Darjeeling: Difference between revisions

Coordinates: 27°02′15″N 88°15′47″E / 27.03750°N 88.26306°E / 27.03750; 88.26306
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{{Main|Transport in Darjeeling}}
{{Main|Transport in Darjeeling}}
[[File:Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.jpg|alt=A train, hauled by a steam locomotive, running beside a road between two rows of buildings with a few people walking on the road.|thumb|The narrow gauge train often crisscrosses the street]]
[[File:Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.jpg|alt=A train, hauled by a steam locomotive, running beside a road between two rows of buildings with a few people walking on the road.|thumb|The narrow gauge train often crisscrosses the street]]
Darjeeling can be reached by the {{cvt|88|km|mi}} long [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] from [[New Jalpaiguri]], or by [[National Highway 110 (India)|National Highway 110]], from [[Siliguri]], {{cvt|77|km|mi}} away.{{sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhai.org/Doc/project-offer/Highways.pdf |title=NH wise Details of NH in respect of Stretches entrusted to NHAI |publisher=National Highways Authority of India |access-date=7 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225142615/http://www.nhai.org/Doc/project-offer/Highways.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009}}</ref> The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is a {{cvt|600|mm|ft|0}} [[narrow-gauge railway]] that was declared a [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]] in 1999 for being "an outstanding example of the influence of an innovative transportation system on the social and economic development of a multi-cultural region, which was to serve as a model for similar developments in many parts of the world",<ref name="UNESCO-99report" /> becoming only the second railway in the world to have this honour.<ref name="UNESCO-MountainRailways" /><ref name="aradhana1" /> Bus services and hired vehicles connect Darjeeling with Siliguri and Darjeeling has road connections with [[Bagdogra]], [[Gangtok]] and [[Kathmandu]] and the neighbouring towns of [[Kurseong]] and [[Kalimpong]].{{sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}} However, road and railway communications often get disrupted in the monsoons because of landslides. The nearest airport is [[Bagdogra Airport]], located {{cvt|90|km|mi}} from Darjeeling.{{sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}} Within the town, people usually traverse by walking. Residents also use [[motorcycle|two-wheelers]] and hired taxis for travelling short distances. The [[Darjeeling Ropeway]], functional since 1968, was closed in 2003 after an accident killed four tourists.<ref name="Statesman20Oct">{{cite web |url=http://www.thestatesman.net/page.arcview.php?clid=1&id=53912&usrsess=1 |title=Darjeeling ropeway mishap kills four| access-date = 30 June 2007 |work=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |date=20 October 2003| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929102947/http://www.thestatesman.net/page.arcview.php?clid=1&id=53912&usrsess=1| archive-date = 29 September 2007}}</ref> It reopened in February 2012.<ref name=reopening>{{cite news |title=Darjeeling ropeway reopens after more than 8 yrs |last=Banerjee |first=Amitava |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news//Darjeeling-ropeway-reopens-after-more-than-8-yrs/Article1-805796.aspx |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=2 February 2012 |access-date=16 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205224710/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news//Darjeeling-ropeway-reopens-after-more-than-8-yrs/Article1-805796.aspx |archive-date=5 February 2012}}</ref>
Darjeeling can be reached by the {{cvt|88|km|mi}} long [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] from [[New Jalpaiguri]], or by [[National Highway 110 (India)|National Highway 110]], from [[Siliguri]], {{cvt|77|km|mi}} away.{{sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhai.org/Doc/project-offer/Highways.pdf |title=NH wise Details of NH in respect of Stretches entrusted to NHAI |publisher=National Highways Authority of India |access-date=7 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225142615/http://www.nhai.org/Doc/project-offer/Highways.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009}}</ref> The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is a {{cvt|600|mm|ft|0}} [[narrow-gauge railway]] that was declared a [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]] in 1999 for being "an outstanding example of the influence of an innovative transportation system on the social and economic development of a multi-cultural region, which was to serve as a model for similar developments in many parts of the world",<ref name="UNESCO-99report" /> becoming only the second railway in the world to have this honour.<ref name="UNESCO-MountainRailways" /><ref name="aradhana1" /> Bus services and hired vehicles connect Darjeeling with Siliguri and Darjeeling has road connections with [[Bagdogra]], [[Gangtok]] and [[Kathmandu]] and the neighbouring towns of [[Kurseong]] and [[Kalimpong]].{{sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}} However, road and railway communications often get disrupted in the monsoons because of landslides.{{sfn | Pal | Shaw | 2017 | p=367–9}}{{sfn | Mandal | Mondal | 2018 | p=8}} The nearest airport is [[Bagdogra Airport]], located {{cvt|90|km|mi}} from Darjeeling.{{sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}} Within the town, people usually traverse by walking. Residents also use [[motorcycle|two-wheelers]] and hired taxis for travelling short distances. The [[Darjeeling Ropeway]], functional since 1968, was closed in 2003 after an accident killed four tourists.<ref name="Statesman20Oct">{{cite web |url=http://www.thestatesman.net/page.arcview.php?clid=1&id=53912&usrsess=1 |title=Darjeeling ropeway mishap kills four| access-date = 30 June 2007 |work=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |date=20 October 2003| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929102947/http://www.thestatesman.net/page.arcview.php?clid=1&id=53912&usrsess=1| archive-date = 29 September 2007}}</ref> It reopened in February 2012.<ref name=reopening>{{cite news |title=Darjeeling ropeway reopens after more than 8 yrs |last=Banerjee |first=Amitava |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news//Darjeeling-ropeway-reopens-after-more-than-8-yrs/Article1-805796.aspx |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=2 February 2012 |access-date=16 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205224710/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news//Darjeeling-ropeway-reopens-after-more-than-8-yrs/Article1-805796.aspx |archive-date=5 February 2012}}</ref>


