Self-driving car: Difference between revisions
Fixed refs |
Krashlandon (talk | contribs) |
||
Line 156: | Line 156: | ||
== Potential limits or obstacles == |
== Potential limits or obstacles == |
||
The sort of hoped-for potential benefits from increased vehicle automation described may be limted by foreseeable challenges, such as disputes over liability (will each company operating a vehicle accept that they are its "driver" and thus responsible for what their car does, or will some try to project this liability onto others who are not in control?) ,<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1"/> the time needed to turn over the existing stock of vehicles from non-autonomous to autonomous,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zdnet.com/article/nhtsa-chief-takes-conservative-view-on-autonomous-vehicles/|title=NHTSA chief takes conservative view on autonomous vehicles: "If you had perfect, connected autonomous vehicles on the road tomorrow, it would still take 20 to 30 years to turn over the fleet."|last=Nichols|first=Greg|date=13 February 2016|work=ZDNet|access-date=17 February 2016}}</ref> and thus a long period of humans and autonomous vehicles |
The sort of hoped-for potential benefits from increased vehicle automation described may be limted by foreseeable challenges, such as disputes over liability (will each company operating a vehicle accept that they are its "driver" and thus responsible for what their car does, or will some try to project this liability onto others who are not in control?) ,<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1"/> the time needed to turn over the existing stock of vehicles from non-autonomous to autonomous,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zdnet.com/article/nhtsa-chief-takes-conservative-view-on-autonomous-vehicles/|title=NHTSA chief takes conservative view on autonomous vehicles: "If you had perfect, connected autonomous vehicles on the road tomorrow, it would still take 20 to 30 years to turn over the fleet."|last=Nichols|first=Greg|date=13 February 2016|work=ZDNet|access-date=17 February 2016}}</ref> and thus a long period of humans and autonomous vehicles sharing the roads, resistance by individuals to having to forfeit control of their cars,<ref name="auto2"/> concerns about the safety of driverless in practice,<ref name="auto3"/> and the implementation of a legal framework and consistent global government regulations for self-driving cars.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2013/09/24/will-regulators-allow-self-driving-cars-in-a-few-years/|title=Will Regulators Allow Self-Driving Cars In A Few Years?|date=24 September 2013|work=Forbes|access-date=5 January 2014}}</ref> Other obstacles could include de-skilling and lower levels of driver experience for dealing with potentially dangerous situations and anomalies,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/11/18/5120270/reliance-on-autopilot-is-now-the-biggest-threat-to-flight-safety|title=Reliance on autopilot is now the biggest threat to flight safety, study says|date=18 November 2013|access-date=19 November 2013}}</ref> ethical problems where an autonomous vehicle's software is forced during an unavoidable crash to choose between multiple harmful courses of action ('the trolley problem'),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/10/the-ethics-of-autonomous-cars/280360/|title=The Ethics of Autonomous Cars|author=Patrick Lin|date=8 October 2013|publisher=The Atlantic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2014/06/18/when-should-your-driverless-car-from-google-be-allowed-to-kill-you/|title=When Should Your Driverless Car From Google Be Allowed To Kill You?|author=Tim Worstall|date=18 June 2014|publisher=Forbes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00426/full|title=Forced-choice decision-making in modified trolley dilemma situations: a virtual reality and eye tracking study|author1=Alexander Skulmowski|author2=Andreas Bunge|date=16 December 2014|publisher=Front. Behav. Neurosci|author3=Kai Kaspar|author4=Gordon Pipa}}</ref>, concerns about making large numbers of people currently employed as drivers unemployed (at the same time as many other alternate blue collar occupations may be undermined by automation), the potential for more intrusive mass surveillance of location, association and travel as a result of police and intelligence agency access to large data sets generated by sensors and pattern-recognition AI (making anonymous travel difficult), and possibly insufficient understanding of verbal sounds, gestures and non-verbal cues by police, other drivers or pedestrians.<ref name="technologyreview">{{cite news|url=http://www.technologyreview.com/news/530276/hidden-obstacles-for-googles-self-driving-cars/|title=Hidden Obstacles for Google’s Self-Driving Cars|last=Gomes|first=Lee|date=28 August 2014|magazine=MIT Technology Review|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref> |
||
Possible technological obstacles for autonomous cars are: |
Possible technological obstacles for autonomous cars are: |
Revision as of 15:32, 13 July 2018
![]() | This article may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. (March 2018) |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Waymo_Chrysler_Pacifica_in_Los_Altos%2C_2017.jpg/220px-Waymo_Chrysler_Pacifica_in_Los_Altos%2C_2017.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Roborace_NYC_ePrix.jpg/220px-Roborace_NYC_ePrix.jpg)
An autonomous car (also known as a driverless car and a self-driving car[1]) is a vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and navigating without human input.[2]
Autonomous cars combine a variety of techniques to perceive their surroundings, including radar, laser light, GPS, odometry, and computer vision. Advanced control systems interpret sensory information to identify appropriate navigation paths, as well as obstacles and relevant signage.[3][4]
The potential benefits of autonomous cars include reduced mobility and infrastructure costs, increased safety, increased mobility, increased customer satisfaction, and reduced crime. These benefits also include a potentially significant reduction in traffic collisions;[5][6] resulting injuries; and related costs, including less need for insurance. Autonomous cars are predicted to increase traffic flow;[7] provide enhanced mobility for children, the elderly,[8] disabled, and the poor; relieve travelers from driving and navigation chores; lower fuel consumption; significantly reduce needs for parking space;[9] reduce crime;[10] and facilitate business models for transportation as a service, especially via the sharing economy.[11][12] This shows the vast disruptive potential of the emerging technology.[13]
In spite of the various potential benefits to increased vehicle automation, there are unresolved problems, such as safety, technology issues, disputes concerning liability,[14][15] resistance by individuals to forfeiting control of their cars,[16] customer concern about the safety of driverless cars,[17] implementation of a legal framework and establishment of government regulations; risk of loss of privacy and security concerns, such as hackers or terrorism; concern about the resulting loss of driving-related jobs in the road transport industry; and risk of increased suburbanization as travel becomes less costly and time-consuming. Many of these issues arise because autonomous objects, for the first time, would allow computer-controlled ground vehicles to roam freely, with many related safety and security concerns.
History
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/FirebirdII.jpg/250px-FirebirdII.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/800px_1973_377_Citroen_DS19_automatically_guided_motor_car.jpg/250px-800px_1973_377_Citroen_DS19_automatically_guided_motor_car.jpg)
Experiments have been conducted on automating driving since at least the 1920s;[19] promising trials took place in the 1950s. Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab in Japan created the first autonomous, intelligent vehicle in 1977. It tracked white street markers and achieved speeds up to 30 kilometres per hour (19 mph) (tech- faq.com).[citation needed] Autonomous prototype cars appeared in the 1980s, with Carnegie Mellon University's Navlab[20] and ALV[21][22] projects funded by DARPA starting in 1984 and Mercedes-Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich's EUREKA Prometheus Project[23] in 1987. By 1985 the ALV had demonstrated self-driving speeds on two-lane roads of 31 kilometres per hour (19 mph) with obstacle avoidance added in 1986 and off-road driving in day and nighttime conditions by 1987.[24] From the 1960s up through the second DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005, autonomous vehicle research in the U.S. was primarily funded by DARPA, the US Army and the U.S. Navy yielding incremental advances in speeds, driving competence in more complex conditions, controls, and sensor systems.[25] Since then, numerous companies and research organizations have developed prototypes.[23][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]
The U.S. Congress allocated $650 million in 1991 for research on the National Automated Highway System, which demonstrated autonomous driving through a combination of automation embedded in the highway with autonomous technology in vehicles and cooperative networking between the vehicles and with the highway infrastructure. The program concluded with a successful demonstration in 1997 but without clear direction or funding to implement the system on a larger scale.[35] Partly funded by the National Automated Highway System and DARPA, the Carnegie Mellon University Navlab drove 4,584 kilometres (2,848 mi) across America in 1995, 4,501 kilometres (2,797 mi) or 98% of it autonomously.[36] Navlab's record achievement stood unmatched for two decades until 2015 when Delphi improved it by piloting an Audi, augmented with Delphi technology, over 5,472 kilometres (3,400 mi) through 15 states while remaining in self-driving mode 99% of the time.[37] In 2015, the US states of Nevada, Florida, California, Virginia, and Michigan, together with Washington, D.C., allowed the testing of autonomous cars on public roads.[38]
In 2017, Audi stated that its latest A8 would be autonomous at speeds of up to 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph) using its "Audi AI". The driver would not have to do safety checks such as frequently gripping the steering wheel. The Audi A8 was claimed to be the first production car to reach level 3 autonomous driving, and Audi would be the first manufacturer to use laser scanners in addition to cameras and ultrasonic sensors for their system.[39]
In November 2017, Waymo announced that it had begun testing driverless cars without a safety driver in the driver position;[40] however there is still an employee in the car. In February 2018, Waymo announced that its test vehicles had traveled autonomously for over 5,000,000 miles (8,000,000 km).[41]
Definitions
By involving rather new and diverse concepts, those new technologies have required to define an accurate vocabulary.
Autonomous vs. automated
Autonomous means self-governing.[42] Many historical projects related to vehicle autonomy have been automated (made automatic) subject to a heavy reliance on artificial aids in their environment, such as magnetic strips. Autonomous control implies satisfactory performance under significant uncertainties in the environment and the ability to compensate for system failures without external intervention.[42]
One approach is to implement communication networks both in the immediate vicinity (for collision avoidance) and further away (for congestion management). Such outside influences in the decision process reduce an individual vehicle's autonomy, while still not requiring human intervention.
Wood et al. (2012) wrote, "This Article generally uses the term 'autonomous,' instead of the term 'automated.' " The term "autonomous" was chosen "because it is the term that is currently in more widespread use (and thus is more familiar to the general public). However, the latter term is arguably more accurate. 'Automated' connotes control or operation by a machine, while 'autonomous' connotes acting alone or independently. Most of the vehicle concepts (that we are currently aware of) have a person in the driver’s seat, utilize a communication connection to the Cloud or other vehicles, and do not independently select either destinations or routes for reaching them. Thus, the term 'automated' would more accurately describe these vehicle concepts".[43] As of 2017, most commercial projects focused on autonomous vehicles that did not communicate with other vehicles or with an enveloping management regime.
Classification
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Tesla_Autopilot_Engaged_in_Model_X.jpg/230px-Tesla_Autopilot_Engaged_in_Model_X.jpg)
A classification system based on six different levels (ranging from fully manual to fully automated systems) was published in 2014 by SAE International, an automotive standardization body, as J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems.[45][46] This classification system is based on the amount of driver intervention and attentiveness required, rather than the vehicle capabilities, although these are very loosely related. In the United States in 2013, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) released a formal classification system,[47] but abandoned this system in favor of the SAE standard in 2016. Also in 2016, SAE updated its classification, called J3016_201609.[48]
Levels of driving automation
In SAE's autonomy level definitions, "driving mode" means "a type of driving scenario with characteristic dynamic driving task requirements (e.g., expressway merging, high speed cruising, low speed traffic jam, closed-campus operations, etc.)"[49]
- Level 0: Automated system issues warnings and may momentarily intervene but has no sustained vehicle control.
- Level 1 ("hands on"): The driver and the automated system share control of the vehicle. Examples are Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), where the driver controls steering and the automated system controls speed; and Parking Assistance, where steering is automated while speed is under manual control. The driver must be ready to retake full control at any time. Lane Keeping Assistance (LKA) Type II is a further example of level 1 self driving.
- Level 2 ("hands off"): The automated system takes full control of the vehicle (accelerating, braking, and steering). The driver must monitor the driving and be prepared to intervene immediately at any time if the automated system fails to respond properly. The shorthand "hands off" is not meant to be taken literally. In fact, contact between hand and wheel is often mandatory during SAE 2 driving, to confirm that the driver is ready to intervene.
- Level 3 ("eyes off"): The driver can safely turn their attention away from the driving tasks, e.g. the driver can text or watch a movie. The vehicle will handle situations that call for an immediate response, like emergency braking. The driver must still be prepared to intervene within some limited time, specified by the manufacturer, when called upon by the vehicle to do so. As an example, the 2018 Audi A8 Luxury Sedan was the first commercial car to claim to be capable of level 3 self driving. This particular car has a so-called Traffic Jam Pilot. When activated by the human driver, the car takes full control of all aspects of driving in slow-moving traffic at up to 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph). The function works only on highways with a physical barrier separating one stream of traffic from oncoming traffic.
