Nalut, on the Tunisian border, also fell to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forces attempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreated to Ra's Lanuf. On the night on 2 March, rebels attacked government lines outside Az Zawiyah, killing two soldiers. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, the opposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale assault on Zawiyah, beginning with airstrikes and a fierce mortar, artillery, rocket, anti-aircraft, and heavy machine gun barrage, and attacked the city from two sides, and managed to push into the city towards the city center. The rebels lost 50 dead and about 300 wounded, while the loyalists lost 2 dead. On 5 March, government forces were beaten back when they attempted to take the city center. Loyalist forces launched a fresh assault starting with a mortar barrage, and then attacked the city with infantry and 20 tanks. Soldiers stormed numerous buildings and killed the people inside to secure the rooftops for snipers. The loyalists initially managed to take the central square, but were forced back by a rebel counterattack several hours later. During the battle, 25 rebels and 8 loyalists were killed. In the late afternoon, another government attack supported by an artillery barrage was stopped, but loyalists managed to secure the hospital. 10 loyalist soldiers were captured during the battle and later executed.

On 6 March, the rebel advance along the coastline had been stopped by government forces at the town of Bin Jawad. Government troops ambushed the rebel column and dozens of rebels were killed. At the same time, Gaddafi's forces attempted an attack on Misrata and managed to get as far as the centre of the city before their attack was stopped and they retreated to the city's outskirts. A fourth attack against the Az Zawiyah city center was launched by government troops, but it too was repulsed. Three rebels and 26 loyalists were killed, and 11 loyalists were captured.

Gaddafi counteroffensive

On 6 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counteroffensive, retaking Ra's Lanuf and Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and Benghazi. Government forces also attempted to take Misrata, sending infantry and armor into the city. The loyalist forces fell into a rebel ambush after they reached the city center. In the subsequent battle, 21 rebels and civilians and 22 government soldiers were killed. A fifth government attack against rebels in Az Zawiyah produced gains, and by 8 March, most of the city had been destroyed. Gaddafi remained in continuous control of Tripoli, Sirt, Zliten and Sabha, as well as several other towns. On 10 March, Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf were retaken by Gaddafi's forces. By 15 March, the town of Brega had also been recaptured by Gaddafi's forces and the rebel city of Ajdabiya, the last town before Benghazi, was surrounded.

United Nations intervention

On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to impose a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace. As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi's government declared an immediate ceasefire, but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reported that government forces were still fighting with rebels. Even after the government-declared ceasefire, artillery shelling on Misrata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approaching Benghazi.

BBC News reported that government tanks entered the city on 19 March while hundreds fled the fighting. Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city. The same day, a Mig-23BN belonging to the Free Libyan Air Force was shot down over Benghazi, after being engaged by rebel ground forces in error. The Libyan government subsequently argued that the rebels had violated the no-fly-zone resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces.

The Libyan government was widely reported to have cut off water, electricity, and communications supplies in the rebel-held city of Misrata, forcing residents to rely on wells and a desalination plant. The government denied the claims, claiming that supplies were disrupted due to the fighting.

Coalition operations begin

Main article: 2011 military intervention in Libya

See also: Operation Ellamy, Operation Odyssey Dawn, Opération Harmattan, Operation Mobile, and Operation Unified Protector

Libyan Army Palmaria howitzers destroyed by the French Air Force near Benghazi on March 19, 2011

A French Navy rescue helicopter, from the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle, lands aboard the American command ship USS Mount Whitney.

On 19 March, the French Air Force had sent nineteen fighter planes over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel-controlled city. French jets attacked government armour southwest of Benghazi, destroying four tanks. US and British naval vessels fired at least 114 Tomahawk cruise missiles at twenty Libyan integrated air and ground defence systems. Three United States B-2 Spirit stealth bombers reportedly flew non-stop from the United States to drop forty bombs on a major Libyan airfield with US fighter jets searching for Libyan ground forces to attack. Twenty-five coalition ships, including three US submarines, began operating in the area.