== Demographics ==
== Demographics ==
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* {{cite book |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |year=1986 |title=British India and Tibet, 1766–1910 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |edition=2nd |page=353 |isbn=978-0-7102-0872-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MY4OAAAAQAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |year=1986 |title=British India and Tibet, 1766–1910 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |edition=2nd |page=353 |isbn=978-0-7102-0872-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MY4OAAAAQAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Mackintosh |first=L.J. |year=2009 |title=Birds of Darjeeling and India |publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC |edition=2nd |page=322 |isbn=978-1-116-11396-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xY6nB640PKkC}}
* {{cite book |last=Mackintosh |first=L.J. |year=2009 |title=Birds of Darjeeling and India |publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC |edition=2nd |page=322 |isbn=978-1-116-11396-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xY6nB640PKkC}}
* {{cite book | last=Mandal | first=S. | last2=Mondal | first2=S. | title=Statistical Approaches for Landslide Susceptibility Assessment and Prediction | publisher=Springer International Publishing | year=2018 | isbn=978-3-319-93897-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf5sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 | access-date=31 March 2022}}
* {{cite book| editor1-last=Middleton|editor1-first=Townsend|editor2-last=Shneiderman|editor2-first=Sara|title=Darjeeling Reconsidered: Histories, Politics, Environments|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-948355-6}}
* {{cite book| editor1-last=Middleton|editor1-first=Townsend|editor2-last=Shneiderman|editor2-first=Sara|title=Darjeeling Reconsidered: Histories, Politics, Environments|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-948355-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Negi |first=Sharad Singh |year=1992 |title=Himalayan wildlife, habitat and conservation |publisher=Indus Publishing |page=207 |isbn=978-81-85182-68-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W88pkms1dXEC}}
* {{cite book |last=Negi |first=Sharad Singh |year=1992 |title=Himalayan wildlife, habitat and conservation |publisher=Indus Publishing |page=207 |isbn=978-81-85182-68-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W88pkms1dXEC}}
* {{cite book | last=Pal | first=I. | last2=Shaw | first2=R. | title=Disaster Risk Governance in India and Cross Cutting Issues | publisher=Springer Singapore | series=Disaster Risk Reduction | year=2017 | isbn=978-981-10-3310-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urIvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA368 | access-date=31 March 2022}}
* {{cite book | last1=Ray | first1=B. | last2=Shaw | first2=R. | title=Urban Drought: Emerging Water Challenges in Asia | publisher=Springer Singapore | series=Disaster Risk Reduction | year=2018 | isbn=978-981-10-8947-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_CBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA372 | access-date=22 March 2022}}
* {{cite book | last1=Ray | first1=B. | last2=Shaw | first2=R. | title=Urban Drought: Emerging Water Challenges in Asia | publisher=Springer Singapore | series=Disaster Risk Reduction | year=2018 | isbn=978-981-10-8947-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_CBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA372 | access-date=22 March 2022}}
* {{cite book | last=Samaddar | first=R. | title=The Politics of Autonomy: Indian Experiences | publisher=SAGE Publications | year=2005 | isbn=978-81-321-0364-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=45GHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 | access-date=21 March 2022}}
* {{cite book | last=Samaddar | first=R. | title=The Politics of Autonomy: Indian Experiences | publisher=SAGE Publications | year=2005 | isbn=978-81-321-0364-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=45GHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 | access-date=21 March 2022}}

Revision as of 15:44, 31 March 2022

This article is about the municipality in West Bengal, India. For its namesake district, see Darjeeling district. For the tea named after the region, see Darjeeling tea. For other uses, see Darjeeling (disambiguation).

Darjeeling
City
Left to right from top:
A panoramic view of Darjeeling with the Kangchenjunga massif towering behind; statue of the first Nepali language poet Bhanubhakta Acharya at Chowrasta Square; the goddess Durga in relief at the Mahakal Temple, Darjeeling, completed 1782; statue of Tenzing Norgay just outside the Himalayan Mountaineering Institute est. 1954; Darjeeling railway station, opened 1881; a tea garden in Darjeeling
Nickname: 
The Queen of Hills[1]
Darjeeling is located in West Bengal
Darjeeling
Darjeeling
Location in West Bengal, India
Darjeeling is located in India
Darjeeling
Darjeeling
Darjeeling (India)
Coordinates: 27°02′15″N 88°15′47″E / 27.03750°N 88.26306°E / 27.03750; 88.26306
CountryIndia
StateWest Bengal
DistrictDarjeeling
Settled1815, Treaty of Sugauli
Founded byEast India Company
Government
 • TypeMunicipal Corporations in India
 • BodyDarjeeling Municipality
 • ChairmanRitesh Portel[2]
 • Vice-ChairmanYangzi Sherpa
Area
[3]
 • City10.60 km2 (4.09 sq mi)
 • Metro
12.77 km2 (4.93 sq mi)
Elevation
[4]
2,042.16 m (6,700.00 ft)
Population
 (2011)[3]
 • City120,414
 • Density11,000/km2 (29,000/sq mi)
 • Metro
132,016
Languages
 • OfficialBengali and Nepali[5]
Time zoneUTC+5:30 (IST)
Postal Index Number
734101
Telephone code0354
Vehicle registrationWB-76 WB-77
Lok Sabha constituencyDarjeeling
Vidhan Sabha constituencyDarjeeling
Websitedarjeelingmunicipality.org.in

Darjeeling (Bengali: [ˈdarˌdʒiliŋ], Nepali: [darˈd͡ziliŋ]) is a city and municipality in the Eastern Himalayas in India, lying at an elevation of 2,100 metres (7,000 ft) in the northernmost region of the Indian state of West Bengal.[6] It is noted for its tea industry, scenic views of the world's third-highest mountain Kangchenjunga, and a narrow-gauge mountain railway, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, which is on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Darjeeling is the headquarters of the Darjeeling district which has a partially autonomous status called Gorkhaland Territorial Administration within the state of West Bengal. It is also a popular tourist destination in India.

In the early 19th century during East India Company rule in India a sanatorium and a military depot were set up in the region. Subsequently, extensive tea plantations were established, the tea growers developing hybrids of black tea and creating new fermentation techniques. A distinctive Darjeeling tea emerged, which became internationally recognised and has ranked among the most popular black teas in the world.[7] The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway connecting the town with the North Bengal plains was completed in 1881 and has some of the few remaining steam locomotives in service in India.

Darjeeling has several British-style private schools that attract pupils from India and neighbouring countries. The culture of the town reflects its diverse demographic milieu which comprises the Lepcha, Khampa, Kirati, Gorkha, Newari, Sherpa, Bhutia, Bengali[8] as well as other Indian ethno-linguistic groups. Darjeeling and nearby Kalimpong were the centres of the Gorkhaland movement in the 1980s.