- Level 4 ("mind off"): As level 3, but no driver attention is ever required for safety, i.e. the driver may safely go to sleep or leave the driver's seat. Self driving is supported only in limited spatial areas (geofenced) or under special circumstances, like traffic jams. Outside of these areas or circumstances, the vehicle must be able to safely abort the trip, i.e. park the car, if the driver does not retake control.
- Level 5 ("steering wheel optional"): No human intervention is required at all. An example would be a robotic taxi.
In the formal SAE definition below, note in particular what happens in the shift from SAE 2 to SAE 3: the human driver no longer has to monitor the environment. This is the final aspect of the "dynamic driving task" that is now passed over from the human to the automated system. At SAE 3, the human driver still has the responsibility to intervene when asked to do so by the automated system. At SAE 4 the human driver is relieved of that responsibility and at SAE 5 the automated system will never need to ask for an intervention.
SAE Level | Name | Narrative definition | Execution of steering and acceleration/ deceleration |
Monitoring of driving environment | Fallback performance of dynamic driving task | System capability (driving modes) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Human driver monitors the driving environment | |||||||
0 | No Automation | The full-time performance by the human driver of all aspects of the dynamic driving task, even when "enhanced by warning or intervention systems" | Human driver | Human driver | Human driver | n/a | |
1 | Driver Assistance | The driving mode-specific execution by a driver assistance system of "either steering or acceleration/deceleration" | using information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the human driver performs all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task | Human driver and system | Some driving modes | ||
2 | Partial Automation | The driving mode-specific execution by one or more driver assistance systems of both steering and acceleration/deceleration | System | ||||
Automated driving system monitors the driving environment | |||||||
3 | Conditional Automation | The driving mode-specific performance by an automated driving system of all aspects of the dynamic driving task | with the expectation that the human driver will respond appropriately to a request to intervene | System | System | Human driver | Some driving modes |
4 | High Automation | even if a human driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene | System | Many driving modes | |||
5 | Full Automation | under all roadway and environmental conditions that can be managed by a human driver | All driving modes |
Technical challenges
The challenge for driverless car designers is to produce control systems capable of analyzing sensory data in order to provide accurate detection of other vehicles and the road ahead.[50] Modern self-driving cars generally use Bayesian simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithms,[51] which fuse data from multiple sensors and an off-line map into current location estimates and map updates. Google is developing a variant called SLAM, with detection and tracking of other moving objects (DATMO), which also handles obstacles such as cars and pedestrians. Simpler systems may use roadside real-time locating system (RTLS) technologies to aid localization. Typical sensors include Lidar, stereo vision, GPS and IMU.[52][53] Udacity is developing an open-source software stack.[54]Control systems on autonomous cars may use Sensor Fusion, which is an approach that integrates information from a variety of sensors on the car to produce a more consistent, accurate, and useful view of the environment.[55]
Driverless vehicles require some form of machine vision for the purpose of visual object recognition. Autonomous cars are being developed with deep neural networks,[52] a type of deep learning architecture with many computational stages, or levels, in which neurons are simulated from the environment that activate the network.[56] The neural network depends on an extensive amount of data extracted from real-life driving scenarios,[52] enabling the neural network to "learn" how to execute the best course of action.[56]
In May 2018, researchers from MIT announced that they had built an autonomous car that can navigate unmapped roads.[57] Researchers at their Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) have developed a new system, called MapLite, which allows self-driving cars to drive on roads that they have never been on before, without using 3D maps. The system combines the GPS position of the vehicle, a "sparse topological map" such as OpenStreetMap, (i.e. having 2D features of the roads only), and a series of sensors that observe the road conditions.[58]
Testing
Testing vehicles with varying degrees of autonomy can be done physically, in closed environments,[59] on public roads (where permitted, typically with a license or permit[60] or adhering to a specific set of operating principles)[61] or virtually, i.e. in computer simulations[62].
When driven on public roads, autonomous vehicles require a person to monitor their proper operation and "take over" when needed.
Apple is currently testing self-driven cars, and has increased the number of test vehicles from 3 to 27 in January 2018.[63] This number further increased to 45 in March 2018.[64]
One way to assess the progress of autonomous vehicles is to compute the average number of miles driven between "disengagements", when the autonomous system is turned off, typically by a human driver. In 2017, Waymo reported 63 disengagements over 352,545 miles of testing, or 5596 miles on average, the highest among companies reporting such figures. Waymo also traveled more miles in total than any other. Their 2017 rate of 0.18 disengagements per 1000 miles was an improvement from 0.2 disengagements per 1000 miles in 2016 and 0.8 in 2015. In March, 2017, Uber reported an average of 0.67 miles per disengagement. In the final three months of 2017, Cruise Automation (now owned by GM) averaged 5224 miles per disruption over 62,689 miles.[65]
Maker | 2016 | |
---|---|---|
Miles per disengagement |
Miles | |
5,127.9 | 635,868 | |
BMW | 638 | 638 |
Nissan | 263.3 | 6,056 |
Ford | 196.6 | 590 |
General Motors | 54.7 | 8,156 |
Delphi Automotive Systems | 14.9 | 2,658 |
Tesla | 2.9 | 550 |
Mercedes Benz | 2 | 673 |
Bosch | 0.68 | 983 |
Fields of application
Autonomous trucks
Several companies are said to be testing autonomous technology in semi trucks. Otto, a self-driving trucking company that was acquired by Uber in August 2016, demonstrated their trucks on the highway before being acquired.[66] In May 2017, San Francisco-based startup Embark[67] announced a partnership with truck manufacturer Peterbilt to test and deploy autonomous technology in Peterbilt's vehicles.[68] Google's Waymo has also said to be testing autonomous technology in trucks,[69] however no timeline has been given for the project.
In March 2018, Starsky Robotics, the San Francisco-based autonomous truck company, completed a 7-mile fully driverless trip in Florida without a single human in the truck. Starsky Robotics became the first player in the self-driving truck game to drive in fully autonomous mode on a public road without a person in the cab.[70]
In Europe, truck Platooning is considered with the Safe Road Trains for the Environment approach.
Vehicular automation also cover other kinds of vehicle such as Buses, Trains, Trucks.
Lockheed Martin with funding from the U.S. Army developed an autonomous truck convoying system that uses a lead truck operated by a human driver with a number of trucks following autonomously.[71] Developed as part of the Army's Autonomous Mobility Applique System (AMAS), the system consists of an autonomous driving package that has been installed on more than nine types of vehicles and has completed more than 55,000 hours of driving at speeds up to 40mph as of 2014.[72] As of 2017 the Army was planning to field 100-200 trucks as part of a rapid-fielding program.
Transport systems
In Europe, cities in Belgium, France, Italy and the UK are planning to operate transport systems for autonomous cars,[73][74][75] and Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain have allowed public testing in traffic. In 2015, the UK launched public trials of the LUTZ Pathfinder autonomous pod in Milton Keynes.[76] Beginning in summer 2015 the French government allowed PSA Peugeot-Citroen to make trials in real conditions in the Paris area. The experiments were planned to be extended to other cities such as Bordeaux and Strasbourg by 2016.[77] The alliance between French companies THALES and Valeo (provider of the first self-parking car system that equips Audi and Mercedes premi) is testing its own system.[78] New Zealand is planning to use autonomous vehicles for public transport in Tauranga and Christchurch.[79][80][81][82]
In China, Baidu and King Long produce autonomous minibus, a vehicle with 14 seats, but without driving seat. With 100 vehicles produced, 2018 will be the first year with commercial autonomous service in China. Those minibus should be at level 4, that is driver-less in closed roads.[citation needed]
Potential advantages
Safety
Driving safety experts predict that once driverless technology has been fully developed, traffic collisions (and resulting deaths and injuries and costs), caused by human error, such as delayed reaction time, tailgating, rubbernecking, and other forms of distracted or aggressive driving should be substantially reduced.[6][11][12][83] Consulting firm McKinsey & Company estimated that widespread use of autonomous vehicles could "eliminate 90% of all auto accidents in the United States, prevent up to US$190 billion in damages and health-costs annually and save thousands of lives."[84]
According to motorist website "TheDrive.com" operated by Time magazine, none of the driving safety experts they were able to contact were able to rank driving under an autopilot system at the time (2017) as having achieved a greater level of safety than traditional fully hands-on driving, so the degree to which these benefits asserted by proponents will manifest in practice cannot be assessed.[85] Confounding factors that could reduce the net effect on safety may include unexpected interactions between humans and partly or fully autonomous vehicles, or between different types of vehicle system; complications at the boundaries of functionality at each automation level (such as handover when the vehicle reaches the limit of its capacity); the effect of the bugs and flaws that inevtably occur in complex interdependent software systems; sensor or data shortcomings; and successful compromise by malicious intereveners.
Welfare
Autonomous cars could reduce labor costs;[86][87] relieve travelers from driving and navigation chores, thereby replacing behind-the-wheel commuting hours with more time for leisure or work;[6][83] and also would lift constraints on occupant ability to drive, distracted and texting while driving, intoxicated, prone to seizures, or otherwise impaired.[88][89][8] For the young, the elderly, people with disabilities, and low-income citizens, autonomous cars could provide enhanced mobility.[90][91][92] The removal of the steering wheel—along with the remaining driver interface and the requirement for any occupant to assume a forward-facing position—would give the interior of the cabin greater ergonomic flexibility. Large vehicles, such as motorhomes, would attain appreciably enhanced ease of use.[93]
Traffic
Additional advantages could include higher speed limits;[94] smoother rides;[95] and increased roadway capacity; and minimized traffic congestion, due to decreased need for safety gaps and higher speeds.[96][97] Currently, maximum controlled-access highway throughput or capacity according to the U.S. Highway Capacity Manual is about 2,200 passenger vehicles per hour per lane, with about 5% of the available road space is taken up by cars. One study estimated that autonomous cars could increase capacity by 273% (~8,200 cars per hour per lane). The study also estimated that with 100% connected vehicles using vehicle-to-vehicle communication, capacity could reach 12,000 passenger vehicles per hour (up 445% from 2,200 pc/h per lane) traveling safely at 120 km/h (75 mph) with a following gap of about 6 m (20 ft) of each other. Currently, at highway speeds drivers keep between 40 to 50 m (130 to 160 ft) away from the car in front. These increases in highway capacity could have a significant impact in traffic congestion, particularly in urban areas, and even effectively end highway congestion in some places.[98] The ability for authorities to manage traffic flow would increase, given the extra data and driving behavior predictability.[7] combined with less need for traffic police and even road signage.
Costs cut
Safer driving is expected to reduce the costs of vehicle insurance.[86][99] Reduced traffic congestion and the improvements in traffic flow due to widespread use of autonomous cars will also translate into better fuel efficiency.[92][100][101] Additionally, self driving cars will be able to accelerate and brake more efficiently, meaning higher fuel economy from reducing wasted energy typically associated with inefficient changes to speed (energy typically lost due to friction, in the form of heat and sound).
Related effects
By reducing the (labor and other) cost of mobility as a service, autonomous cars could reduce the number of cars that are individually owned, replaced by taxi/pooling and other car sharing services.[102][103] This could dramatically reduce the need for parking space, freeing scarce land for other uses. This would also dramatically reduce the size of the automotive production industry, with corresponding environmental and economic effects. Assuming the increased efficiency is not fully offset by increases in demand, more efficient traffic flow could free roadway space for other uses such as better support for pedestrians and cyclists.
The vehicles' increased awareness could aid the police by reporting on illegal passenger behavior, while possibly enabling other crimes, such as deliberately crashing into another vehicle or a pedestrian.[10] However, this may also lead to much expanded mass surveillance if there is wide access granted to third parties to the large data sets generated.