On 20 March, Muhammad Mukhtar Osman, a Free Libyan Air Force pilot, carried out a suicide attack by crashing his plane into the Bab al-Aziziya barracks in Tripoli. Khamis al-Gaddafi was allegedly killed in the attack although the Gaddafi's regime denied the reports.

Libyan State TV reported that Libyan forces had shot down a French warplane over Tripoli on 19 March, a claim denied by France. On 20 March, several Storm Shadow missiles were launched against Libyan targets by British jets. An American F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet on a bombing mission crashed after experiencing equipment failure. The pilot and weapons officer ejected and were recovered by US rescue teams.

On 23 March, four Canadian CF-18 jets supported by two CC-150 Polaris tankers bombed a government ammunition depot in Misrata, marking the first time Canadian jets bombed Libya since the campaign began.

On 25 March, NATO announced that it would be taking over the command of the no-fly-zone operations, after several days of heated debate over who should control operations in Libya. The US had continuously reiterated that it wished to hand over command to an international organization. The same day, Canadian CF-18s bombed government electronic warfare sites near Misrata.

On 28 March, Coalition forces fought their first naval engagement when the USS Barry, supported by a P-3 Orion patrol aircraft and A-10 Thunderbolt attack aircraft, engaged the Libyan Coast Guard vessel Vittoria and two smaller craft, after the vessels began firing indiscriminately at merchant vessels in the port of Misrata. The Vittoria was disabled and forced to beach, another vessel was sunk, and the third abandoned.

Second opposition advance

Main article: Late March 2011 Libyan rebel offensive

After airstrikes began, rebel forces began a renewed offensive towards Tripoli. They advanced 240 kilometres (150 mi) along the coast of the Gulf of Sidra. Government forces put up resistance in Ajdabiya, which fell to the rebel after intense airstrikes. Rebels took Brega, Ra's Lanuf, and Bin Jawad. Airstrikes inflicted heavy losses on government forces, and forced them into a chaotic retreat eastward. On 28 March, heavy fighting took place near Sirt, where government troops managed to halt the rebel advance. Although coalition airstrikes continued to target loyalist vehicles, Gaddafi forces adapted to airstrikes by replacing armor with civilian vehicles fitted with weapons. Government forces launched a counteroffensive on 29 March forcing the rebels into a retreat from Bin Jawad toward Ra's Lanuf.

On 30 March, the rebels said that they were pulling out of Ras Lanuf due to heavy tank and artillery fire from loyalist forces. Following a government counter-offensive, Gadaffi forces took control of the town of Brega. Clashes continued between rebel and government troops in the area between Brega and Ajdabiya.

Stalemate

Main articles: Third Battle of Brega, Battle of Brega-Ajdabiya road, and Battle of Misrata

Rebels attempted a counter-attack to retake Brega. For eight days, loyalists and rebels battled for control of Brega. In the end, government troops repelled numereous rebel attacks on the city and managed to push the rebels back to Ajdabiya by 7 April. The rebels regrouped in Ajdabiya after their forces fled in several different directions. Following the rebel retreat, government troops consolidated their control over Brega and prepared to advance on Ajdabiya. On 9 April, rebel forces attacked Brega, but only managed to reach the University before being forced back by intense shelling by loyalist forces. Government forces then shelled Ajdabiya and invaded the city from the north, west and south and managed to reach the heart of the town by the following afternoon, shooting down a rebel attack helicopter. They were later forced back by a rebel counterattack that came after rebel reinforcements arrived. Government troops managed to retain control of the western part of the city. During the night, street battles took place along the city's main street, and in the southern part of Ajdabiya. On 10 April, loyalist forces managed to push closer the city center. The following day, rebels managed to completely push loyalist forces out of the city, but fighting continued west of Ajdabiya. The front line then stagnated outside of the city, 40 km down the road to Brega. There were exchanges of artillery and mortar fire throughout the following days. On 15 April, a rebel column tried to advance on Brega from Ajdabiya following a rocket barrage, but were stopped when Gaddafi forces carried out a hit-and-run attack one kilometer outside Brega.

