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Amphetamine was synthesized in 1887 by [[Lazar Edeleanu]] at the University of Berlin. It was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative [[Ephedrine]], which had been purified two years previously by [[Nagayoshi Nagai]]. No medical use was found for amphetamine until the 1900s, when it was introduced in most of the world in the form of the pharmaceutical [[Benzedrine]]. This drug was used by the militaries of several nations, especially the air forces, to fight fatigue and increase alertness among servicemen. After decades of reports of abuse, the [[United States Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1959, but illegal use became common.
Amphetamine was synthesized in 1887 by [[Lazar Edeleanu]] at the University of Berlin. It was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative [[Ephedrine]], which had been purified two years previously by [[Nagayoshi Nagai]]. No medical use was found for amphetamine until the 1900s, when it was introduced in most of the world in the form of the pharmaceutical [[Benzedrine]]. This drug was used by the militaries of several nations, especially the air forces, to fight fatigue and increase alertness among servicemen. After decades of reports of abuse, the [[United States Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1959, but illegal use became common.


The related compound [[methamphetamine]] was first synthesized from ephedrine in Japan in 1893 by chemist [[Nagayoshi Nagai]]. In 1919, crystallized methamphetamine was synthesized by [[Akira Ogaberlandierita]] via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. The German military was notorious for their use of methamphetamine in World War Two.
The related compound [[methamphetamine]] was first synthesized from ephedrine in Japan in 1893 by chemist [[Nagayoshi Nagai]]. In 1919, crystallized methamphetamine was synthesized by [[Akira Ogata|Akira Ogaberlandierita]] via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. The German military was notorious for their use of methamphetamine in World War Two.


In 1997<ref>Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1997). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia berlandieri. Phytochemistry 46(2), pp 249-254</ref> and 1998,<ref>Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1998). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia rigidula. Phytochemistry 49(5), pp 1377-1380</ref> researchers at [[Texas A&M University]] reported finding amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two [[Acacia]] species native to [[Texas]], A. berlandieri and A. rigidula. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be human inventions.<ref>[http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/shulgin/adsarchive/acacia.htm Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine]</ref>
In 1997<ref>Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1997). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia berlandieri. Phytochemistry 46(2), pp 249-254</ref> and 1998,<ref>Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1998). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia rigidula. Phytochemistry 49(5), pp 1377-1380</ref> researchers at [[Texas A&M University]] reported finding amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two [[Acacia]] species native to [[Texas]], A. berlandieri and A. rigidula. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be human inventions.<ref>[http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/shulgin/adsarchive/acacia.htm Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine]</ref>

Revision as of 01:51, 2 April 2007

Amphetamine
Clinical data
Routes of
administration		Oral, Intravenous, Vaporized, Insufflated, Suppository, sublingualy
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability4L/kg; low binding to plasma proteins (20%)
MetabolismHepatic
Elimination half-life10–13 hours
ExcretionRenal; significant portion unaltered
Identifiers
  • 1-phenylpropan-2-amine
CAS Number
PubChem CID
DrugBank
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard100.005.543 Edit this at Wikidata
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC9H13N
Molar mass135.2084 g·mol−1

Amphetamine or Amfetamine, also known as alpha-methyl-phenethylamine, phenyl-isopropylamine, beta-phenyl-isopropylamine, and benzedrine, is a prescription stimulant commonly used to treat Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adults. It is also used to treat symptoms of traumatic brain injury and the daytime drowsiness symptoms of narcolepsy and chronic fatigue syndrome. Initially it was more popularly used to diminish the appetite and to control weight. Brand names of the drugs that contain Amphetamine include Adderall. The drug is also used illegally as a recreational club drug and as a performance enhancer.

History

Amphetamine was synthesized in 1887 by Lazar Edeleanu at the University of Berlin. It was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative Ephedrine, which had been purified two years previously by Nagayoshi Nagai. No medical use was found for amphetamine until the 1900s, when it was introduced in most of the world in the form of the pharmaceutical Benzedrine. This drug was used by the militaries of several nations, especially the air forces, to fight fatigue and increase alertness among servicemen. After decades of reports of abuse, the FDA banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1959, but illegal use became common.

The related compound methamphetamine was first synthesized from ephedrine in Japan in 1893 by chemist Nagayoshi Nagai. In 1919, crystallized methamphetamine was synthesized by Akira Ogaberlandierita via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. The German military was notorious for their use of methamphetamine in World War Two.