The future of passenger rail transport in the era of autonomous cars is not clear.[104]
Potential limits or obstacles
The sort of hoped-for potential benefits from increased vehicle automation described may be limted by foreseeable challenges, such as disputes over liability (will each company operating a vehicle accept that they are its "driver" and thus responsible for what their car does, or will some try to project this liability onto others who are not in control?) ,[14][15] the time needed to turn over the existing stock of vehicles from non-autonomous to autonomous,[105] and thus a long period of humans and autonomous vehicles sharing the roads, resistance by individuals to having to forfeit control of their cars,[16] concerns about the safety of driverless in practice,[17] and the implementation of a legal framework and consistent global government regulations for self-driving cars.[106] Other obstacles could include de-skilling and lower levels of driver experience for dealing with potentially dangerous situations and anomalies,[107] ethical problems where an autonomous vehicle's software is forced during an unavoidable crash to choose between multiple harmful courses of action ('the trolley problem'),[108][109][110], concerns about making large numbers of people currently employed as drivers unemployed (at the same time as many other alternate blue collar occupations may be undermined by automation), the potential for more intrusive mass surveillance of location, association and travel as a result of police and intelligence agency access to large data sets generated by sensors and pattern-recognition AI (making anonymous travel difficult), and possibly insufficient understanding of verbal sounds, gestures and non-verbal cues by police, other drivers or pedestrians.[111]
Possible technological obstacles for autonomous cars are:
- Artificial Intelligence is still not able to function properly in chaotic inner city environments.[112]
- A car's computer could potentially be compromised, as could a communication system between cars.[113][114][115][116][117]
- Susceptibility of the car's sensing and navigation systems to different types of weather (such as snow) or deliberate interference, including jamming and spoofing.[111]
- Avoidance of large animals requires recognition and tracking, and Volvo found that software suited to caribou, deer, and elk was ineffective with kangaroos.[118]
- Autonomous cars may require very high-quality specialised maps[119] to operate properly. Where these maps may be out of date, they would need to be able to fall back to reasonable behaviors.[111][120]
- Competition for the radio spectrum desired for the car's communication.[121]
- Field programmability for the systems will require careful evaluation of product development and the component supply chain.[117]
- Current road infrastructure may need changes for autonomous cars to function optimally.[122]
- Discrepancy between people’s beliefs of the necessary government intervention may cause a delay in accepting autonomous cars on the road.[123] Whether the public desires no change in existing laws, federal regulation, or another solution; the framework of regulation will likely result in differences of opinion.[123]
Potential disadvantages
A direct impact of widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles is the loss of driving-related jobs in the road transport industry.[86][87][124] There could be resistance from professional drivers and unions who are threatened by job losses.[125] In addition, there could be job losses in public transit services and crash repair shops. The automobile insurance industry might suffer as the technology makes certain aspects of these occupations obsolete.[92] A frequently cited paper by Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey found that autonomous cars would make many jobs redundant.[126]
Privacy could be an issue when having the vehicle's location and position integrated into an interface in which other people have access to.[127] In addition, there is the risk of automotive hacking through the sharing of information through V2V (Vehicle to Vehicle) and V2I (Vehicle to Infrastructure) protocols.[128][129] There is also the risk of terrorist attacks. Self-driving cars could potentially be loaded with explosives and used as bombs.[130]
The lack of stressful driving, more productive time during the trip, and the potential savings in travel time and cost could become an incentive to live far away from cities, where land is cheaper, and work in the city's core, thus increasing travel distances and inducing more urban sprawl, more fuel consumption and an increase in the carbon footprint of urban travel.[131][132] There is also the risk that traffic congestion might increase, rather than decrease.[92] Appropriate public policies and regulations, such as zoning, pricing, and urban design are required to avoid the negative impacts of increased suburbanization and longer distance travel.[92][132]
Some believe that once automation in vehicles reaches higher levels and becomes reliable, drivers will pay less attention to the road.[133] Research shows that drivers in autonomous cars react later when they have to intervene in a critical situation, compared to if they were driving manually.[134] Depending on the capabilities of autonomous vehicles and the frequency with which human intervention is needed, this may counteract any increase in safety, as compared to all-human driving, that may be delivered by other factors.
Ethical and moral reasoning come into consideration when programming the software that decides what action the car takes in an unavoidable crash; whether the autonomous car will crash into a bus, potentially killing people inside; or swerve elsewhere, potentially killing its own passengers or nearby pedestrians.[135] A question that programmers of AI systems find difficult to answer (as do ordinary people, and ethicists) is "what decision should the car make that causes the ‘smallest’ damage to people's lives?"
The ethics of autonomous vehicles are still being articulated, and may lead to controversy.[136] They may also require closer consideration of the variability, context-dependency, complexity and non-deterministic nature of human ethics. Different human drivers make various ethical decisions when driving, such as avoiding harm to themselves, or putting themselves at risk to protect others. These decisions range from rare extremes such as self-sacrifice or criminal negligence, to routine decisions good enough to keep the traffic flowing but bad enough to cause accidents, road rage and stress.
Human thought and reaction time may sometimes be too slow to detect the risk of an upcoming fatal crash, think through the ethical implications of the available options, or take an action to implement an ethical choice. Whether a particular automated vehicle's capacity to correctly detect an upcoming risk, analyse the options or choose a 'good' option from among bad choices would be as good or better than a particular human's may be difficult to predict or assess. This difficulty may be in part because the level of automated vehicle system understanding of the ethical issues at play in a given road scenario, sensed for an instant from out of a continuous stream of synthetic physical predictions of the near future, and dependent on layers of pattern recognition and situational intelligence, may be opaque to human inspection because of its origins in probabilistic machine learning rather than a simple, plain English 'human values' logic of parsable rules. The depth of understanding, predictive power and ethical sophistication needed will be hard to implement, and even harder to test or assess.
The scale of this challenge may have other effects. There may be few entities able to marshal the resources and AI capacity necessary to meet it, as well as the capital necessary to take an autonomous vehicle system to market and sustain it operationally for the life of a vehicle, and the legal and 'government affairs' capacity to deal with the potential for liability for a significant proportion of traffic accidents. This may have the effect of narrowing the number of different system opertors, and eroding the presently quite diverse global vehicle market down to a small number of system suppliers.
Incidents
Mercedes autonomous cruise control system
In 1999, Mercedes introduced Distronic, the first radar-assisted ACC, on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220)[137][138] and the CL-Class.[139] The Distronic system was able to adjust the vehicle speed automatically to the car in front in order to always maintain a safe distance to other cars on the road.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Mercedes-Benz_S_450_4MATIC%2C_IAA_2017%2C_Frankfurt_%281Y7A2976%29.jpg/220px-Mercedes-Benz_S_450_4MATIC%2C_IAA_2017%2C_Frankfurt_%281Y7A2976%29.jpg)
In 2005, Mercedes refined the system (from this point called "Distronic Plus") with the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221) being the first car to receive the upgraded Distronic Plus system. Distronic Plus could now completely halt the car if necessary on E-Class and most Mercedes sedans. In an episode of Top Gear, Jeremy Clarkson demonstrated the effectiveness of the cruise control system in the S-class by coming to a complete halt from motorway speeds to a round-about and getting out, without touching the pedals.[140]
By 2017, Mercedes has vastly expanded its autonomous driving features on production cars: In addition to the standard Distronic Plus features such as an active brake assist, Mercedes now includes a steering pilot, a parking pilot, a cross-traffic assist system, night-vision cameras with automated danger warnings and braking assist (in case animals or pedestrians are on the road for example), and various other autonomous-driving features.[141][142][143][144][145] In 2016, Mercedes also introduced its Active Brake Assist 4, which was the first emergency braking assistant with pedestrian recognition on the market.[146]
Due to Mercedes' history of gradually implementing advancements of their autonomous driving features that have been extensively tested, not many crashes that have been caused by it are known. One of the known crashes dates back to 2005, when German news magazine "Stern" was testing Mercedes' old Distronic system. During the test, the system did not always manage to brake in time.[147] Ulrich Mellinghoff, then Head of Safety, NVH, and Testing at the Mercedes-Benz Technology Centre, stated that some of the tests failed due to the vehicle being tested in a metallic hall, which caused problems with the system's radar. Later iterations of the Distronic system have an upgraded radar and numerous other sensors, which are not susceptible to a metallic environment anymore.[147][148] In 2008, Mercedes conducted a study comparing the crash rates of their vehicles equipped with Distronic Plus and the vehicles without it, and concluded that those equipped with Distronic Plus have an around 20% lower crash rate.[149] In 2013, German Formula One driver Michael Schumacher was invited by Mercedes to try to crash a Mercedes C-Class vehicle, which was equipped with all safety features that Mercedes offered for its production vehicles at the time, which included the Active Blind Spot Assist, Active Lane Keeping Assist, Brake Assist Plus, Collision Prevention Assist, Distronic Plus with Steering Assist, Pre-Safe Brake, and Stop&Go Pilot. Due to the safety features, Schumacher was unable to crash the vehicle in realistic scenarios.[150]
Tesla Autopilot
In mid‑October 2015 Tesla Motors rolled out version 7 of their software in the U.S. that included Tesla Autopilot capability.[151] On 9 January 2016, Tesla rolled out version 7.1 as an over-the-air update, adding a new "summon" feature that allows cars to self-park at parking locations without the driver in the car.[152] Tesla's autonomous driving features can be classified as somewhere between level 2 and level 3 under the U.S. Department of Transportation’s National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) five levels of vehicle automation. At this level the car can act autonomously but requires the full attention of the driver, who must be prepared to take control at a moment's notice.[153][154][155] Autopilot should be used only on limited-access highways, and sometimes it will fail to detect lane markings and disengage itself. In urban driving the system will not read traffic signals or obey stop signs. The system also does not detect pedestrians or cyclists.[156]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tesla_Model_S_Hwy_40.jpg/230px-Tesla_Model_S_Hwy_40.jpg)
On 20 January 2016 the first known fatal crash of a Tesla with Autopilot occurred in China's Hubei province. According to China's 163.com news channel, this marked "China's first accidental death due to Tesla's automatic driving (system)." Initially, Tesla pointed out that the vehicle was so badly damaged from the impact that their recorder was not able to conclusively prove that the car had been on Autopilot at the time, however 163.com pointed out that other factors, such as the car's absolute failure to take any evasive actions prior to the high speed crash, and the driver's otherwise good driving record, seemed to indicate a strong likelihood that the car was on Autopilot at the time. A similar fatal crash occurred four months later in Florida.[157][158] In 2018, in a subsequent civil suit between the father of the driver killed and Tesla, Tesla did not deny that the car had been on Autopilot at the time of the accident, and sent evidence to the victim's father documenting that fact.[159]
The second known fatal accident involving a vehicle being driven by itself took place in Williston, Florida on 7 May 2016 while a Tesla Model S electric car was engaged in Autopilot mode. The occupant was killed in a crash with an 18-wheel tractor-trailer. On 28 June 2016 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) opened a formal investigation into the accident working with the Florida Highway Patrol. According to the NHTSA, preliminary reports indicate the crash occurred when the tractor-trailer made a left turn in front of the Tesla at an intersection on a non-controlled access highway, and the car failed to apply the brakes. The car continued to travel after passing under the truck’s trailer.[160][161] The NHTSA's preliminary evaluation was opened to examine the design and performance of any automated driving systems in use at the time of the crash, which involved a population of an estimated 25,000 Model S cars.[162] On 8 July 2016, the NHTSA requested Tesla Motors provide the agency detailed information about the design, operation and testing of its Autopilot technology. The agency also requested details of all design changes and updates to Autopilot since its introduction, and Tesla's planned updates schedule for the next four months.[163]
According to Tesla, "neither autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit sky, so the brake was not applied." The car attempted to drive full speed under the trailer, "with the bottom of the trailer impacting the windshield of the Model S." Tesla also claimed that this was Tesla’s first known autopilot death in over 130 million miles (208 million km) driven by its customers with Autopilot engaged, however by this statement, Tesla was apparently refusing to acknowledge claims that the January 2016 fatality in Hubei China had also been the result of an autopilot system error. According to Tesla there is a fatality every 94 million miles (150 million km) among all type of vehicles in the U.S.[160][161][164] However, this number also includes fatalities of the crashes, for instance, of motorcycle drivers with pedestrians.[165][166]
In July 2016 the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) opened a formal investigation into the fatal accident while the Autopilot was engaged. The NTSB is an investigative body that has the power to make only policy recommendations. An agency spokesman said "It's worth taking a look and seeing what we can learn from that event, so that as that automation is more widely introduced we can do it in the safest way possible."[167] In January 2017, the NTSB released the report that concluded Tesla was not at fault; the investigation revealed that for Tesla cars, the crash rate dropped by 40 percent after Autopilot was installed.[168]
According to Tesla, starting 19 October 2016, all Tesla cars are built with hardware to allow full self-driving capability at the highest safety level (SAE Level 5).[169] The hardware includes eight surround cameras and twelve ultrasonic sensors, in addition to the forward-facing radar with enhanced processing capabilities.[170] The system will operate in "shadow mode" (processing without taking action) and send data back to Tesla to improve its abilities until the software is ready for deployment via over-the-air upgrades.[171] After the required testing, Tesla hopes to enable full self-driving by the end of 2019 under certain conditions.