Street battles broke out in Misrata in mid-April with loyalist forces shelling the town. Migrant workers trapped in Misrata began protesting their conditions, demanding repatriation from the city, which led to several cases of rebels opening fire on them, causing deaths. By 22 April, rebels managed to drive loyalist forces from several locations near the city center with NATO air support. The Deputy Foreign Minister of Libya subsequently pledged that the Libyan Army would withdraw from Misrata. On 23 April, government forces withdrew from Misrata, but continued to shell the city. On 26 April, a loyalist force attempted to retake Misrata, but was stopped by a NATO airstrike.

Government troops launched an artillery bombardment against rebel-held areas in the Al Jabal al Gharbi district in the Nafusa Mountains, leaving 110 rebels and civilians dead.

On 24 April, loyalist forces shelled the border crossing at Wazzin, and fired Grad rockets into Zintan, causing casualties. The following day, two rebels were killed and three wounded in fighting near Nalut. The rebels claimed to have killed 45 government troops and captured 17.

Rebel forces captured Wazzin after overcoming fierce resistance from government troops. Gaddafi's forces became trapped between the town and the border with Tunisia and as a result 105 government soldiers crossed the border and surrendered to Tunisian officials. On 28 April, loyalist forces recaptured the Wazzin border crossing with Tunisia after a swift advance during which they pushed the rebels into Tunisia. Fighting continued on the edge of the Tunisian border town of Dehiba. The rebels counterattacked, but were repulsed. On April 29, elements of the Tunisian army and border police clashed with loyalist forces.

NATO attacks intensify

On 30 April 2011, a NATO airstrike hit the home of Saif al-Arab al-Gaddafi, Muammar Gaddafi's youngest son. Libyan officials reported that Saif and three of Muammar Gaddafi's grandchildren were killed in the strike. The government also claimed Muammar Gaddafi was there, but "escaped". On April 26 2011, British Defence Minister, Liam Fox, and U.S. Defense Secretary, Robert Gates, had told reporters at the Pentagon that NATO planes were not targeting Gaddafi specifically but would continue to attack his command centers. Within the United Nations Security Council, Russia and China have voiced concerns that NATO has gone beyond the UN resolution's authorisation to take "all necessary measures" to protect civilians. Russia has expressed "increasing concern" regarding reports of civilian casualties, and doubted claims that the attacks did not deliberately target Gadaffi and his family.

The strike came shortly after Muammar Gaddafi called for a mutual cease-fire and negotiations with NATO. A NATO official said before Saturday's strike that the alliance would keep up pressure until the U.N. Security Council mandate on Libya was fulfilled. The NATO official noted that Gaddafi's forces had attacked Misrata hours before his speech. Opposition leaders have called the cease-fire offers publicity stunts. "We don't believe that there is a solution that includes him or any member of his family. So it is well past any discussions. The only solution is for him to depart," said rebel spokesperson Jalal al-Galal.

Humanitarian situation

Medical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in Libya. On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6,400,000 to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in Libya. On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people were crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks – as well as Libyans. By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya. By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.

With a migrant population of about two million, states that border Libya, especially Egypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping the violence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis. According to the International Organization for Migration, as of 7 March, 115,399 migrants had arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the rest from various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 in Niger (1,865 Nigerians) and 5,448 in Algeria.

At the end of February Al Jazeera reported that African migrant workers were being attacked, injured and perhaps killed by anti-government mobs according to witnesses. "We were being attacked by local people who said that we were mercenaries killing people. Let me say that they did not want to see black people," Julius Kiluu, a sixty-year-old building supervisor, told Reuters. "Our camp was burnt down, and we were assisted by the Kenyan embassy and our company to get to the airport," he said.