Toponymy

The name Darjeeling acclaimed from the Tibetan words Dorje, which is the thunderbolt sceptre of the Hindu deity Indra, and ling, which means "a place" or "land".[9]

History

Main article: History of Darjeeling
India in 1805
India in 1823
India in 1837
India in 1857

Darjeeling is a hill station, a term that originally signified an official retreat for British administrators in a hilly region of India where the climate was temperate; the "station" was a military term for an administrative unit.[10] In the early 19th-century, after the rule of the East India Company had spread to the greater part of Indian subcontinent, the British felt able to build these towns. Iconic hill stations such as Simla, Ooty, and Darjeeling were established between 1819 and 1840. The "hill" was somewhat of a misnomer,[10] as the towns were built on high mountain ridges, their sites having been identified by Company officials for particular strategic or commercial benefit. Simla, which later became the summer capital of India, and Darjeeling, later the summer capital of the Bengal presidency,[11] lay in the northern Himalayan tracts.[12] Ooty, which lay in peninsular India became the summer capital of the Madras presidency.[13]

Located in a geopolitical boundary region, Darjeeling had been the object of the longer-term aspirations and concerns of several South Asian states.[14] For much of the 18th century, the Chogyal-ruler of the Kingdom of Sikkim to the north had affirmed possession of the hills and valleys between the Mechi and Teesta rivers among which Darjeeling lies.[15] In the last decades of the century, the Gurkhas of Nepal made a military push to the east and brought Darjeeling under the rule of Gurkha Empire.[16] However, they stopped short of the Teesta river, the territory to its east remaining a part of the Kingdom of Bhutan.[17][18] British interference in territorial matters in the region began in the aftermath of the East India Company army's victory against the Gurkhas in the Anglo-Nepalese War, fought between 1814 and 1816, and the following Treaty of Sugauli and Treaty of Titalia under which Nepal was required to return the Darjeeling area to Sikkim.[19]

In 1829, two Company officials, Captain George Lloyd and J. W. Grant, on the way to resolving a boundary controversy between Nepal and Sikkim, passed a crescent-shaped mountain ridge, which they thought appropriate for a sanatorium resort.[20][21][22] The Company negotiated a lease of the area west of the Mahananda River from the Chogyal in 1835.[23] By the 1840s, trunk roads were being completed in British India, not only the Grand Trunk Road connecting Calcutta in the east to Peshawar in the west, but also the Darjeeling Cart Road from Siliguri at the base of the Himalayan foothills in northern Bengal to Darjeeling.[24] In 1845, a hill cantonment for convalescing British soldiers was set up above Darjeeling in Senchal (altitude 7,000 feet), but it proved too rainy, cold, and psychologically unsuitable; after a large number of suicides were witnessed among the patients, it was moved to Lebong 2,000 feet below.[25] In 1849, the EIC Superintendent Archibald Campbell and the explorer and botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker were imprisoned in the region by the Chogyal. The EIC sent a force to free them. Continued friction between the EIC and the Sikkim authorities resulted in the annexation of 1,700 square kilometres (640 sq mi) of territory by the British in 1850.

In the last decades of East India Company rule, Darjeeling's temperate climate caused it to be developed as a hill station, or a resort for British residents seeking to escape the heat of the Indian plains. A sanatorium was constructed quickly.[26] Arthur Campbell, a surgeon with the company, and Lieutenant Robert Napier were most responsible. Campbell made an effort to attract immigrants to cultivate the slopes around Darjeeling and to stimulate trade; this caused a hundredfold increase in the region's population between 1835 and 1849.[27][28] The first road connecting the town with the plains below was constructed between 1839 and 1842.[26][28] In 1848, a military depot was set up for British soldiers, and the town became a municipality in 1850.[28] Commercial cultivation of tea in the district began in 1856, and induced a number of British planters to settle there.[21]

In the British Raj, established in 1858, the tea industry expanded rapidly and by the turn of the 20th-century consisted of more than 100 tea gardens employing an estimated 64,000 workers.[29] In 1864, the Bhutanese rulers and the British signed the Treaty of Sinchula under which Bhutan ceded the passes leading through the hills and Kalimpong to the British.[27] Darjeeling became the summer capital of the Bengal Presidency after 1864.[30] [31] By 1866, the Raj had annexed what would come to be known as the Darjeeling hills, roughly corresponding to the present-day districts of Darjeeling and Kalimpong,[32] covering an area of 3,200 square kilometres (1,234 sq mi).[27] Scottish missionaries undertook the construction of schools and welfare centres for the British residents, laying the foundation for Darjeeling's notability as a centre of education. The opening of the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway in 1881 further hastened the development of the region.[33] In 1899, Darjeeling was rocked by major landslides that caused severe damage to the town and the native population.[34]

Although princely states could not own property in Darjeeling, the restriction did not extend to Indian residents of British India, the regions administered by the British. By the turn of the 20th-century, Darjeeling had become a popular vacation destination for the Bengali upper classes many of whom had come to acquire the language, customs, and manners of the British. Wealthy zamindars such as the Raja of Darbhanga and Raja of Burdwan had built mansions in Darjeeling. The landowner and Bengali writer, Rabindranath Tagore who would go on to win the Nobel prize for literature in 1913, spent summers in Darjeeling or nearby Kalimpong. Famous barristers from Calcutta built summer homes in Darjeeling in the proximity of the British.[11]

The Darjeeling area was initially considered a "Non-Regulation District", or an economically less advanced district in British India; acts and regulations of the British Raj did not automatically apply to the district. In 1919, the area was declared a "backward tract".[35]

The King of Sikkim in Darjeeling about 1900
A pro-Gorkhaland independence poster in Darjeeling

During the Indian independence movement, the Non-cooperation movement spread through the tea estates of Darjeeling.[36] There was also a failed assassination attempt by revolutionaries on John Anderson, the Governor of Bengal in 1934.[37] Subsequently, during the 1940s, communist activists continued the nationalist movement against the British by mobilising the plantation workers and the peasants of the district.[38]