Google self-driving car
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Google_driverless_car_at_intersection.gk.jpg/220px-Google_driverless_car_at_intersection.gk.jpg)
In August 2012, Google announced that their vehicles had completed over 300,000 autonomous-driving miles (500,000 km) accident-free, typically involving about a dozen cars on the road at any given time, and that they were starting to test with single drivers instead of in pairs.[172] In late-May 2014, Google revealed a new prototype that had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal, and was fully autonomous.[173] As of March 2016[update], Alphabet had test-driven their fleet in autonomous mode a total of 1,500,000 mi (2,400,000 km).[174] In December 2016, Google Corporation announced that its technology would be spun-off to a new subsidiary called Waymo.[175][176]
Based on Google's accident reports, their test cars have been involved in 14 collisions, of which other drivers were at fault 13 times, although in 2016 the car's software caused a crash.[177]
In June 2015, Brin confirmed that 12 vehicles had suffered collisions as of that date. Eight involved rear-end collisions at a stop sign or traffic light, two in which the vehicle was side-swiped by another driver, one in which another driver rolled through a stop sign, and one where a Google employee was controlling the car manually.[178] In July 2015, three Google employees suffered minor injuries when their vehicle was rear-ended by a car whose driver failed to brake at a traffic light. This was the first time that a collision resulted in injuries.[179] On 14 February 2016 a Waymo vehicle attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path. During the maneuver it struck a bus. Google stated, "In this case, we clearly bear some responsibility, because if our car hadn't moved there wouldn't have been a collision."[180][181] Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience. No injuries were reported in the crash.[177]
In March 2017, an Uber test vehicle was involved in a crash in Tempe, Arizona when another car failed to yield, flipping the Uber vehicle. There were no injuries in the accident.[182]
By 22 December 2017, Uber had completed 2,000,000 miles in autonomous mode.[183]
On 18 March 2018, Elaine Herzberg became the first pedestrian to be killed by a self-driving car in the United States after being hit by an Uber vehicle, also in Tempe. Herzberg was crossing outside of a crosswalk, approximately 400 feet from an intersection.[184] The causes of the accidents include the following: nighttime, low visibility, pedestrian crossing from a shadowed portion of road, crossing a road that had high speed limit, and not checking for cars before crossing (blindly crossing street at night). This marks the first time an individual outside an auto-piloted car is known to have been killed by such a car. The first death of an essentially uninvolved third party is a temporary setback to the autonomous cars= industry.[185] Some experts say a human driver could have avoided the fatal crash.[186] Arizona Governor Doug Ducey later suspended the company's ability to test and operate its autonomous cars on public roadways citing an "unquestionable failure" of the expectation that Uber make public safety its top priority.[187] Uber has pulled out of all self-driving-car testing in California as a result of the accident.[188] On 24 May 2018 the National Transport Safety Board issued a preliminary report.[189]
Navya autonomous bus driving system
On 9 November 2017 an autonomous self-driving bus with passengers was involved in a crash with a truck. The truck was found to be at fault of the crash, reversing into the stationary autonomous bus. The autonomous bus did not take evasive actions or apply defensive driving such as flash headlights, sound the horn, or as one passenger commented "The shuttle didn't have the ability to move back. The shuttle just stayed still."[190]
Policy implications
Urban planning
According to a Wonkblog reporter, if fully autonomous cars become commercially available, they have the potential to be a disruptive innovation with major implications for society. The likelihood of widespread adoption is still unclear, but if they are used on a wide scale, policy makers face a number of unresolved questions about their effects.[122]
One fundamental question is about their effect on travel behavior. Some people believe that they will increase car ownership and car use because it will become easier to use them and they will ultimately be more useful.[122] This may in turn encourage urban sprawl and ultimately total private vehicle use. Others argue that it will be easier to share cars and that this will thus discourage outright ownership and decrease total usage, and make cars more efficient forms of transportation in relation to the present situation.[191]
Policy-makers will have to take a new look at how infrastructure is to be built and how money will be allotted to build for autonomous vehicles. The need for traffic signals could potentially be reduced with the adoption of smart highways.[192] Due to smart highways and with the assistance of smart technological advances implemented by policy change, the dependence on oil imports may be reduced because of less time being spent on the road by individual cars which could have an effect on policy regarding energy.[193] On the other hand, autonomous vehicles could increase the overall number of cars on the road which could lead to a greater dependence on oil imports if smart systems are not enough to curtail the impact of more vehicles.[194] However, due to the uncertainty of the future of autonomous vehicles, policy makers may want to plan effectively by implementing infrastructure improvements that can be beneficial to both human drivers and autonomous vehicles.[195] Caution needs to be taken in acknowledgment to public transportation and that the use may be greatly reduced if autonomous vehicles are catered to through policy reform of infrastructure with this resulting in job loss and increased unemployment.[196]
Other disruptive effects will come from the use of autonomous vehicles to carry goods. Self-driving vans have the potential to make home deliveries significantly cheaper, transforming retail commerce and possibly making hypermarkets and supermarkets redundant. As of right now the U.S. Government defines automation into six levels, starting at level zero which means the human driver does everything and ending with level five, the automated system performs all the driving tasks. Also under the current law, manufacturers bear all the responsibility to self-certify vehicles for use on public roads. This means that currently as long as the vehicle is compliant within the regulatory framework, there are no specific federal legal barriers to a highly automated vehicle being offered for sale. Iyad Rahwan, an associate professor in the MIT Media lab said, "Most people want to live in a world where cars will minimize casualties, but everyone wants their own car to protect them at all costs." Furthermore, industry standards and best practice are still needed in systems before they can be considered reasonably safe under real-world conditions.[197]
Legislation
The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, subscribed to by over 70 countries worldwide, establishes principles to govern traffic laws. One of the fundamental principles of the Convention has been the concept that a driver is always fully in control and responsible for the behavior of a vehicle in traffic.[198] The progress of technology that assists and takes over the functions of the driver is undermining this principle, implying that much of the groundwork must be rewritten.
Legal status in the United States
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Self_Driving_Cars_Legalized_States_in_USA.png/220px-Self_Driving_Cars_Legalized_States_in_USA.png)
In the United States, a non-signatory country to the Vienna Convention, state vehicle codes generally do not envisage — but do not necessarily prohibit — highly automated vehicles.[199][200] To clarify the legal status of and otherwise regulate such vehicles, several states have enacted or are considering specific laws.[201] In 2016, 7 states (Nevada, California, Florida, Michigan, Hawaii, Washington, and Tennessee), along with the District of Columbia, have enacted laws for autonomous vehicles. Incidents such as the first fatal accident by Tesla's Autopilot system have led to discussion about revising laws and standards for autonomous cars.
In September 2016, the US National Economic Council and Department of Transportation released federal standards that describe how automated vehicles should react if their technology fails, how to protect passenger privacy, and how riders should be protected in the event of an accident. The new federal guidelines are meant to avoid a patchwork of state laws, while avoiding being so overbearing as to stifle innovation.[202]
In June 2011, the Nevada Legislature passed a law to authorize the use of autonomous cars. Nevada thus became the first jurisdiction in the world where autonomous vehicles might be legally operated on public roads. According to the law, the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles (NDMV) is responsible for setting safety and performance standards and the agency is responsible for designating areas where autonomous cars may be tested.[203][204][205] This legislation was supported by Google in an effort to legally conduct further testing of its Google driverless car.[206] The Nevada law defines an autonomous vehicle to be "a motor vehicle that uses artificial intelligence, sensors and global positioning system coordinates to drive itself without the active intervention of a human operator." The law also acknowledges that the operator will not need to pay attention while the car is operating itself. Google had further lobbied for an exemption from a ban on distracted driving to permit occupants to send text messages while sitting behind the wheel, but this did not become law.[206][207][208] Furthermore, Nevada's regulations require a person behind the wheel and one in the passenger’s seat during tests.[209]
In April 2012, Florida became the second state to allow the testing of autonomous cars on public roads,[210] and California became the third when Governor Jerry Brown signed the bill into law at Google Headquarters in Mountain View.[211] In December 2013, Michigan became the fourth state to allow testing of driverless cars on public roads.[212] In July 2014, the city of Coeur d'Alene, Idaho adopted a robotics ordinance that includes provisions to allow for self-driving cars.[213]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Jurvetson_Google_driverless_car_trimmed.jpg/220px-Jurvetson_Google_driverless_car_trimmed.jpg)
On 19 February 2016, Assembly Bill No. 2866 was introduced in California that would allow completely autonomous vehicles to operate on the road, including those without a driver, steering wheel, accelerator pedal, or brake pedal. The Bill states the Department of Motor Vehicles would need to comply with these regulations by 1 July 2018 for these rules to take effect. This bill has yet to pass the house of origin.[214]
In September 2016, the U.S. Department of Transportation released its Federal Automated Vehicles Policy,[215] and California published discussions on the subject in October 2016.[216]
In December 2016, the California Department of Motor Vehicles ordered Uber to remove its self-driving vehicles from the road in response to two red-light violations. Uber immediately blamed the violations on "human-error", and has suspended the drivers.[217]
Legislation in Europe
In 2013, the government of the United Kingdom permitted the testing of autonomous cars on public roads.[218] Before this, all testing of robotic vehicles in the UK had been conducted on private property.[218]
In 2014 the Government of France announced that testing of autonomous cars on public roads would be allowed in 2015. 2000 km of road would be opened through the national territory, especially in Bordeaux, in Isère, Île-de-France and Strasbourg. At the 2015 ITS World Congress, a conference dedicated to intelligent transport systems, the very first demonstration of autonomous vehicles on open road in France was carried out in Bordeaux in early October 2015.[219]
In 2015, a preemptive lawsuit against various automobile companies such as GM, Ford, and Toyota accused them of "Hawking vehicles that are vulnerable to hackers who could hypothetically wrest control of essential functions such as brakes and steering."[220]
In spring of 2015, the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications in Switzerland (UVEK) allowed Swisscom to test a driverless Volkswagen Passat on the streets of Zurich.[221]
As of April 2017 it is possible to conduct public road tests for development vehicles in Hungary, furthermore the construction of a closed test track, the Zala Zone test track,[222] suitable for testing highly automated functions is also under way near the city of Zalaegerszeg.[223]
Legislation in Asia
In 2016, the Singapore Land Transit Authority in partnership with UK automotive supplier Delphi Automotive Plc will launch preparations for a test run of a fleet of automated taxis for an on-demand autonomous cab service to take effect in 2017.[224]
Liability
Autonomous car liability is a developing area of law and policy that will determine who is liable when an autonomous car causes physical damage to persons, or breaks road rules.[225] When autonomous cars shift the control of driving from humans to autonomous car technology, there may be a need for existing liability laws to evolve in order to fairly identify the parties responsible for damage and injury, and to address the potential for conflicts of interest between human occupants, system operator, insurers, and the public purse. [92] Increases in the use of autonomous car technologies (e.g. advanced driver-assistance systems) may prompt incremental shifts in this responsibility for driving. It is claimed by proponents to have potential to affect the frequency of road accidents, although it is difficult to assess this claim in the absence of data from substantial actual use.[226] If there was a dramatic improvement in safety, the operators may seek to project their liability for the remaining accidents onto others as part of their reward for the improvement. However there is no obvious reason why they should escape liability if any such effects were found to be modest or nonexistent, since part of the purpose of such liability is to give an incentive to the party controlling something to do whatever is necessary to avoid it causing harm. Potential users may be reluctant to trust an operator if it seeks to pass its normal liability on to others.
In any case, a well-advised person who is not controlling a car at all (Level 5) would be understandably reluctant to accept liability for something out of their control. And when there is some degree of sharing control possible (Level 3 or 4), a well-advised person would be concerned that the vehicle might try to pass back control at the last seconds before an accident, to pass responsibility and liability back too, but in circumstances where the potential driver has no better prospects of avoiding the crash than the vehicle, since they have not necessarily been paying close attention, and if it is too hard for the very smart car it might be too hard for a human. Since operators, especially those familiar with trying to ignore existing legal obligations (under a motto like 'seek forgiveness, not permission'), such as Google or Uber, could be normally expected to try to avoid responsibility to the maximum degree possible, there is potential for attempt to let the operators evade being held liable for accidents while they are in control.