On 2 March, the Royal Navy destroyer HMS York had arrived in Benghazi carrying medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. The medical supplies, a donation to the Benghazi Medical Centre, were supposed to have been flown direct to Benghazi airport but when the airport was closed down, they were diverted to Malta. They were transferred from the airport to the frigate at short notice by the Armed Forces of Malta. On 8 March, a convoy of trucks from the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) had entered Libya and was due to arrive in the eastern port city of Benghazi on the same day, the WFP said in a statement. A convoy carrying seventy metric tonnes of high-energy date bars crossed the Egyptian border overnight on its way to the eastern port. On 7 March, U.N. aid coordinator Valerie Amos stated that fighting across Libya meant that more than a million people fleeing or inside the country needed humanitarian aid. Islamic Relief and World Food Programme World Food Programme (WFP) are also coordinating a shipment of humanitarian supplies to Misrata.

Turkey sent to Libya Ankara ferry which had been transformed into a hospital ship in order to transport to Turkey for medical treatment the wounded people from Misurata, a city exposed to intense clashes. Ankara docked at the Misurata port on 2 April under the protection provided by 12 Turkish Air Force F-16 aircraft taking off from Bandırma and Dalaman, 4 tanker aircraft taking off from İncirlik and TCG Yıldırım frigate. 230 wounded people and 60 attendants were taken on board and the ferry left Misurata for Benghazi. On 4 April the ferry sailed from Benghazi to Turkey with additional 190 people, including 90 injured. Humanitarian Relief Foundation (IHH) has sent a cargo ship carrying nine containers, 141 tons of humanitarian aid including medication, food packages, infant formula, milk powder, hygiene kits and clothing. The ship set sail from Turkey and dropped anchor in Malta.

Over 500, mostly ethnic Berber Libyans, had fled their homes in Libya's Western Mountains and took shelter in the Dehiba area of south east Tunisia between April 5 and 12.

By April 11, hundreds of foreign labourers from countries including Bangladesh, Egypt, Sudan, Ghana and Niger who were previously attracted by jobs in a once prosperous town of Misurata had not been evacuated. A labourers' spokesperson said there were 650 trapped workers from Ghana, 750 from Chad and 2,000 from Niger. Another spokesperson also gave a reporter for the British Daily Telegraph newspaper handwritten sheets of names that he said represented hundreds of stranded Sudanese.

To continue responding to needs of people staying at the Ras Ejdir crossing point in Tunisia, WFP and Secours Islamique-France are upgrading a kitchen that will provide breakfast for families.Separately, the International Committee of the Red Cross ICRC has advised it is handing over its operations at the Choucha Camp to the Tunisian Red Crescent. Since 24 March, WFP has supplied over 42,500 cooked meals for third-country nationals at the Saloum border.A total of 1,650 cartons of fortified date bars (equivalent of 13.2 metric tons) have also been provided to supplement these meals.

For a over 50 days, the Libyan city of Misurata has been shelled by artillery and hit by tanks and snipers, and for over 20 days has had its water intentionally shut off by Muammar Gaddafi's forces. Sewage has been intentionally re-routed into water wells by Gaddafi's forces. As supplies run short, hundreds of thousands are at risk of death.

A humanitarian ship docked in harbour of the besieged city of Misrata late on the 14th to begin the evacuation of nearly 8,300 stranded migrants living around the port in temporary accommodation in tents and shelters made from tarpaulins. The Red Cross also released a statement that it expected one of its medical supply shipments to arrive at Misrata in the near future.

Casualties

People in Dublin protesting against Gaddafi's use of violence against Libyans

Main article: Casualties of the 2011 Libyan civil war

Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000, The International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 killed on 7 March. The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February. On 2 March, the International Federation for Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000 and the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed. At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died. The Libyan League for Human Rights estimated 6,000 killed on 5 March. Later, rebel spokesman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death toll reached 8,000.