Socio-economic problems of the region that had not been addressed during the British Raj continued to linger and were reflected in a representation made to the Constituent Assembly of India in 1947, which highlighted the issues of regional autonomy and Nepali nationality in Darjeeling and adjacent areas.[38] While the hill population comprised mainly ethnic Nepalis, the plains harboured a large ethnic Bengali population who were refugees from the Partition of India.[39] A cautious and non-receptive response by the West Bengal government to most demands of the ethnic Nepali population led to increased calls, in the 1950s and 1960s, for Darjeeling's autonomy and for the recognition of the Nepali language; the state government acceded to the latter demand in 1961.[40]

The creation of the new Indian state of Sikkim in 1975, along with the reluctance of the Government of India to recognise Nepali as an official language under the Constitution of India, brought the Gorkhaland movement to the forefront.[41] Agitation for a separate state continued through the 1980s,[42] and included violent protests during the period 1986–88. The agitation ceased only after an agreement between the government and the Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF), resulting in the establishment of an elected body in 1988 called the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC), which received autonomy to govern the district. Though Darjeeling became peaceful, the issue of a separate state lingered, fuelled in part by the lack of comprehensive economic development in the region even after the formation of the DGHC.[43] New protests erupted in 2008–09, but both the Union and State governments rejected Gorkha Janmukti Morcha's (GJM) demand for a separate state.[44] In July 2011, a pact was signed between GJM, the Government of West Bengal and the Government of India which includes the formation of a new autonomous, elected Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA), a hill council endowed with more powers than its predecessor Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council.[45] However, political stability in the region remained elusive due to recurrent internal dispute among GJM leaders,[46] capricious alliance building with national-level political parties (Trinamul Congress and Bharatiya Janata Party),[47][48] and occasional–sometimes violent–protests demanding creation of separate Gorkhaland.[49][50][51] The Darjeeling Municipal election of March 2022 was won by the Hamro Party, a new political party which did not campaign for a separate Gorkhaland.[52]

Geography

Topography

Map
About OpenStreetMaps
Maps: terms of use
1.5km
1mile
none
Ghum Monastery
T
Ghum Monastery (T)
Batasia Loop
F
Batasia Loop (F)
Peace Pagoda
T
Peace Pagoda, Darjeeling (F)
Lloyd's Botanical Garden
F
Lloyd's Botanical Garden (F)
Darjeeling Ropeway
F
Darjeeling Ropeway (F)
Himalayan
Mountaineering
Institute
I
Himalayan Mountaineering Institute (i)
Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park
F
Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park (F)
Raj Bhavan
F
Raj Bhavan, Darjeeling (F)
Observatory Hill View Point
F
Observatory Hill, Darjeeling (F)
Mahakal Temple
T
Mahakal Temple, Darjeeling (T)
Chowrasta
F
Chowrasta (Darjeeling) (F)
Darjeeling railway station
F
Darjeeling railway station (F)
Lebong & Mineral Spring TE
R
Lebong & Mineral Spring Tea Garden (TE)
Arya TE
TE
Arya Tea Estate (TE)
Happy Valley TE
TE
Happy Valley Tea Estate (TE)
Darjeeling
TE: tea estate, F: facility, T: religious place, I: institute
Abbreviations used in names – TE for Tea Estate
Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map

Darjeeling is the main town of the Sadar subdivision and also the headquarters of the district. It is located at an elevation of 2,000 m (6,700 ft)[4] in the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region on the Darjeeling-Jalapahar range that originates in the south from Ghum. The range is Y-shaped with the base resting at Katapahar and Jalapahar and two arms diverging north of the Observatory Hill. The north-eastern arm dips suddenly and ends in the Lebong spur, while the north-western arm passes through North Point and ends in the valley near Tukver Tea Estate.[53] The hills are nestled within higher peaks and the snowcapped Himalayan ranges tower over the town at distance. Kangchenjunga, the world's third-highest peak at 8,598 m (28,209 ft), is the most prominent mountain visible. On clear days Nepal's Mount Everest, 8,848.86 m (29,031.7 ft), Lhotse at 8,516 m (27,940 ft) and Makalu at 8,485 m (27,838 ft) can be seen from Tiger Hill.[54]

The hills of Darjeeling are part of the Lesser Himalaya. The soil is chiefly composed of sandstone and conglomerate formations, which are the solidified and upheaved detritus of the great range of Himalaya. However, the soil is often poorly consolidated (the permeable sediments of the region do not retain water between rains) and is not considered suitable for agriculture. The area has steep slopes and loose topsoil, leading to frequent landslides during the monsoons.

Seismology

According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, the city falls under seismic zone-IV, (on a scale of I to V, in order of increasing proneness to earthquakes) near the convergent boundary of the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic plates and is subject to frequent earthquakes.[54]

Climate

Darjeeling has a temperate climate (Köppen: Cwb,[55] subtropical highland climate) with wet summers caused by monsoon rains.[56]

According to India Meteorological Department, Darjeeling's annual mean maximum temperature is 17.2 °C (63.0 °F) while the mean minimum temperature is 8.5 °C (47.3 °F).[57] The lowest temperature ever recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) on 30 January 1971 while the highest temperature rose to 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) on 21 August 1970.[57] The average annual precipitation is 2,380 mm (94 in), with an average of 105 days of rain in a year.[57] The highest rainfall occurs in July.[58][55] The heavy and concentrated rainfall that is experienced in the region, aggravated by deforestation and haphazard planning, often causes devastating landslides, leading to loss of life and property.[59][60] Snowfall is rare, and the town can go many years without any snow.[61][62][63][64]