In 1997[2] and 1998,[3] researchers at Texas A&M University reported finding amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two Acacia species native to Texas, A. berlandieri and A. rigidula. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be human inventions.[4]

Chemistry

Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by the Romanian chemist Lazăr Edeleanu at the University of Berlin, who called it "phenylisopropylamine". Amphetamine is a chiral compound. The racemic mixture can be divided into its optical antipodes: levo- and dextro-amphetamine. Amphetamine is the parent compound of its own structural class, comprising a broad range of psychoactive derivatives, e.g., MDMA (Ecstasy) and the N-methylated form, methamphetamine. Amphetamine is a homologue of phenethylamine.

Traditionally the medical drug came in the racemic salt d, l-amphetamine sulfate (racemic amphetamine contains levo- and dextro-form in equal amounts). Today, dextroamphetamine sulphate is the predominant form of the drug used; it consists entirely of the d-isomer. Attention disorders are often treated using Adderall or a generic equivalent, a formulation of mixed amphetamine salts that contain both d/l-amphetamine and d-amphetamine in the sulfate and saccharate forms mixed to a final ratio of 3 parts d-amphetamine to 1 part l-amphetamine.

Pharmacology

Amphetamine, both as d-amphetamine (dextroamphetamine) and l-amphetamine (or a racemic mixture of the two isomers), is believed to exert its effects by binding to the monoamine transporters and increasing extracellular levels of the biogenic amines dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin. It is hypothesized that d-amphetamine acts primarily on the dopaminergic systems, while l-amphetamine is comparatively norepinephrinergic. The primary reinforcing and behavioral-stimulant effects of amphetamine, however, are linked to enhanced dopaminergic activity, primarily in the mesolimbic DA system. Amphetamine binds to the dopamine transporter (DAT) and blocks the transporters ability to clear DA from the synaptic space. In addition, amphetamine is transported into the cell which leads to dopamine efflux (DA is transported out of the cell and into the synaptic space via reverse transport of the DAT).

Medicinal use

Indicated for:

Recreational uses:

Other uses:

  • Used by the U.S. military to combat fatigue and increase wakefulness
Contraindications:
  • CNS Stimulants
  • MAOI use
Side effects:

Cardiovascular:

Ear, nose, and throat:

Eye:

Gastrointestinal:

Musculoskeletal:

Neurological:

Respiratory:

Along with methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, etc.), amphetamine is one of the standard treatments for ADHD. Beneficial effects for ADHD can include improved impulse control, improved concentration, decreased sensory overstimulation, and decreased irritability. These effects can be dramatic, particularly in young children. The ADHD medication Adderall is composed of four different amphetamine salts, and Adderall XR is a timed release formulation of these same salt forms.

When used within the recommended doses, side-effects like loss of appetite tend to decrease over time. However, amphetamines last longer in the body than methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, etc.), and tend to have stronger side-effects on appetite and sleep. [citation needed]

Amphetamines are also a standard treatment for narcolepsy as well as other sleeping disorders. They are generally effective over long periods of time without producing addiction or physical dependence.

Amphetamines are sometimes used to augment anti-depressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression.

Medical use for weight loss is still approved in some countries, but is regarded as obsolete and dangerous in others.

Effects of use

Amphetamines release stores of norepinephrine and dopamine from nerve endings by converting the respective molecular transporters into open channels. Amphetamine also releases stores of serotonin from synaptic vesicles when taken in relatively high doses. This effect is more pronounced in methamphetamine use. Like methylphenidate (Ritalin), amphetamines also prevent the monoamine transporters for dopamine and norepinephrine from recycling them (called reuptake inhibition), which leads to increased amounts of dopamine and norepinephrine in synaptic clefts.

These combined effects rapidly increase the concentrations of the respective neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, which promotes nerve impulse transmission in neurons that have those receptors.

Physical effects

  • Long-term abuse or overdose effects can include tremor, restlessness, changed sleep patterns, anxiety and increase in pre-existing anxiety, poor skin condition, hyperreflexia, tachypnea, gastrointestinal narrowing, and weakened immune system[citation needed]. Fatigue and depression can follow the excitement stage. Erectile dysfunction, heart problems, stroke, and liver, kidney and lung damage can result from prolonged abuse. When insufflated, amphetamine can lead to a deterioration of the lining of the nostrils.