On 20 March, it was reported by the anti-Gaddafi Al Manara Media that Khamis al-Gaddafi had died from his injuries sustained when pilot Muhammad Mokhtar Osman allegedly crashed his plane into Bab al-Azizia a week earlier. However, this had not been confirmed by any other independent media. The crashing of the plane itself had also not been previously reported or confirmed by any other independent media except Al Manara and the Algerian Shuruk newspaper, which is closely connected to Al Manara, and with it there is a possibility of the reports being part of the rebel propaganda operations.

The Zawia el Argobe was an airstrike claimed to have been carried out on March 30, 2011 by coalition forces during the 2011 Libyan civil war which resulted in 7 civilian deaths in Zawia el Argobe, eastern Libya.

The coalition air strike was targeting a pro-Gaddafi convoy 15 km (9 miles) from Brega. It is claimed that the strike hit a truck carrying ammunition which destroyed two nearby homes. All the dead were between the ages of 12 and 20 and 25 others were hurt. NATO says it is investigating the claim.

On April 20, seven civilians were killed and 18 wounded in a NATO air raid that targeted the southwestern Tripoli suburb of Khellat Al-Ferjan. Earlier, NATO warplanes carried out air raids at Bir Al-Ghanam, about 50 kilometres (30 miles) southwest of the Libyan capital

Domestic responses

Main article: Domestic responses to the 2011 Libyan civil war

Resignation of government officials

In response to the use of force against protesters, a number of senior Libyan public officials either renounced the Gaddafi regime or resigned from their positions. Justice Minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil and Interior Minister Major General Abdul Fatah Younis both defected to the opposition. Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem and Foreign Minister Moussa Koussa fled Libya, with the latter defecting to the UK. Libyan Prosecutor General Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar resigned his position and joined the opposition.

A number of senior military officials defected to the opposition, including Major General Suleiman Mahmoud, Brigadier General Musa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, Brigadier General Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi and Brigadier General Dawood Issa Al Qafsi. Two Libyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta, and requested asylum, after being ordered to carry out air strikes against anti-government protesters in Benghazi Colonel Nuretin Hurala, the commander of the Benghazi Naval Base also defected.

The staff of a number of diplomatic missions of Libya have either resigned or condemned the action of the Gaddafi regime. The ambassadors to the Arab League, European Union and United Nations have either resigned or stated that they no longer support the government. The ambassadors to Bangladesh, Belgium, People's Republic of China, France, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, and the US also renounced the Gaddafi regime or formally resigned.

Economic, religious and tribal

Libyan economy is mainly based on its oil production. The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second-largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces. Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi. The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes announced their support of the protesters. The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in its part of Libya if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.

Libyan royal family

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.

Claimant to the Libyan throne Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect." as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence. On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre". He dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence. He asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops. On April 20, Mohammed spoke in front of the European Parliament calling for more support for Libya. He also states that he will support any form of government that Libya will choose after Gaddafi including a constitutional monarchy.

In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the Libya once change had been initiated. On 21 February, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising. In March, it was reported Idris had held meetings at the State Department and Congress in Washington with US government Officials. It was also reported attempts at contact had been initiated by French and Saudi officials. On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.

International reactions

Main article: International reactions to the 2011 Libyan civil war

Official responses

March for free Libya in Japan before the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

A number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, North Korean leader Kim-Jong-il, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez all expressed support for Gaddafi. Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he called the attacks on protesters unacceptable.

The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergency meeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities".

Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters. On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and, refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians. Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen members of his clan or his regime. A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia, took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates.

The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians. The Arab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against the measure.

Evacuations

During the uprising, many states evacuated their citizens. China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100 citizens from twelve other states. On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day wait for the seas to calm. South Korea evacuated 1,200 residents of Libya, utilizing cars, airplanes and ferries, to nearby jurisdictions, including Malta.

Bulgaria evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinese citizens. The Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated 15,000 of its nationals. The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported 25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul. The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya. Several Russians, twenty-one Tadjiks and some Kazachs were evacuated by Russia authorities.

A number of international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, Suncor Energy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees included Siemens and Russian Railways.