As higher levels of autonomy are commercially introduced (level 3 and 4), the insurance industry may see a greater proportion of commercial and product liability lines while personal automobile insurance shrinks.[227]
Vehicular communication systems
Individual vehicles may benefit from information obtained from other vehicles in the vicinity, especially information relating to traffic congestion and safety hazards. Vehicular communication systems use vehicles and roadside units as the communicating nodes in a peer-to-peer network, providing each other with information. As a cooperative approach, vehicular communication systems can allow all cooperating vehicles to be more effective. According to a 2010 study by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, vehicular communication systems could help avoid up to 79 percent of all traffic accidents.[228]
In 2012, computer scientists at the University of Texas in Austin began developing smart intersections designed for autonomous cars. The intersections will have no traffic lights and no stop signs, instead using computer programs that will communicate directly with each car on the road.[229]
An efficient intersection management technique called Crossroads was proposed in 2017 that is robust to network delay of V2I communication and Worst-case Execution time of the intersection manager. [230]
Among connected cars, an unconnected one is the weakest link and will be increasingly banned from busy high-speed roads, predicted a Helsinki think tank in January 2016.[231]
Public opinion surveys
![]() | This article may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience.(August 2016) |
In a 2011 online survey of 2,006 US and UK consumers by Accenture, 49% said they would be comfortable using a "driverless car".[232]
A 2012 survey of 17,400 vehicle owners by J.D. Power and Associates found 37% initially said they would be interested in purchasing a fully autonomous car. However, that figure dropped to 20% if told the technology would cost $3,000 more.[233]
In a 2012 survey of about 1,000 German drivers by automotive researcher Puls, 22% of the respondents had a positive attitude towards these cars, 10% were undecided, 44% were skeptical and 24% were hostile.[234]
A 2013 survey of 1,500 consumers across 10 countries by Cisco Systems found 57% "stated they would be likely to ride in a car controlled entirely by technology that does not require a human driver", with Brazil, India and China the most willing to trust autonomous technology.[235]
In a 2014 US telephone survey by Insurance.com, over three-quarters of licensed drivers said they would at least consider buying a self-driving car, rising to 86% if car insurance were cheaper. 31.7% said they would not continue to drive once an autonomous car was available instead.[236]
In a February 2015 survey of top auto journalists, 46% predict that either Tesla or Daimler will be the first to the market with a fully autonomous vehicle, while (at 38%) Daimler is predicted to be the most functional, safe, and in-demand autonomous vehicle.[237]
In 2015 a questionnaire survey by Delft University of Technology explored the opinion of 5,000 people from 109 countries on automated driving. Results showed that respondents, on average, found manual driving the most enjoyable mode of driving. 22% of the respondents did not want to spend any money for a fully automated driving system. Respondents were found to be most concerned about software hacking/misuse, and were also concerned about legal issues and safety. Finally, respondents from more developed countries (in terms of lower accident statistics, higher education, and higher income) were less comfortable with their vehicle transmitting data.[238] The survey also gave results on potential consumer opinion on interest of purchasing an automated car, stating that 37% of surveyed current owners were either "definitely" or "probably" interested in purchasing an automated car.[238]
In 2016, a survey in Germany examined the opinion of 1,603 people, who were representative in terms of age, gender, and education for the German population, towards partially, highly, and fully automated cars. Results showed that men and women differ in their willingness to use them. Men felt less anxiety and more joy towards automated cars, whereas women showed the exact opposite. The gender difference towards anxiety was especially pronounced between young men and women but decreased with participants' age.[239]
In 2016, a PwC survey, in the United States, showing the opinion of 1,584 people, highlights that "66 percent of respondents said they think autonomous cars are probably smarter than the average human driver". People are still worried about safety and mostly the fact of having the car hacked. Nevertheless, only 13% of the interviewees see no advantages in this new kind of cars.[240]
A Pew Research Center survey of 4,135 U.S. adults conducted 1–15 May 2017 finds that many Americans anticipate significant impacts from various automation technologies in the course of their lifetimes—from the widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles to the replacement of entire job categories with robot workers.[241]
Moral issues
With the emergence of autonomous automobiles various ethical issues arise. While the introduction of autonomous vehicles to the mass market is said to be inevitable due to an (untestable) potential for reduction of crashes by "up to" 90%[242] and their potential greater accessibility to disabled, elderly, and young passengers, a range of ethical issues have not been fully addressed. Those include, but are not limited to: the moral, financial, and criminal responsibility for crashes and breaches of law; the decisions a car is to make right before a (fatal) crash; privacy issues including potential for mass surveillance; potential for massive job losses and unemployment among drivers; de-skilling and loss of independence by vehicle users; exposure to hacking and malware; and the further concentration of market and data power in the hands of a few global conglomerates capable of consolidating AI capacity, and of lobbying governments to facilitate the shift of liability onto others and their potential destruction of existing occupations and industries.
There are different opinions on who should be held liable in case of a crash, especially with people being hurt. Many experts see the car manufacturers themselves responsible for those crashes that occur due to a technical malfunction or misconstruction.[243] Besides the fact that the car manufacturer would be the source of the problem in a situation where a car crashes due to a technical issue, there is another important reason why car manufacturers could be held responsible: it would encourage them to innovate and heavily invest into fixing those issues, not only due to protection of the brand image, but also due to financial and criminal consequences. However, there are also voices [who?] that argue those using or owning the vehicle should be held responsible since they know the risks involved in using such a vehicle. Experts [who?] suggest introducing a tax or insurances that would protect owners and users of autonomous vehicles of claims made by victims of an accident.[243] Other possible parties that can be held responsible in case of a technical failure include software engineers that programmed the code for the autonomous operation of the vehicles, and suppliers of components of the AV.[244]
Taking aside the question of legal liability and moral responsibility, the question arises how autonomous vehicles should be programmed to behave in an emergency situation where either passengers or other traffic participants are endangered. A moral dilemma that a software engineer or car manufacturer might face in programming the operating software is described in an ethical thought experiment, the trolley problem: a conductor of a trolley has the choice of staying on the planned track and running over 5 people, or turn the trolley onto a track where it would kill only one person, assuming there is no traffic on it.[245] There are two main considerations that need to be addressed. First, what moral basis would be used by an autonomous vehicle to make decisions? Second, how could those be translated into software code? Researchers have suggested, in particular, two ethical theories to be applicable to the behavior of autonomous vehicles in cases of emergency: deontology and utilitarianism.[246] Asimov’s three laws of robotics are a typical example of deontological ethics. The theory suggests that an autonomous car needs to follow strict written-out rules that it needs to follow in any situation. Utilitarianism suggests the idea that any decision must be made based on the goal to maximize utility. This needs a definition of utility which could be maximizing the number of people surviving in a crash. Critics suggest that autonomous vehicles should adapt a mix of multiple theories to be able to respond morally right in the instance of a crash.[246]
(Many 'Trolley' discussions skip over the practical problems of how a probabilistic machine learning vehicle AI could be sophisticated enough to understand that a deep problem of moral philosophy is presenting itself from instant to instant while using a dynamic projection into the near future, what sort of moral problem it actually would be if any, what the relevant weightings in human value terms should be given to all the other humans involved who will be probably unreliably identified, and how reliably it can assess the probable outcomes. These practical difficulties, and those around testing and assessment of solutions to them, may present as much of a challenge as the theoretical abstractions.)
Privacy-related issues arise mainly from the interconnectivity of autonomous cars, making it just another mobile device that can gather any information about an individual. This information gathering ranges from tracking of the routes taken, voice recording, video recording, preferences in media that is consumed in the car, behavioral patterns, to many more streams of information.[247][248] The data and communications infrastructure needed to support these vehicles may also be capable of surveillance, especially if coupled to other data sets and advanced analytics.
The implementation of autonomous vehicles to the mass market might cost up to 5 million jobs in the US alone, making up almost 3% of the workforce.[249] Those jobs include drivers of taxis, buses, vans, trucks, and e-hailing vehicles. Many industries, such as the auto insurance industry are indirectly affected. This industry alone generates an annual revenue of about $220 billions, supporting 277,000 jobs.[250] To put this into perspective – this is about the number of mechanical engineering jobs.[251] The potential loss of a majority of those jobs will have a tremendous impact on those individuals involved.[252] Both India and China have placed bans on automated cars with the former citing protection of jobs.[citation needed]
Anticipated launch of self-driving cars
In December 2015, Tesla CEO Elon Musk predicted that a completely autonomous car would be introduced by the end of 2018;[253] in December 2017, he announced that it would take another two years to launch a fully self-driving Tesla onto the market.[254]
BMW's all-electric autonomous car, called iNext, is expected to be ready by 2021; Toyota’s first self-driving car is due to hit the market in 2020, as is the driverless car being developed by Nissan.[255]
In fiction
![]() | This section gives self-sourcing popular culture examples. (February 2018) |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Lexus_2054_Minority_Report_concept.jpg/220px-Lexus_2054_Minority_Report_concept.jpg)
In film
The autonomous and occasionally sentient self-driving car story has earned its place in both literary science fiction and pop sci-fi.[256]
- A VW Beetle named Dudu features in the 1971 to 1978 German Superbug (film series) of movies similar to Disney's Herbie, but with an electronic brain. (Herbie, also a Beetle, was depicted as an anthropomorphic car with its own spirit.)
- In the film Batman (1989), starring Michael Keaton, the Batmobile is shown to be able to drive to Batman's current location with some navigation commands from Batman and possibly some autonomy.
- The film Total Recall (1990), starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, features taxis called Johnny Cabs controlled by artificial intelligence in the car or the android occupants.
- The film Demolition Man (1993), starring Sylvester Stallone and set in 2032, features vehicles that can be self-driven or commanded to "Auto Mode" where a voice-controlled computer operates the vehicle.
- The film Timecop (1994), starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, set in 2004 and 1994, has autonomous cars.
- Another Arnold Schwarzenegger movie, The 6th Day (2000), features an autonomous car commanded by Michael Rapaport.
- The film Minority Report (2002), set in Washington, D.C. in 2054, features an extended chase sequence involving autonomous cars. The vehicle of protagonist John Anderton is transporting him when its systems are overridden by police in an attempt to bring him into custody.
- The film, The Incredibles (2004), Mr. Incredible makes his car autonomous for him while it changes him into his supersuit when driving to save a cat from a tree.
- The film Eagle Eye ( 2008 ) Shia LaBeouf and Michelle Monaghan are driven around in a Porsche Cayenne that is controlled by ARIIA ( a giant supercomputer ).
- The film I, Robot (2004), set in Chicago in 2035, features autonomous vehicles driving on highways, allowing the car to travel safer at higher speeds than if manually controlled. The option to manually operate the vehicles is available.
- Logan (film) (2017) set in 2029, features fully autonomous trucks.
- Blade Runner 2049 (2017) opens with LAPD Replicant cop K waking up in his 3-wheeled autonomous flying vehicle (featuring a separable surveillance roof drone) on approach to a protein farm in northern California.
In literature
Intelligent or self-driving cars are a common theme in science fiction literature. Examples include:
- In Isaac Asimov's science-fiction short story, "Sally" (first published May–June 1953), autonomous cars have "positronic brains" and communicate via honking horns and slamming doors, and save their human caretaker.
- Peter F. Hamilton's Commonwealth Saga series features intelligent or self-driving vehicles.
- In Robert A Heinlein's novel, The Number of the Beast (1980), Zeb Carter's driving and flying car "Gay Deceiver" is at first semi-autonomous and later, after modifications by Zeb's wife Deety, becomes sentient and capable of fully autonomous operation.
- In Edizioni Piemme's series Geronimo Stilton, a robotic vehicle called "Solar" is in the 54th book.
- Alastair Reynolds' series, Revelation Space, features intelligent or self-driving vehicles.
- In Daniel Suarez' novels Daemon (2006) and Freedom™ (2010) driverless cars and motorcycles are used for attacks in a software-based open-source warfare. The vehicles are modified for this using 3D printers and distributed manufacturing[257] and are also able to operate as swarms.
In television
- "CSI: Cyber" Season 2, episode 6, Gone in 60 Seconds, features three seemingly normal customized vehicles, a 2009 Nissan Fairlady Z Roadster, a BMW M3 E90 and a Cadillac CTS-V, and one stock luxury BMW 7 Series, being remote-controlled by a computer hacker.