Climate data for Darjeeling (1981–2010, extremes 1901–2012)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 19.0
(66.2) 		19.2
(66.6) 		24.0
(75.2) 		27.0
(80.6) 		25.7
(78.3) 		27.7
(81.9) 		28.0
(82.4) 		28.5
(83.3) 		27.5
(81.5) 		26.0
(78.8) 		24.5
(76.1) 		20.0
(68.0) 		28.5
(83.3)
Mean maximum °C (°F) 15.1
(59.2) 		15.8
(60.4) 		19.8
(67.6) 		22.4
(72.3) 		22.6
(72.7) 		22.7
(72.9) 		22.4
(72.3) 		22.8
(73.0) 		23.2
(73.8) 		22.7
(72.9) 		20.7
(69.3) 		17.4
(63.3) 		24.4
(75.9)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 10.7
(51.3) 		12.4
(54.3) 		15.6
(60.1) 		18.5
(65.3) 		19.3
(66.7) 		19.8
(67.6) 		19.6
(67.3) 		20.0
(68.0) 		19.8
(67.6) 		19.5
(67.1) 		17.1
(62.8) 		14.0
(57.2) 		17.2
(63.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 6.1
(43.0) 		7.7
(45.9) 		10.6
(51.1) 		13.7
(56.7) 		14.9
(58.8) 		16.3
(61.3) 		16.5
(61.7) 		16.7
(62.1) 		16.1
(61.0) 		15.0
(59.0) 		11.7
(53.1) 		8.9
(48.0) 		12.9
(55.1)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 1.5
(34.7) 		2.9
(37.2) 		5.7
(42.3) 		8.8
(47.8) 		10.6
(51.1) 		12.8
(55.0) 		13.4
(56.1) 		13.4
(56.1) 		12.4
(54.3) 		10.5
(50.9) 		6.3
(43.3) 		3.8
(38.8) 		8.5
(47.3)
Mean minimum °C (°F) −0.5
(31.1) 		0.7
(33.3) 		2.7
(36.9) 		5.4
(41.7) 		7.4
(45.3) 		10.3
(50.5) 		11.4
(52.5) 		11.9
(53.4) 		10.6
(51.1) 		8.0
(46.4) 		3.9
(39.0) 		1.2
(34.2) 		−0.1
(31.8)
Record low °C (°F) −7.2
(19.0) 		−6.4
(20.5) 		−4.8
(23.4) 		0.0
(32.0) 		1.4
(34.5) 		6.6
(43.9) 		3.9
(39.0) 		8.0
(46.4) 		6.2
(43.2) 		3.2
(37.8) 		−4.4
(24.1) 		−4.6
(23.7) 		−7.2
(19.0)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 13.5
(0.53) 		14.0
(0.55) 		30.8
(1.21) 		76.9
(3.03) 		137.9
(5.43) 		466.0
(18.35) 		656.7
(25.85) 		528.2
(20.80) 		379.7
(14.95) 		59.1
(2.33) 		14.4
(0.57) 		2.9
(0.11) 		2,380
(93.70)
Average rainy days 1.1 1.5 2.8 6.8 10.5 18.8 22.9 21.7 14.9 2.9 0.6 0.7 105.3
Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) 81 78 75 78 88 93 94 92 90 84 75 74 84
Mean monthly sunshine hours 167.4 141.3 145.7 147.0 151.9 72.0 77.5 102.3 96.0 167.4 189.0 189.1 1,646.6
Mean daily sunshine hours 5.4 5.0 4.7 4.9 4.9 2.4 2.5 3.3 3.2 5.4 6.3 6.1 4.5
Average ultraviolet index 5 6 9 11 13 15 15 14 12 9 6 4 10
Source 1: India Meteorological Department[58][65] UV Index[66]
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun 1891–1990)[67]

Flora and fauna

The Lloyd's Botanical Garden, established 1878
A Red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in the Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park

Darjeeling is a part of the Eastern Himalayan zoo-geographic zone.[68] Flora around Darjeeling comprises sal, oak, semi-evergreen, temperate and alpine forests.[69] Dense evergreen forests of sal and oak lie around the town, where a wide variety of rare orchids are found. The Lloyd's Botanical Garden preserves common and rare species of plants, while the Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park specialises in conserving and breeding endangered Himalayan species.[70] The town of Darjeeling and surrounding region face deforestation due to increasing demand for wood fuel and timber, as well as air pollution from increasing vehicular traffic.[71]

Forests and wildlife in the district are managed and protected by the Divisional Forest Officer of the Territorial and Wildlife wing of the West Bengal Forest Department.[68] The fauna found in Darjeeling includes several species of ducks, teals, plovers and gulls that pass Darjeeling while migrating to and from Tibet.[72] Small mammals found in the region include small Indian civets, mongooses and badgers.[73] TA conservation centre for red pandas opened at Darjeeling Zoo in 2014, building on a prior captive breeding program.[74] The Himalayan newt Tylotriton verrucosus, one of two salamander species occurring in India, is found in wetlands in the vicinity.[75] The Himalayan relict dragonfly Epiophlebia laidlawi, one of just four species in the family Epiophlebiidae was first described from the region.[76]

Civic administration

Darjeeling Municipality Building

The Darjeeling urban agglomeration consists of Darjeeling Municipality and the Tukvar Tea Garden (Tukvar valley).[77] Established in 1850, the Darjeeling municipality maintains the civic administration of the town, covering an area of 10.60 km2 (4.09 sq mi).[3][77] The municipality consists of a board of councillors elected from each of the 32 wards of Darjeeling town as well as a few members nominated by the state government. The board of councillors elects a chairman from among its elected members;[53] the chairman is the executive head of the municipality. The Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) hoeld power in the municipality [78] until March 2022, when it was defeated by Hamro Party, a new political outfit.[52]

From 1988 to 2012, the Gorkha-dominated hill areas of Darjeeling district were under the jurisdiction of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC).[79] In 2012, the DGHC was replaced by the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA). The elected members of GTA manage certain affairs of the hills, including education, industry and land revenue; however they cannot legislate or levy taxes.[80] Law and order in Darjeeling town comes under the jurisdiction of the district police force, which is a part of the West Bengal Police; a Deputy Superintendent of Police oversees the town's security and law affairs. Darjeeling municipality area has two police stations at Darjeeling and Jorebungalow.[81]

Civil utilities

Natural springs in the Senchal Range provide most of Darjeeling's water supply. Water collected is routed through stone conduits to two lakes that were constructed in 1910 and 1932,[82] from where it is piped to the town after purification at the Jorebungalow filtration plant.[83] During the dry season, when water supplied by springs is insufficient, water is pumped from Khong Khola, a nearby small perennial stream.[84] Increasing demand has led to a worsening shortfall in water supply;[85] just over 50% of the town's households are connected to the municipal water supply system.[53] The rest has to share water from community faucets, or collect water from natural springs.[86] Various efforts made to augment the water supply, including the construction of a third storage reservoir in 1984, have failed to yield desired results.