The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The United Kingdom deployed aircraft and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuations. China's frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts. The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived off the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens. The UK Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetown to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise.

Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces onboard evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi. A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the UK and Germany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete. An attempt by the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp on 27 February to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirte by helicopter failed after its three-man crew was apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi for infiltrating Libyan airspace without clearance. The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released twelve days later, but the helicopter was confiscated. A cruise ship arrived to save the 7,913 Filipinos in Libya from the destruction. They stopped in Greece and then safely made it home to the Philippines.

Mediation proposals

There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. Early in the conflict, Gaddafi's son reportedly requested that former British Prime Minister Tony Blair mediate the crisis but he bluntly refused.

The South African government proposed an African Union led mediation effort to prevent civil war. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez also put himself forward as a mediator. Although Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later said there was no need for any foreign mediation. The proposal has also been under consideration by the Arab League, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa.

The Libyan opposition has stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down. The US and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power. Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, the 2010 winner of the al-Gaddafi prize for Human Rights, has offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed that Gaddafi appoint a president acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.

The African Union's special committee on Libya have been attempting to broker a ceasefire agreement. Gadhafi accepted the proposal in principle, which reportedly contains provision for an immediate ceasefire. However, opposition leaders remain skepticism that mediation would end the conflict in a way that would satisfy their goals, which include seeing Gadhafi removed from power.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 (no-fly zone and other measures)

Countries committed to enforcement:

Belgium

Bulgaria

Canada

Denmark

France

Greece

Italy

Jordan

Netherlands

Norway

Qatar

Romania

Spain

Sweden

United Arab Emirates

United Kingdom

United States

Main articles: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 and 2011 military intervention in Libya

On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using military aircraft against civilians. A number of states indicated they would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the UN.

US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates was initially sceptical of this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defences. Russia and China, both holding UN Security Council veto power, indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone. Romania, India and Turkey also indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone.

On 7 March, a UN diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse, on condition of anonymity, that France and the UK were drawing up a resolution for the UN Security Council to authorize a no-fly zone over Libya.

The foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed at their 12 March meeting to ask the UN to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. The rebels concurrently stated that a no-fly zone alone would not be sufficient, because the majority of the bombardments were coming from tanks and rockets, not aircraft. The US changed its position, as Gadaffi forces were quickly approaching Benghazi, and voiced support for the no-fly-zone concept.

On 17 March, the UN Security Council approved UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011), authorizing a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favour, zero against, and five abstentions. The resolution bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order to protect civilians. A collection of states began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March.

On 29 March, in his position as Foreign Minister of Libya, Moussa Koussa wrote to UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon, nominating the former foreign minister of Nicaragua's socialist Sandinista government and one-time president of the UN General Assembly Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann as Libya's new ambassador to the UN. The letter stated that Brockmann was nominated, as Ali Abdussalam Treki, also a former General Assembly president who was their first choice, was denied a visa to enter the US under UN SCR 1973.

The NATO Berlin summit of April 14–15

NATO, Georgian, Russian, Ukrainian,, UAE, Swedish and Qatari officials attended a summit in Berlin, but failed for a second day to find new ground-attack aircraft, despite planning to send more fighters to strengthen the no fly zone. NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen asked other member states to do more in Libya, but Italy signalled its reluctance to contribute more airpower. The British Foreign Minister, William Hague, said he did not regard the meeting as a failure, even though it had not prompted any extra member nations to join the French, British and American led mission. The Russian representative warned that NATO had gone beyond the United Nations mandate to only protect citizens, by attacking ground targets in Libya.

Military advisors

On April 20, 2011, the Los Angeles Times reported that three western powers (France, Italy and Britain) would send military advisors to Libya.