Psychological effects

  • Short-term psychological effects of the drug at theraputic levels could include alertness, euphoria, increased concentration, rapid talking, increased confidence, increased and social responsiveness. Effects of the drug when abused could include, nystagmus (eye wiggles), hallucinations, and loss of REM sleep the night after use.
  • Long-term amphetamine abuse can induce psychological effects that include insomnia, mental states resembling schizophrenia, aggressiveness (not associated with schizophrenia), addiction or dependence with accompanying withdrawal symptoms, irritability, confusion, and panic. Chronic and/or extensively-continuous use can lead to amphetamine psychosis, which causes delusions and paranoia, but this is uncommon when taken as prescribed. The abuse of an amphetamine is highly-psychologically addictive, and, with chronic abuse, tolerance develops very quickly. Withdrawal, although not physiologically threatening, is an unpleasant experience (including paranoia, depression, difficult breathing, dysphoria, gastric fluctuations and/or pain, and lethargia). This commonly leads chronic users to re-dose amphetamine frequently, explaining tolerance and increasing the possibility of addiction.

Addiction

Tolerance is developed rapidly in amphetamine abuse, therefore increasing the amount of the drug that is needed to satisfy the addiction.[5] Many abusers will repeat the amphetamine cycle by taking more of the drug during the withdrawal. This leads to a very dangerous cycle and may involve the use of other drugs to get over the withdrawal process. Chronic abusers of amphetamines typically snort or resort to drug injection to experience the full effects of the drug in a faster and more intense way, with the added risks of infection, vein damage and higher risk of overdose.

Harm reduction approach to amphetamine use

Proponents of the harm reduction philosophy seek to minimize the harms that arise from the recreational use of amphetamines. Safer means of taking the drug—smoked, nasal, oral, and rectal—are encouraged due to the lower risk of overdose, infection, and contraction of bloodborne viruses associated with drug injection. Smoking drugs reveals their effects almost as fast as by injection, as blood directly picks up the drug at the lungs. Amphetamine, contrary to methamphetamine, isn´t smokable.

Where the strength of the drug is unknown, users are encouraged to try a small amount first to gauge the strength, to minimize the risks of overdose. For the same reason, poly drug use (the use of two or more drugs at the one time) is discouraged. Users are also encouraged to not use amphetamines alone, as others can assist in the event of an overdose or amphetamine psychosis.

Amphetamine users who choose to inject should always use new needles and syringes where possible, and not share these with other users. Governments that support a harm reduction approach often supply new needles and syringes on a confidential basis, as well as education on proper filtering prior to injection, safer injection techniques, and safe disposal of used injecting gear.

  • In the United Kingdom, amphetamines are regarded as Class B drugs. The maximum penalty for unauthorised possession is three months' imprisonment and a £2,500 fine.[citation needed] Methamphetamine has recently been reclassified to Class A, penalties for possession of which are more severe.
  • In the United States, amphetamine and methamphetamine are Schedule II controlled drugs, classified as a CNS (Central Nervous System) Stimulant.[6] A Schedule II drug is classified as one that: has a high potential for abuse, has a currently-accepted medical use and is used under severe restrictions, and has a high possibility of severe psychological and physiological dependence.

Internationally, amphetamine is a Schedule II drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.[7]

File:Methamphetamines.png
A chart comparing the chemical structures of different amphetamine derivatives

Books

  • Seabrook, Jeremy (1996). In the Cities of the South: scenes from a developing world. London; New York: Verso. ISBN 1-85984-986-5.

Template:ChemicalSources

References and Notes

  1. ^ "FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)". nctr-crs.fda.gov. FDA. Retrieved 22 Oct 2023.
  2. ^ Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1997). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia berlandieri. Phytochemistry 46(2), pp 249-254
  3. ^ Clement, Beverly A., Goff, Christina M. and Forbes, T. David A. (1998). Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia rigidula. Phytochemistry 49(5), pp 1377-1380
  4. ^ Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine
  5. ^ "Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse: Merck Manual Home Edition" (html). Merck. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ "Trends in Methamphetamine/Amphetamine Admissions to Treatment: 1993-2003" (html). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ "List of psychotropic substances under international control" (PDF). International Narcotics Control Board. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
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