The town has an underground sewage system, covering about 40% of the town area, that collects domestic waste and conveys it to septic tanks for disposal.[87] Solid waste is disposed of in a nearby dumping ground, which also houses the town's crematorium.[87] Doorstep collection of garbage and segregation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste have been implemented since 2003.[88] Vermicomposting of vegetable waste is carried out with the help of non-governmental organisations.[89] In June 2009, in order to reduce waste, the municipality proposed a ban on plastic carrier bags and sachets in the town.[90]

From 1897 to the early 1990s, Darjeeling was powered by hydroelectricity from the nearby Sidrapong Hydel Power Station, and it was the first town in India supplied with hydropower. Today, electricity is supplied by the West Bengal State Electricity Board from other locations. The town often suffers from power outages and the electrical supply voltage is unstable, making voltage stabilisers popular with many households. Almost all of the primary schools are now maintained by Darjeeling Gorkha Autonomous Hill Council. The total length of all types of roads within the municipal area is around 134 km (83 mi).[91] The West Bengal Fire Service provides emergency services for the town.

Economy

Picking tea leaves in the traditional fashion
A tea factory in Darjeeling

The two most significant contributors to Darjeeling's economy are tourism and the tea industry. Darjeeling tea, due to the unique agro-climatic conditions of Darjeeling, has a distinctive natural flavour, is internationally reputed and recognised as a geographical indicator. The office of the Darjeeling Indian Tea Association (DITA) is located at Darjeeling.[7] Darjeeling produces 7% of India's tea output, approximately 9,000,000 kilograms (20,000,000 lb) every year.[44] The tea industry has faced competition in recent years from tea produced in other parts of India as well as other countries like Nepal.[92] Widespread concerns about labour disputes, worker layoffs and closing of estates have affected investment and production.[93][94] Several tea estates are being run on a workers' cooperative model, while others are being planned for conversion into tourist resorts.[93] Women are preferentially employed for plucking tea leaves, and constitute more than half of tea plantation workers.[94][95] Besides tea, widely cultivated crops include maize, millets, paddy, cardamom, potato and ginger.[96]

Darjeeling had become an important tourist destination as early as 1860.[28] It is reported to be the only location in eastern India that witnesses large numbers of foreign tourists.[44] Tourist inflow into Darjeeling had been affected by the political instability in the region, and agitations in the 1980s and 2000s hit the tourism industry hard.[44][97] Since 2012, Darjeeling has once again witnessed a steady inflow of both domestic and international tourists. As of 2015, around 50,000 foreign and 500,000 domestic tourists visit Darjeeling each year,[98] and its repute as the "Queen of the Hills" lives on.[1] According to an India Today survey published on 23 December 2015, Darjeeling is the third most Googled travel destination in India.[99] It is also a popular filming destination for Bollywood and Bengali cinema. Noted Bengali film director Satyajit Ray shot his film Kanchenjungha (1962) here. Bollywood movies such as Aradhana (1969), Main Hoon Na (2004), Parineeta (2005) and Barfi! (2012) were partially shot in the town.[100][101]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Darjeeling
A train, hauled by a steam locomotive, running beside a road between two rows of buildings with a few people walking on the road.
The narrow gauge train often crisscrosses the street

Darjeeling can be reached by the 88 km (55 mi) long Darjeeling Himalayan Railway from New Jalpaiguri, or by National Highway 110, from Siliguri, 77 km (48 mi) away.[102][103] The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is a 600 mm (2 ft) narrow-gauge railway that was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1999 for being "an outstanding example of the influence of an innovative transportation system on the social and economic development of a multi-cultural region, which was to serve as a model for similar developments in many parts of the world",[104] becoming only the second railway in the world to have this honour.[33][100] Bus services and hired vehicles connect Darjeeling with Siliguri and Darjeeling has road connections with Bagdogra, Gangtok and Kathmandu and the neighbouring towns of Kurseong and Kalimpong.[102] However, road and railway communications often get disrupted in the monsoons because of landslides.[105][106] The nearest airport is Bagdogra Airport, located 90 km (56 mi) from Darjeeling.[102] Within the town, people usually traverse by walking. Residents also use two-wheelers and hired taxis for travelling short distances. The Darjeeling Ropeway, functional since 1968, was closed in 2003 after an accident killed four tourists.[107] It reopened in February 2012.[108]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Darjeeling
Historical populations[53]
Census
year		 Population Growth (%)
1901 17,000
1911 19,000 12.3
1921 22,000 17.1
1931 21,000 -4.8
1941 27,000 28.5
1951 34,000 23.4
1961 41,000 21.0
1971 43,000 5.5
1981 58,000 34.4
1991 71,000 24.1
2001 103,000 44.6

According to provisional results of the 2011 census of India, Darjeeling urban agglomeration has a population of 132,016, out of which 65,839 were males and 66,177 were females. The sex ratio is 1,005 females per 1,000 males. The 0–6 years population is 7,382. Effective literacy rate for the population older than 6 years is 93.17 per cent.[109] According to the 2001 census, the Darjeeling urban agglomeration, with an area of 12.77 km2 (4.93 sq mi), had a population of 109,163, while the municipal area had a population of 107,530.[77] The population density of the municipal area was 10,173 inhabitants per square kilometre (26,350/sq mi). The sex ratio was 1,017 females per 1,000 males,[77] which was higher than the national average of 933 females per 1000 males.[110]

Gorkha is a term that denotes Nepali-speaking people.[111] In Darjeeling, Gorkhas form the majority of population and includes several ethnic groups such as the Chhetri, Gurung, Limbu, Magar, Newars,[8] Rai, Sherpa,[8] Tamang, Yolmo, Sunuwar along with other denominations under the Indo-Aryan Khas; the Tibeto-Burman ethnic groupd include Kirati, Lepcha and Bhutia.[112] Other communities that inhabit Darjeeling include the Anglo-Indians, Bengalis, Biharis, Chinese, Marwaris, Rajbanshis and Tibetans. Nepali is the lingua franca of Darjeeling;[113] other languages used include Hindi, Bengali and English. Bengali is prevalent in the plains while Tibetan is used by the refugees and some tribal people.[8] Dzongkha is spoken by the Bhutias and the Tibetans. The predominant religions of Darjeeling are Hinduism and Buddhism, followed by Christianity.[114][115] Darjeeling has seen a significant growth in its population, its decadal growth rate being 47% between 1991 and 2001.[77] Population growth and increasing tourist traffic created extensive infrastructural and environmental problems; forests and other natural wealth have been adversely affected.[116][117]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Darjeeling
A man and a woman praying at a small white shrine dedicated to Lord Ganesh. Several colourful flags on buntings are strung across poles in front of the shrine.
Colourful Buddhist prayer flags around Mahakal Temple at Observatory Hill, Darjeeling.