Reactions to the decision to intervene

See also: International reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya, Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya, and US domestic reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya

The International Federation for Human Rights stated that it welcomed the resolution which finally offers protection to civilians in Libya, who are the targets of crimes which can be considered crimes against humanity. Muslim Brotherhood-linked Egyptian scholar Yusuf al-Qaradawi expressed his support for the no-fly zone put in place by the United Nations over Libya, saying, "The operation in Libya is to protect the civilians from Gaddafi’s tyranny." Qaradawi also slammed Arab League leader and likely presidential candidate Amr Moussa for remarks criticizing the international intervention. Al-Qaeda also stated that they support the uprising against Gaddafi. Egypt reportedly has been shipping arms to Libya to arm the rebels.

Kenneth Roth, executive director of the Human Rights Watch, stated that the Security Council at last lived up to its duty to prevent mass atrocities. He further commented the Arab League's role, stating that "the league had watched silently as Sudan's Omar al-Bashir committed crimes against humanity in Darfur – or, less recently, as Iraq's Saddam Hussein massacred Shia and Kurds, and Syria's Hafez al-Asad destroyed the town of Hama. But the league apparently sensed the winds of change wafting through the Middle East and North Africa, and felt compelled to respond."

According to a French Institute of Public Opinion (IFOP) poll, only 36% of the population supported French participation in any military intervention in Libya in the run-up to the intervention. However, an IFOP poll conducted after the intervention began showed 66% supported the intervention, with no difference of opinion between the left-wing and right-wing. In the US, opposition before the intervention was as high as 74%, according to CNN/Opinion Research Corporation, while after the intervention a CBS News poll indicated 66% of Americans support the air and naval strikes, with 70% of Democrats and Republicans, and 65% of independents approving of missile and airstrikes. However, only 20% expect the no-fly zone to be "very effective" in protecting civilians and rebels from Gaddafi's forces.

China, India, Russia and Turkey condemned the strikes by international forces. Amr Moussa, the head of The Arab League, expressed great concern over civilians, clearly defining his position as supporting the UN Security Council resolution but not a bombing campaign. However, Amr Moussa later clarified that his comments were misinterpreted, and that he does in fact support the air strikes, and reiterated his support for protecting civilians. Turkey specifically singled out French leadership for ignoring the NATO alliance, which was left divided and split over the operation. NATO members Germany and Poland are not participating in the campaign, and Malta did not offer its airports for use by coalition forces.

In Britain the intervention has been broadly supported, though it has also provoked strong opposition from a minority including former MP George Galloway and MPs Jeremy Corbyn and Caroline Lucas. In the US, some politicians have voiced opposition to military action without congressional approval, or have requested clarifications and debate about US goals and how they will be achieved, including Democratic and Republican congressional representatives, Speaker of the House John Boehner, House Armed Services Committee Chairman Buck McKeon, and Democratic House Caucus chair John Larson. Richard Haass, president of the Council on Foreign Relations, has expressed doubts over the possibility of a better regime emerging if the rebels are victorious. However, others have predicted more fortuitous results from the US-led intervention in Libya, especially regarding its long-term ramifications on standing American foreign policy.

See also

• Egypt's January 25 Revolution
• Human rights in Libya
• List of modern conflicts in North Africa
• Human rights violations in 2011 Libyan civil war

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• Topple the Tyrants
• Tunisian revolution
• Free speech in the media during the 2011 Libyan civil war
• Moussa Ibrahim, Gaddafi spokesman

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Further reading

• Morayef, Heba (2009). Truth and Justice Can't Wait: Human Rights Developments in Libya Amid Institutional Obstacles. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 9781564325631.
• St. John, Ronald Bruce (2011). Libya: Continuity and Change. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415779777.

External links

• "Photos of Air Strikes on Libya". The Atlantic.
• "Libya Uprising". Al Jazeera.
• "Live Blog". Al Jazeera.
• "Libya Revolt". BBC News.
• "Libya". Der Spiegel.

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• "Libya in Crisis". The Guardian.
• News coverage at libyafeb17.com.
• "Libya –The Protests (2011)". The New York Times.
• "Libya". Reuters.
• Voice of Free LIbya (newsblog)

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