- "Handicar", season 18, episode 4 of 2014 TV series South Park features a Japanese autonomous car that takes part in the Wacky Races-style car race.
- KITT and KARR, the Pontiac Trans Ams in the 1982 TV series Knight Rider, were sentient and autonomous.
- "Driven", series 4 episode 11 of the 2003 TV series NCIS features a robotic vehicle named "Otto", part of a high-level project of the Department of Defense, which causes the death of a Navy Lieutenant, and then later almost kills Abby.
- The TV series "Viper" features a silver/grey armored assault vehicle, called The Defender, which masquerades as a flame-red 1992 Dodge Viper RT/10 and later as a 1998 cobalt blue Dodge Viper GTS. The vehicle's sophisticated computer systems allow it to be controlled via remote on some occasions.
- "Black Mirror" episode "Hated in the Nation" briefly features a self-driving SUV with a touchscreen interface on the inside.
- Bull has a show discussing the effectiveness and safety of self-driving cars in an episode call E.J.[258]
See also
- Automated guideway transit
- Automatic train operation
- Automobile safety
- Automotive navigation system
- Autopilot
- Autotech
- Connected car
- DARPA Grand Challenge: 2004, 2005, 2007
- DARPA Robotics Challenge (2012)
- Dutch Automated Vehicle Initiative
- Death by GPS
- Driverless tractor
- Elevator operator
- Hybrid navigation
- Intelligent transportation system
- Mobility as a service (transport)
- Personal rapid transit
- Technological unemployment
- Unmanned ground vehicle
- Unmanned aerial vehicle / Drone
- Vehicle infrastructure integration
- Vehicular automation
- Vision processing unit
Manufacturers
Autonomous driving functions
- Measurement of Assured Clear Distance Ahead
- Autonomous cruise control system
- Automatic parking
- Electronic stability control
- Lane Keep Assist
- Precrash system
- Automated platooning
References
- ^ Thrun, Sebastian (2010). "Toward Robotic Cars". Communications of the ACM. 53 (4): 99–106. doi:10.1145/1721654.1721679.
- ^ Gehrig, Stefan K.; Stein, Fridtjof J. (1999). Dead reckoning and cartography using stereo vision for an autonomous car. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Vol. 3. Kyongju. pp. 1507–1512. doi:10.1109/IROS.1999.811692. ISBN 0-7803-5184-3.
- ^ Lassa, Todd (January 2013). "The Beginning of the End of Driving". Motor Trend. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
- ^ European Roadmap Smart Systems for Automated Driving, European Technology Platform on Smart Systems Integration (EPoSS), 2015.
- ^ Umar Zakir Abdul, Hamid; et al. (2016). "Current Collision Mitigation Technologies for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems–A Survey" (PDF). PERINTIS eJournal. 6 (2). Retrieved 14 June 2017.
- ^ a b c "[INFOGRAPHIC] Autonomous Cars Could Save The US $1.3 Trillion Dollars A Year". businessinsider.com. 12 September 2014. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
- ^ a b Gibson, David K. (28 April 2016). "Can we banish the phantom traffic jam?". BBC.
- ^ a b "Driver licensing system for older drivers in New South Wales, Australia". NSW Government. 30 June 2016. Retrieved 16 May 2018.
- ^ "BMW Remote Controlled Parking". www.bmwblog.com. 10 October 2010. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
- ^ a b Miller, Owen. "Robotic Cars and Their New Crime Paradigms". Retrieved 4 September 2014.
- ^ a b Miller, John (19 August 2014). "Self-Driving Car Technology's Benefits, Potential Risks, and Solutions". theenergycollective.com. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
- ^ a b Whitwam, Ryan (8 September 2014). "How Google's self-driving cars detect and avoid obstacles". ExtremeTech. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
- ^ Ab Rahman, Airini (2017). "Emerging Technologies with Disruptive Effects: A Review" (PDF). PERINTIS eJournal. 7 (2). Retrieved 21 December 2017.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|displayauthors=
ignored (|display-authors=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Nicholas, Negroponte (1 January 2000). Being digital. Vintage Books. ISBN 0679762906. OCLC 68020226.
- ^ a b Adhikari, Richard (11 February 2016). "Feds Put AI in the Driver's Seat". Technewsworld. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ^ a b "New Allstate Survey Shows Americans Think They Are Great Drivers – Habits Tell a Different Story". PR Newswire. 2 August 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
- ^ a b Henn, Steve (31 July 2015). "Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism". NPR. Retrieved 14 August 2016.
- ^ "Citroen type DS19 automatically guided motor car". collection.sciencemuseum.org.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ "'Phantom Auto' will tour city". The Milwaukee Sentinel. Google News Archive. 8 December 1926. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
- ^ "Carnegie Mellon". Navlab: The Carnegie Mellon University Navigation Laboratory. The Robotics Institute. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
- ^ Kanade, Takeo (February 1986). "Autonomous land vehicle project at CMU". CSC '86 Proceedings of the 1986 ACM fourteenth annual conference on Computer science. doi:10.1145/324634.325197.
- ^ Wallace, Richard (1985). "First results in robot road-following" (PDF). JCAI'85 Proceedings of the 9th international joint conference on Artificial intelligence. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2014.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|dead-url=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Schmidhuber, Jürgen (2009). "Prof. Schmidhuber's highlights of robot car history". Retrieved 15 July 2011.
- ^ Turk, M.A.; Morgenthaler, D.G.; Gremban, K.D.; Marra, M. (May 1988). "VITS-a vision system for autonomous land vehicle navigation". IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence. 10 (3): 342–361. doi:10.1109/34.3899. ISSN 0162-8828.
- ^ Council, National Research (2002). "Technology Development for Army Unmanned Ground Vehicles". doi:10.17226/10592.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Ackerman, Evan (25 January 2013). "Video Friday: Bosch and Cars, ROVs and Whales, and Kuka Arms and Chainsaws". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
- ^ "Audi of America / news / Pool / Reaffirmed Mission for Autonomous Audi TTS Pikes Peak". AudiUSA.com. Archived from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Nissan car drives and parks itself at Ceatec". BBC. 4 October 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
- ^ "Toyota sneak previews self-drive car ahead of tech show". BBC. 4 January 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
- ^ Hull, Liz (14 February 2013). "Doing the school run just got easier! Nissan unveils new car that can drive itself on short journeys". Daily Mail. London. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
- ^ Rosen, Rebecca. "Google's Self-Driving Cars: 300,000 Miles Logged, Not a Single Accident Under Computer Control". The Atlantic. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
- ^ "Vislab, University of Parma, Italy – 8000 miles driverless test begins". Archived from the original on 14 November 2013. Retrieved 27 October 2013.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ "VisLab Intercontinental Autonomous Challenge: Inaugural Ceremony – Milan, Italy". Retrieved 27 October 2013.
- ^ Selyukh, Alina. "A 24-Year-Old Designed A Self-Driving Minibus; Maker Built It In Weeks". All Tech Considered. NPR. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
- ^ Novak, Matt. "The National Automated Highway System That Almost Was". Smithsonian. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
- ^ "Back to the Future: Autonomous Driving in 1995 - Robotics Business Review". Robotics Business Review. 3 April 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
- ^ "This Is Big: A Robo-Car Just Drove Across the Country". WIRED. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
- ^ Ramsey, John (1 June 2015). "Self-driving cars to be tested on Virginia highways". Richmond Times-Dispatch. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
- ^ McAleer, Michael (11 July 2017). "Audi's self-driving A8: drivers can watch YouTube or check emails at 60km/h". The Irish Times. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ Hawkins, Andrew J. (7 November 2017). "Waymo is first to put fully self-driving cars on US roads without a safety driver". www.theverge.com. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- ^ Wang, Brian (28 March 2018). "Waymo will soon increase self-driving by a thousand times while Uber failed when they cut corners on safety". NextBigFuture.com. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
- ^ a b Antsaklis, Panos J.; Passino, Kevin M.; Wang, S.J. (1991). "An Introduction to Autonomous Control Systems" (PDF). IEEE Control Systems. 11 (4): 5–13. doi:10.1109/37.88585.
- ^ Wood, S. P.; Chang, J.; Healy, T.; Wood, J. "The potential regulatory challenges of increasingly autonomous motor vehicles". 52nd Santa Clara Law Review. 4 (9): 1423–1502.
- ^ Epstein, Zach (21 July 2016). "Tesla Autopilot Crash Avoidance Model S Autopilot saves man's life". BGR. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- ^ "AdaptIVe system classification and glossary on Automated driving" (PDF).
- ^ "AUTOMATED DRIVING LEVELS OF DRIVING AUTOMATION ARE DEFINED IN NEW SAE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD J3016" (PDF). 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2016.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ "U.S. Department of Transportation Releases Policy on Automated Vehicle Development". National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 30 May 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
- ^ SAE International
- ^ a b "Wayback Machine" (PDF). 3 September 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2017.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|dead-url=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ Zhu, Wentao; Miao, Jun; Hu, Jiangbi; Qing, Laiyun (27 March 2014). "Vehicle detection in driving simulation using extreme learning machine". Neurocomputing. 128: 160–165. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2013.05.052.
- ^ Durrant-Whyte, H.; Bailey, T. (5 June 2006). "Simultaneous localization and mapping". IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine. 13 (2): 99–110. doi:10.1109/mra.2006.1638022. ISSN 1070-9932.
- ^ a b c Huval, Brody; Wang, Tao; Tandon, Sameep; Kiske, Jeff; Song, Will; Pazhayampallil, Joel. "An Empirical Evaluation of Deep Learning on Highway Driving". arXiv:1504.01716.
- ^ Peter Corke, Jorge Lobo, Jorge Dias (1 June 2007). "An Introduction to Inertial and Visual Sensing". The International Journal of Robotics Research. 26 (6): 519–535. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.93.5523. doi:10.1177/0278364907079279.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "An Open Source Self-Driving Car". Udacity. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
- ^ "How Self-Driving Cars Work". 14 December 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
- ^ a b Schmidhuber, Jürgen (January 2015). "Deep learning in neural networks: An overview". Neural Networks. 61: 85–117. arXiv:1404.7828. doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2014.09.003. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
- ^ Hawkins, Andrew J. (13 May 2018). "MIT built a self-driving car that can navigate unmapped country roads". www.theverge.com. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
- ^ Connor-Simons, Adam; Gordon, Rachel (7 May 2018). "Self-driving cars for country roads: Today's autonomous vehicles require hand-labeled 3-D maps, but CSAIL's MapLite system enables navigation with just GPS and sensors". Retrieved 14 May 2018.
- ^ "Mcity testing center". University of Michigan. 8 December 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
- ^ "Adopted Regulations for Testing of Autonomous Vehicles by Manufacturers". DMV. 18 June 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
- ^ "The Pathway to Driverless Cars: A Code of Practice for testing". 19 July 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
- ^ "Automobile simulation example". Cyberbotics. 18 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
- ^ Krok, Andrew. "Apple increases self-driving test fleet from 3 to 27". Roadshow. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
- ^ Hall, Zac. "Apple ramping self-driving car testing, more CA permits than Tesla and Uber". Electrek. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
- ^ a b Wang, Brian (25 March 2018). "Uber' self-driving system was still 400 times worse [than] Waymo in 2018 on key distance intervention metric". NextBigFuture.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
- ^ Dillet, Romain (18 August 2016). "Uber acquires Otto to lead Uber's self-driving car effort". TechCrunch. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
- ^ "Embark – Self-Driving Semi Trucks". www.embarktrucks.com.
- ^ Etherington, Darrell (18 July 2017). "Self-driving truck startup Embark raises $15M, partners with Peterbilt". TechCrunch. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
- ^ "Waymo working on self-driving trucks". Reuters. 1 June 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
- ^ "Truck completes fully autonomous route without driver in cab". www.ccjdigital.com. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
- ^ "Lockheed Martin Wins Contract to Develop Autonomous Operation of Tactical Vehicles | Unmanned Systems Technology". Unmanned Systems Technology. 25 October 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
- ^ "Driverless Convoy Technology May Be Fielded Soon". Military.com. 30 March 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
- ^ "Driverless cars take to the road". E.U.CORDIS Research Program CitynetMobil. Retrieved 27 October 2013.