The culture of Darjeeling is diverse and includes a variety of indigenous practices and festivals, and has a regional distinctness from the rest of India.[29] Dashain (Vijayadashami), Tihar (Diwali), Holi, Lakshmi Puja,[118] Maghe Sankranti,[119] Losar, Buddha Jayanti, Christmas are major festivals. Tibetan Buddhism is followed by some ethnic groups such as Tibetans, Lepchas, Bhutias, Sherpas, Yolmos, Gurungs, and Tamangs; their common festivals are the Tibetan new year festival Losar,[120] Saga Dawa and Tendong Lho Rumfaat.[121][122] The Kirati ethnic group Rais,Limbus, Sunuwars and Yakkhas celebrate Udhauli and Ubhauli their main festival. [123] Popular icons of Hindu pantheon such as Durga, Kali, Shiva are worshipped by Hindus; in addition, there are deities which have both Hindu and Buddhist influences, such as Manjushri and Macchindranāth, popular among Newar people, and Gorakhnath, worshipped by Gorkhas.[120] The Tibetan Buddhism, or Lamaism, prevalent in the area is noted for importance of gompa or monasteries in community life of the followers.[120] Mixing and inter-marriage between ethnic groups have led to hybrid cultural forms and practices.[29] Darjeeling Carnival, initiated by a civil society movement known as The Darjeeling Initiative, is a ten-day carnival held yearly during the winter with portrayal of the Darjeeling Hill's musical and cultural heritage as its central theme.[124] Western music is popular among the younger generation, and Darjeeling is a major centre of Nepali rock music.

A couple in a roadside stall in Darjeeling district making momos
Tongba, a fermented millet drink.

A popular food in Darjeeling is the momo, a steamed dumpling containing pork, beef and vegetables cooked in a doughy wrapping and served with watery soup. Wai-Wai is a packaged snack consisting of noodles which are eaten either dry or in soup form. Churpee, a kind of hard cheese made from cow's or yak's milk is sometimes chewed. A form of Tibetan noodle called thukpa, served in soup form is also popular in Darjeeling. There are a large number of restaurants which offer a wide variety of traditional Indian, continental and Chinese cuisines to cater to the tourists. Other popular foods are Kinema, Gundruk and Sha phaley.[125] Fermented foods and beverages are consumed by a large percentage of the population.[126] Fermented foods include preparations of soybean, bamboo shoots, milk and Sel roti, which is made from rice. [127] Tea (especially butter tea) is a popular delicacy.[125] Alcoholic beverages include Tongba, Jnaard and Chhaang, variations of a local beer made from fermenting finger millet.[125][128][129] Football is the most popular sports in Darjeeling. An improvised form of ball made of rubber bands is often used for playing in the steep streets, and is known as Chungi.[130][131]

Some notable places to visit include the Tiger Hill, the zoo, monasteries and the tea gardens. The town attracts trekkers and sportsmen seeking to explore the Himalayas, serving as the starting point for climbing attempts on some Indian and Nepali peaks. Tenzing Norgay, one of the two men to first climb Mount Everest, spent most of his adult life in the Sherpa community in Darjeeling. His success provided the impetus to establish the Himalayan Mountaineering Institute in Darjeeling in 1954. In the Tibetan Refugee Self Help Center, Tibetan crafts like carpets, wood and leather work are displayed. Colonial architecture is exemplified in Darjeeling by cottages, Gothic churches,[132] Planters' Club,[133] the Raj Bhawan and various educational institutions.[134][135] Several monasteries like Ghoom Monastery (8 km or 5 miles from the town), Bhutia Busty monastery, Mag-Dhog Yolmowa preserve ancient Buddhist scripts. A Peace Pagoda was built in 1992 by the Japanese Buddhist organisation Nipponzan Myohoji.[136]

Education

Primary school children in Darjeeling, 1976

Darjeeling's schools are either run by the state government or by private and religious organisations. Schools mainly use English and Nepali as their medium of instruction, although the India's official language Hindi and the state's language Bengali are also emphasized. The schools are either affiliated with the ICSE, the CBSE, or the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education. During the British Raj, both parochial schools and public schools on the model of British public schools were established in Darjeeling, allowing the children of domiciled Europeans,[137] Anglo-Indians and a few Indians to obtain an exclusive education.[138] Institutions such as St. Paul's School, Loreto Convent, St. Joseph's School and Mount Hermon School attract students from all over India and South Asia. Many schools still adhere to the traditions from its British and colonial heritage. Darjeeling hosts three colleges — St. Joseph's College, Loreto College and Darjeeling Government College — all affiliated to University of North Bengal in Siliguri.