- ^ "Snyder OKs self-driving vehicles on Michigan's roads". Detroit News. 27 December 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
- ^ "BBC News - UK to allow driverless cars on public roads in January". BBC News. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
- ^ Burn-Callander, Rebecca (11 February 2015). "This is the Lutz pod, the UK's first driverless car". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
- ^ "Autonomous vehicle: the automated driving car of the future". PSA PEUGEOT CITROËN.
- ^ Valeo Autonomous iAV Car Driving System CES 2015. YouTube. 5 January 2015.
- ^ Hayward, Michael (26 January 2017). "First New Zealand autonomous vehicle demonstration kicks off at Christchurch Airport". www.stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
- ^ "Self-driving car to take on Tauranga traffic this week". Bay of Plenty Times. 15 November 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
{{cite web}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "NZ's first self-drive vehicle demonstration begins". www.stuff.co.nz. 17 November 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
- ^ Frykberg, Eric (28 June 2016). "Driverless buses: 'It is going to be big'". Radio New Zealand. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
- ^ a b Cowen, Tyler (28 May 2011). "Can I See Your License, Registration and C.P.U.?". The New York Times.
- ^ Ramsey, Mike (3 May 2015). "Self-Driving Cars Could Cut Down on Accidents, Study Says". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
- ^ Ramsey, Jonathon (8 March 2017). "The Way We Talk About Autonomy Is a Lie, and That's Dangerous". www.thedrive.com. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
- ^ a b c Light, Donald (8 May 2012). A Scenario" The End of Auto Insurance (Technical report). Celent.
- ^ a b Mui, Chunka (19 December 2013). "Will The Google Car Force A Choice Between Lives And Jobs?". Forbes. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
- ^ Gosman, Tim (24 July 2016). "Along for the ride: How driverless cars can become commonplace". Brand Union. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
- ^ Dudley, David (January 2015). "The Driverless Car Is (Almost) Here; The self-driving car — a godsend for older Americans — is now on the horizon". AARP The Magazine. AARP. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
- ^ Stenquist, Paul (7 November 2014). "In Self-Driving Cars, a Potential Lifeline for the Disable". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
- ^ Curry, David (22 April 2016). "Will elderly and disabled gain most from autonomous cars?". ReadWrite. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f James M. Anderson; Nidhi Kalra; Karlyn D. Stanley; Paul Sorensen; Constantine Samaras; Oluwatobi A. Oluwatola (2016). "Autonomous Vehicle Technology: A Guide for Policymakers". RAND Corporation. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
- ^ Simonite, Tom (1 November 2014). "Self-Driving Motorhome: RV Of the Future?". Retrieved 1 November 2015.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Get ready for automated cars". Houston Chronicle. 11 September 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
- ^ Simonite, Tom (25 October 2013). "Data Shows Google's Robot Cars Are Smoother, Safer Drivers Than You or I". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
- ^ O'Toole, Randal (18 January 2010). Gridlock: Why We're Stuck in Traffic and What To Do About It. Cato Institute. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-935308-24-9.
- ^ "Future Car Focus: Robot Cars". MSN Autos. 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
- ^ Ackerman, Evan (4 September 2012). "Study: Intelligent Cars Could Boost Highway Capacity by 273%". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
- ^ "Autonomous Intersection Management – FCFS policy with 6 lanes in all directions". YouTube. 12 June 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
- ^ Pyper, Julia (15 September 2015). "Self-Driving Cars Could Cut Greenhouse Gas Pollution". Scientific American. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
- ^ Wang, Ucilia (17 August 2015). "ARE SELF-DRIVING VEHICLES GOOD FOR THE ENVIRONMENT?". Ensia. Retrieved 28 October 2016.
- ^ Woodyard, Chris (5 March 2015). "McKinsey study: Self-driving cars yield big benefits". USA Today. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
- ^ "Self-driving cars: The next revolution" (PDF). kpmg.com. 5 September 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
- ^ Wiseman, Yair (February 2018). "In an Era of Autonomous Vehicles, Rails are Obsolete" (PDF). International Journal of Control and Automation. 11 (2). SERSC Australia: 151–160 – via semanticscholar.
- ^ Nichols, Greg (13 February 2016). "NHTSA chief takes conservative view on autonomous vehicles: "If you had perfect, connected autonomous vehicles on the road tomorrow, it would still take 20 to 30 years to turn over the fleet."". ZDNet. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
- ^ "Will Regulators Allow Self-Driving Cars In A Few Years?". Forbes. 24 September 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- ^ "Reliance on autopilot is now the biggest threat to flight safety, study says". 18 November 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ Patrick Lin (8 October 2013). "The Ethics of Autonomous Cars". The Atlantic.
- ^ Tim Worstall (18 June 2014). "When Should Your Driverless Car From Google Be Allowed To Kill You?". Forbes.
- ^ Alexander Skulmowski; Andreas Bunge; Kai Kaspar; Gordon Pipa (16 December 2014). "Forced-choice decision-making in modified trolley dilemma situations: a virtual reality and eye tracking study". Front. Behav. Neurosci.
- ^ a b c Gomes, Lee (28 August 2014). "Hidden Obstacles for Google's Self-Driving Cars". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
- ^ SingularityU The Netherlands (1 September 2016), Carlo van de Weijer on real intelligence, retrieved 21 November 2016
- ^ "Hackers find ways to hijack car computers and take control". 3 September 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
- ^ Philip E. Ross (11 April 2014). "A Cloud-Connected Car Is a Hackable Car, Worries Microsoft". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
- ^ Moore-Colyer, Roland (12 February 2015). "Driverless cars face cyber security, skills and safety challenges". www.v3.co.uk. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
- ^ Petit, J.; Shladover, S.E. (1 April 2015). "Potential Cyberattacks on Automated Vehicles". IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. 16 (2): 546–556. doi:10.1109/TITS.2014.2342271. ISSN 1524-9050.
- ^ a b Ron Tussy (29 April 2016). "Challenges facing Autonomous Vehicle Development". AutoSens. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
- ^ Zhou, Naaman (1 July 2017). "Volvo admits its self-driving cars are confused by kangaroos". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
- ^ Boyd, Jhon (8 December 2016). "Mitsubishi Electric joins race to make maps for self-drive cars". www.atimes.com. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
- ^ Denaro, Bob (1 April 2016). "ITS International" (PDF). Civil Maps – Automated Vehicle: Myth vs. Reality. ITS International. Retrieved 22 June 2016.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Glenn Garvin (21 March 2014). "Automakers say self-driving cars are on the horizon". Miami Herald. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
- ^ a b c Badger, Emily (15 January 2015). "5 confounding questions that hold the key to the future of driverless cars". Wonk Blog. The Washington Post. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
- ^ a b Brodsky, Jessica (2016). "Autonomous Vehicle Regulation: How an Uncertain Legal Landscape May Hit the Brakes on Self-Driving Cars". Berkeley Technology Law Journal. 31 (Annual Review 2016): 851–878. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
- ^ "Mass unemployment fears over Google artificial intelligence plans". London. 29 December 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2013.
- ^ Dvorak, John C. (30 September 2015). "There's a Bumpy Road Ahead for Driverless Cars". PCMag. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
{{cite web}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ Benedikt Frey, Carl; Osborne, Michael A. (1 January 2017). "The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation?". Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 114: 254–280. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2016.08.019. ISSN 0040-1625.
- ^ Neumann, Peter G. (September 2016). "Risks of Automation: A Cautionary Total-system Perspective of Our Cyberfuture". Commun. ACM. 59 (10): 26–30. doi:10.1145/2988445. ISSN 0001-0782.
- ^ Acharya, Anish (16 December 2014). "Are We Ready for Driver-less Vehicles? Security vs. Privacy – A Social Perspective". arXiv:1412.5207.
- ^ Patrick Lin (22 January 2014). "What If Your Autonomous Car Keeps Routing You Past Krispy Kreme?". The Atlantic. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
- ^ Mark Harris (16 July 2014). "FBI warns driverless cars could be used as 'lethal weapons'". theGuardian.com.
- ^ Smith, Noah (5 November 2015). "The downside of driverless cars". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
- ^ a b Ufberg, Max (15 October 2015). "Whoops: The Self-Driving Tesla May Make Us Love Urban Sprawl Again". Wired. Retrieved 28 October 2016.
- ^ Sparrow, Robert; Howard, Mark (2017). "When human beings are like drunk robots: Driverless vehicles, ethics, and the future of transport". Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies. 80: 206–215. doi:10.1016/j.trc.2017.04.014.
- ^ Natasha Merat and A. Hamish Jamson. "HOW DO DRIVERS BEHAVE IN A HIGHLY AUTOMATED CAR? " Institute for Transport Studies University of Leeds. Quote: "Drivers' response to all critical events was found to be much later in the automated driving condition, compared to manual driving."
- ^ Spangler, Todd. "Self-driving cars programmed to decide who dies in a crash". USA Today. Detroit Free Press. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
- ^ Goodall, Noah (June 2016). "Can you program ethics into a self-driving car?". IEEE Spectrum. 53: 25–28. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7473149. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
- ^ "Mercedes-Benz S-Class, W 220 series (1998 to 2005)".
- ^ "Innovation as a tradition". 27 November 2014. Archived from the original on 29 December 2014.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Technical highlights of the CL-Class and its predecessor series".
- ^ Clarkson, Jeremy (4 July 2009), Radar Guided Cruise Control, retrieved 11 July 2017
- ^ "Welcome to the Mercedes-Benz international website". Mercedes-Benz. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ Ward, James (16 June 2014). "Mercedes-Benz E400: Distronic Plus with Steering Assist demonstrated". www.caradvice.com.au. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ Mercedes Blog-Team (18 March 2015). "Daimler-Blog - Einfach Technik: So funktioniert DISTRONIC PLUS". Daimler-Blog (in German). Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ blogsadmin (28 September 2015). "How to Use DISTRONIC PLUS Cruise Control in 2016 Mercedes-Benz". www.mbscottsdale.com. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ blogsadmin (28 February 2016). "How To Use Mercedes-Benz DISTRONIC PLUS". www.loebermotors.com. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ Daimler AG (2016). "Mercedes-Benz Trucks: Safety: New assistance systems: Active Brake Assist 4 emergency: braking assistant featuring pedestrian recognition and: Sideguard Assist". media.daimler.com. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ a b "Mercedes S-Klasse: Panne bei Crash-Test". Stern (in German). 16 November 2005. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ "Pedestrian protection: Not just a question of compliance with crash-test regulations for Mercedes-Benz". media.daimler.com. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ Philips, T. (10 June 2008). "Mercedes-Benz Accident Study Shows 20 Percent Of Rear End Collisions Can Be Avoided With DISTRONIC PLUS and Brake Assist PLUS". www.emercedesbenz.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ Humphries, Matthew (12 December 2013). "Michael Schumacher tries to crash a Mercedes C-Class. Fails". Geek.com. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ^ Nelson, Gabe (14 October 2015). "Tesla beams down 'autopilot' mode to Model S". Automotive News. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
- ^ Zhang, Benjamin (10 January 2016). "ELON MUSK: In 2 years your Tesla will be able to drive from New York to LA and find you". Automotive News. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
- ^ Charlton, Alistair (13 June 2016). "Tesla Autopilot is 'trying to kill me', says Volvo R&D chief". International Business Times. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ Golson, Jordan (27 April 2016). "Volvo autonomous car engineer calls Tesla's Autopilot a 'wannabe'". The Verge. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ Korosec, Kirsten (15 December 2015). "Elon Musk Says Tesla Vehicles Will Drive Themselves in Two Years". Fortune. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ a b Abuelsamid, Sam (1 July 2016). "Tesla Autopilot Fatality Shows Why Lidar And V2V Will Be Necessary For Autonomous Cars". Forbes. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ Horwitz, Josh; Timmons, Heather (20 September 2016). "There are some scary similarities between Tesla's deadly crashes linked to Autopilot". Quartz. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
- ^ "China's first accidental death due to Tesla's automatic driving: not hitting the front bumper". China State Media (in Chinese). 14 September 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2018.
- ^ Felton, Ryan (27 February 2018). "Two Years On, A Father Is Still Fighting Tesla Over Autopilot And His Son's Fatal Crash". jalopnik.com. Retrieved 18 March 2018.
- ^ a b Yadron, Danny; Tynan, Dan (1 July 2016). "Tesla driver dies in first fatal crash while using autopilot mode". The Guardian. San Francisco. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ a b Vlasic, Bill; Boudette, Neal E. (30 June 2016). "Self-Driving Tesla Involved in Fatal Crash". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ Office of Defects Investigations, NHTSA (28 June 2016). "ODI Resume - Investigation: PE 16-007" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Retrieved 2 July 2016.