Political unrest

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, p. 1.
  2. ^ Chhetri, Vivek (16 March 2022). "Youngest civic chairman for Darjeeling municipality". Telegraph India. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  3. ^ a b c "Darjeeling Municipality – Official Website". dm.gensoftindia.co.in. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  4. ^ a b "District Profile". Official webpage. Darjeeling district. Archived from the original on 17 August 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
  5. ^ "Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India: 50th report (delivered to the Lokh Sabha in 2014)" (PDF). National Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. p. 95. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  6. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica (2021), Darjeeling, Darjeeling, also spelled Darjiling, Tibetan Dorje-ling, city, extreme northern West Bengal state, northeastern India. It lies about 305 miles (490 km) north of Kolkata, at an elevation of about 7,000 feet (2,100 metres) above sea level.
  7. ^ a b Srivastava 2003, p. 4024.
  8. ^ a b c d "People And Culture". Official webpage of Darjeeling District. Archived from the original on 25 December 2008. Retrieved 26 November 2009.
  9. ^ "Pre-Independence [Darjeeling]". Government of Darjeeling. Archived from the original on 31 October 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
  10. ^ a b Bhattacharya 2022, pp. 319–320.
  11. ^ a b Bhattacharya 2022, pp. 325–326.
  12. ^ Bhattacharya 2022, p. 319.
  13. ^ Philip, Kavita (2004), Civilizing Natures: Race, Resources, and Modernity in Colonial South India, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, p. 29, ISBN 0-8135-3360-0,  Lord Lytton wrote to his wife while staying at the Government House at Ootacamund (known popularly as Ooty), in the Nilgiri mountains of the Western Ghats, describing the summer capital of Madras: 'I affirm it to be a paradise.'
  14. ^ Shneiderman & Middleton 2018, p. 5 The region’s status as a geopolitical frontier—at once strategic and sensitive—has infected its standing in the context of South Asia from the precolonial period to the postcolonial present.
  15. ^ Shneiderman & Middleton 2018, p. 5 Throughout much of the eighteenth century, the territory between the Mechi and Teesta rivers was claimed by the Chogyal of Sikkim.
  16. ^ Shneiderman & Middleton 2018, p. 5 Nepal’s military expansion eastward in the final decades of that century brought the tract under the control of Nepal’s Gorkha Empire.
  17. ^ Shneiderman & Middleton 2018, p. 5 The areas east of the Teesta River meanwhile remained part of Bhutan.
  18. ^ Dozey, E. C. (1922), A Concise History of the Darjeeling District Since 1835, with a complete itinerary of tours in Sikkim and the District, Calcutta: N. Mukherjee; xxvi, 350 pages including facsimile color frontispiece xx plates (some folded, including portrait, maps, diagram), OCLC 62351881
  19. ^ Shneiderman & Middleton 2018, p. 5 Nepal’s rule over Darjeeling came to an end in 1815, when the British mandated Nepal return the tract to Sikkim at the conclusion of the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16) by way of the Treaty of Segowlee or Sugauli (1815) and subsequent Treaty of Titalia (1817). If this marked the start of British territorial meddling in the area, it would not be long before the Empire began to make more direct claims upon the region and its people.
  20. ^ Shneiderman & Middleton 2018, p. 5 In 1829, Captain George Lloyd and J.W. Grant were passing through Darjeeling en route to settle a border dispute between Sikkim and Nepal. The location was then known by local Lepcha peoples as Dorje-ling, or ‘Place of the Thunderbolt’. The crescent-shaped ridge of Dorje-ling struck Lloyd as an ideal location for a hill station sanatorium where colonial officials could find respite from the swelter of the plains below.
  21. ^ a b Dasgupta 1999, p. 50.
  22. ^ Lamb 1986, p. 69.
  23. ^ Dasgupta 1999, p. 47.
  24. ^ Bhattacharya 2022, p. 287.
  25. ^ Bhattacharya 2022, p. 322.
  26. ^ a b Dasgupta 1999, p. 51.
  27. ^ a b c "History of Darjeeling". Official webpage. Darjeeling district. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  28. ^ a b c d Lamb 1986, p. 71.
  29. ^ a b c Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, p. 8.
  30. ^ Kenny 1995, p. 700.
  31. ^ Dasgupta 1999, p. 48.
  32. ^ Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, p. 6.
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  34. ^ Gerard 1990, p. 258.
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  36. ^ Dasgupta 1999, p. 60.
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  38. ^ a b Dasgupta 1999, p. 61.
  39. ^ Dasgupta 1999, p. 55.
  40. ^ Dasgupta 1999, pp. 61–62.
  41. ^ Dasgupta 1999, p. 62.
  42. ^ Dasgupta 1999, pp. 63–64.
  43. ^ Dasgupta 1999, p. 65.
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References

Further reading

  • Bradnock, R (2004). Footprint India Handbook (13th ed.). Footprint Handbooks. ISBN 978-1-904777-00-7.
  • Brown, Percy (1917). Tours in Sikhim and the Darjeeling District (3rd (1934) ed.). Calcutta: W. Newman & Co. p. 223. ASIN B0008B2MIY.
  • Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011). China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B005DQV7Q2
  • Kennedy, Dane (1996). Magic Mountains: Hill Stations and the British Raj. University of California Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-520-20188-0.
  • Koehler, Jeff (2014). Darjeeling: The Colorful History and Precarious Fate of the World's Greatest Tea. New York, London, New Delhi, Sydney: Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781620405147.
  • Lee, Ada (1971). The Darjeeling disaster: Triumph through sorrow: the triumph of the six Lee children. Lee Memorial Mission. ASIN B0007AUX00.
  • Marshal, Julie G. (2005). Britain and Tibet 1765–1947: A select annotated bibliography of British relations with Tibet and the Himalayan states including Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-33647-3.
  • Newman's Guide to Darjeeling and Its Surroundings, Historical & Descriptive, with Some Account of the Manners and Customs of the Neighbouring Hill Tribes, and a Chapter on Thibet and the Thibetans. W. Newman and Co. 1900.
  • Ronaldshay, The Earl of (1923). Lands of the Thunderbolt. Sikhim, Chumbi & Bhutan. London: Constable & Co. ISBN 81-206-1504-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Roy, Barun (2003). Fallen Cicada - Unwritten History of Darjeeling Hills (2003 ed.). Beacon Publication. p. 223. ISBN 978-81-223-0684-2.
  • Saraswati, Baidyanath, ed. (1998). Cultural Dimension of Ecology. DK Print World Pvt. Ltd, India. ISBN 978-81-246-0102-0.
  • Sen, Debrati (2017). Everyday Sustainability: Gender Justic and Fair Trade Tea in Darjeeling. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9781438467139. LCCN 2016054530.
  • Singh, S. (2006). Lonely Planet India (11th ed.). Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 978-1-74059-694-7.
  • Waddell, L.A. (2004). Among the Himalayas. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7661-8918-8.
  • Waterhouse, David M., ed. (2004). The Origin of Himalayan Studies: Brian Houghton Hodgson in Nepal and Darjeeling 1820–1858. Abington, UK and New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-31215-9.

External links

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