- ^ Shepardson, David (12 July 2016). "NHTSA seeks answers on fatal Tesla Autopilot crash". Automotive News. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
- ^ "A Tragic Loss" (Press release). Tesla Motors. 30 June 2016. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
This is the first known fatality in just over 130 million miles where Autopilot was activated. Among all vehicles in the US, there is a fatality every 94 million miles. Worldwide, there is a fatality approximately every 60 million miles.
- ^ Abuelsamid, Sam. "Adding Some Statistical Perspective To Tesla Autopilot Safety Claims".
- ^ Administration, National Highway Traffic Safety. "FARS Encyclopedia".
- ^ "NTSB to scrutinize driver automation with probe of Tesla crash". Automotive News. 8 July 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
{{cite news}}
: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=
(help) - ^ "Fatal Tesla Autopilot accident investigation ends with no recall ordered". The Verge. 19 January 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
- ^ "All Tesla Cars Being Produced Now Have Full Self-Driving Hardware".
- ^ "Autopilot: Full Self-Driving Hardware on All Cars". Tesla Motors. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
- ^ Guess, Megan (20 October 2016). "Teslas will now be sold with enhanced hardware suite for full autonomy". Ars Technica. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
- ^ Self-driving Car Logs More Miles, googleblog
- ^ A First Drive. YouTube. 27 May 2014.
- ^ "Google Self-Driving Car Project, Monthly Report, March 2016" (PDF). Google. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
- ^ "Waymo".
- ^ Davies, Alex. "Meet the Blind Man Who Convinced Google Its Self-Driving Car Is Finally Ready".
- ^ a b "For the first time, Google's self-driving car takes some blame for a crash". Washington Post. 29 February 2016.
- ^ "Google founder defends accident records of self-driving cars". Associated Press. Los Angeles Times. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ VISHAL MATHUR (17 July 2015). "Google Autonomous Car Experiences Another Crash". Government Technology. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
- ^ "Google's Self-Driving Car Caused Its First Crash". Wired. February 2016.
- ^ "Passenger bus teaches Google robot car a lesson". Los Angeles Times. 29 February 2016.
- ^ "Uber to Suspend Autonomous Tests After Arizona Accident". 25 March 2017 – via www.bloomberg.com.
- ^ "Uber's Self-Driving Cars Hit 2 Million Miles As Program Regains Momentum". 22 December 2017 – via www.forbes.com.
- ^ Bensinger, Greg; Higgins, Tim (22 March 2018). "Video Shows Moments Before Uber Robot Car Rammed Into Pedestrian". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
- ^ Lubben, Alex (19 March 2018). "Self-driving Uber killed a pedestrian as human safety driver watched". Vice News. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
- ^ "Human Driver Could Have Avoided Fatal Uber Crash, Experts Say". 22 March 2018 – via www.bloomberg.com.
- ^ The Associated Press; abc15.com staff (27 March 2018). "Governor Ducey suspends Uber from autonomous vehicle testing". KNXV-TV. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Said, Carolyn (27 March 2018). "Uber puts the brakes on testing robot cars in California after Arizona fatality". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
- ^ "Preliminary Report Released for Crash Involving Pedestrian, Uber Technologies, Inc., Test Vehicle" (PDF). 24 May 2018.
- ^ Gibbs, Samuel (9 November 2017). "Self-driving bus involved in crash less than two hours after Las Vegas launch". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
{{cite web}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ Lee, Timothy (31 January 2015). "Driverless cars will mean the end of mass car ownership". Vox. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
- ^ O'Toole, Randal, Policy Implications of Autonomous Vehicles (18 September 2014). Cato Institute Policy Analysis No. 758. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2549392
- ^ Pinto, Cyrus (2012). "How autonomous vehicle policy in California and Nevada addresses technological and non-technological liabilities". Intersect: The Stanford Journal of Science, Technology and Society. 5.
- ^ Badger, Emily (15 January 2015). "5 confounding questions that hold the key to the future of driverless cars". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
- ^ Guerra, Erick (1 June 2016). "Planning for Cars That Drive Themselves: Metropolitan Planning Organizations, Regional Transportation Plans, and Autonomous Vehicles". Journal of Planning Education and Research. 36 (2): 210–224. doi:10.1177/0739456X15613591. ISSN 0739-456X.
- ^ Litman, Todd. "Autonomous vehicle implementation predictions." Victoria Transport Policy Institute 28 (2014).
- ^ Humphreys, Pat (19 August 2016). "Retail Revolution". Transport and Travel. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
- ^ Global Automotive Regulation page related to automated driving
- ^ Bryant Walker Smith (1 November 2012). "Automated Vehicles Are Probably Legal in The United States". The Center for Internet and Society (CIS) at Stanford Law School. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
- ^ Canis, Bill (19 September 2017). Issues in Autonomous Vehicle Deployment (PDF). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
- ^ Bryant Walker Smith. "Automated Driving: Legislative and Regulatory Action". The Center for Internet and Society (CIS) at Stanford Law School. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
- ^ Kang, Cecilia (19 September 2016). "Self-Driving Cars Gain Powerful Ally: The Government". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
- ^ "Nevada enacts law authorizing autonomous (driverless) vehicles". Green Car Congress. 25 June 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ Alex Knapp (22 June 2011). "Nevada Passes Law Authorizing Driverless Cars". Forbes. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
{{cite news}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ Christine Dobby (24 June 2011). "Nevada state law paves the way for driverless cars". Financial Post. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ a b John Markoff (10 May 2011). "Google Lobbies Nevada To Allow Self-Driving Cars". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
- ^ "Bill AB511 Nevada Legislature" (PDF). Nevada Legislature. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ Tim Healey (24 June 2011). "Nevada Passes Law Allowing Self-Driving Cars". Motor Trend. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ Cy Ryan (7 May 2012). "Nevada issues Google first license for self-driving car". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
- ^ Ana Valdes (July 5, 2012). Florida Embraces Self-Driving Cars Retrieved March 31, 2013.
- ^ John Oram (9-27-2012). Governor Brown Signs California Driverless Car Law at Google HQ Retrieved March 31, 2013.
- ^ "New Law Allows Driverless Cars On Michigan Roads". CBS Detroit. 28 December 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
- ^ CDA Press (July 8, 2014). Aye, robot: Cd'A City Council approves robot ordinance
- ^ "Bill Text – AB-2866 Autonomous vehicles". leginfo.legislature.ca.gov. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
- ^ "Federal Automated Vehicles Policy". Department of Transportation. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
- ^ "Public Workshop Autonomous Vehicles" (PDF). 19 October 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
- ^ "Uber blames humans for self-driving car traffic offenses as California orders a halt". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- ^ a b "UK to road test driverless cars". BBC. 16 July 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
- ^ "Des véhicules autonomes sur route ouverte à Bordeaux en octobre 2015". usine-digitale.fr.
- ^ Greenblatt, Nathan. "Self-Driving Cars Will Be Ready Before Our Laws Are". IEEE Spectrum.
- ^ "Swisscom reeals the first driverless car on Swiss roads". Swisscom. 12 May 2015. Archived from the original on 28 September 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
{{cite news}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Zalazone home page". zalazone.hu. Retrieved 24 January 2018.
- ^ "Hungary as one of the European hubs for automated and connected driving" (PDF). Zala Zone. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
- ^ Maierbrugger, Arno (1 August 2016). "Singapore to launch self-driving taxis next year | Investvine". Retrieved 9 August 2016.
- ^ Slone, Sean. "State Laws on Autonomous Vehicles". Retrieved 11 December 2016.
- ^ "Ten ways autonomous driving could redefine the automotive world". Retrieved 11 December 2016.
- ^ "Marketplace of change: Automobile insurance in the era of autonomous vehicles".
- ^ "Frequency of Target Crashes for IntelliDrive Safety Systems" (PDF).
- ^ "No lights, no signs, no accidents – future intersections for driverless cars (video)". Reuters.com. 22 March 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
- ^ "Crossroads: Time-Sensitive Autonomous Intersection Management Technique". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. 18 June 2017.
- ^ "Mobility 2020". Nordic Communications Corporation. 8 January 2016.
- ^ "Consumers in US and UK Frustrated with Intelligent Devices That Frequently Crash or Freeze, New Accenture Survey Finds". Accenture. 10 October 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ Yvkoff, Liane (27 April 2012). "Many car buyers show interest in autonomous car tech". CNET. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ "Große Akzeptanz für selbstfahrende Autos in Deutschland". motorvision.de. 9 October 2012. Archived from the original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|dead-url=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Autonomous Cars Found Trustworthy in Global Study". autosphere.ca. 22 May 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
- ^ "Autonomous cars: Bring 'em on, drivers say in Insurance.com survey". Insurance.com. 28 July 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
- ^ "Autonomous Vehicle Predictions: Auto Experts Offer Insights on the Future of Self-Driving Cars". PartCatalog.com. 16 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ a b Kyriakidis, M.; Happee, R.; De Winter, J. C. F. (2015). "Public opinion on automated driving: Results of an international questionnaire among 5,000 respondents". Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. 32: 127–140. doi:10.1016/j.trf.2015.04.014.
- ^ Hohenberger, C.; Spörrle, M.; Welpe, I. M. (2016). "How and why do men and women differ in their willingness to use automated cars? The influence of emotions across different age groups". Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 94: 374–385. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2016.09.022.
- ^ Hall-Geisler, Kristen (22 December 2016). "Autonomous cars seen as smarter than human drivers". TechCrunch. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
- ^ Smith, Aaaron; Anderson, Monica. "Automation in Everyday Life".
- ^ "Preparing a nation for autonomous vehicles: Opportunities, barriers and policy recommendations". Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 77.
- ^ a b "Responsibility for Crashes of Autonomous Vehicles: An Ethical Analysis". Sci Eng Ethics. 21.
- ^ "The Coming Collision Between Autonomous Vehicles and the Liability System". Santa Clara Law Review. 52.
- ^ "The Trolley Problem". The Yale Law Journal. 94 (6).
- ^ a b Meyer, G.; Beiker, S (2014). Road vehicle automation. Springer International Publishing. pp. 93–102.
- ^ Lafrance, Adrienne (21 March 2016). "How Self-Driving Cars Will Threaten Privacy". Retrieved 4 November 2016.
- ^ Jack, Boeglin (1 January 2015). "The Costs of Self-Driving Cars: Reconciling Freedom and Privacy with Tort Liability in Autonomous Vehicle Regulation". Yale Journal of Law and Technology. 17 (1).
- ^ Greenhouse, Steven. "Autonomous vehicles could cost America 5 million jobs. What should we do about it?". latimes.com. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
- ^ Bertoncello, M.; Wee, D. "Ten ways autonomous driving could redefine the automotive world". McKinsey & Company. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
- ^ "Employment by detailed occupation". www.bls.gov. United States Department of Labor. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
- ^ Fagnant, D. J.; Kockelman, K. (2015). "Preparing a nation for autonomous vehicles: Opportunities, barriers, and policy recommendations". Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 77: 167–181. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2015.04.003.
- ^ Lambert, Fred (21 December 2015). "Tesla CEO Elon Musk drops his prediction of full autonomous driving from 3 years to just 2". electrek.co. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
- ^ Lambert, Fred (8 December 2017). "Elon Musk updates timeline for a self-driving car, but how does Tesla play into it?". electrek.co. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
- ^ Todorova, Lidia (20 June 2016). "Autonomous cars – when will they take over?". automobilesreview.com. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
- ^ Britt, Ryan. "The 5 Best (and Worst) Autonomous Cars in All of Sci-Fi".
- ^ "3D-Drucker: Warum die Industrie wieder einen Trend verschläft" (in German). t3n News. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
- ^ "'Bull' episode 10 preview: The self-driving car case and Ginny Bretton". 3 January 2017.
- ^ N.V., Mobileye. "Mobileye Announces Expiration of HSR Waiting Period". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
Further reading
- O'Toole, Randal (18 January 2010). Gridlock: Why We're Stuck in Traffic and What To Do About It. Cato Institute. ISBN 978-1-935308-24-9.
- Macdonald, Iain David Graham (2011). A Simulated Autonomous Car (PDF) (thesis). The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
- Knight, Will (22 October 2013). "The Future of Self-driving Cars". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
- Glancy, Dorothy (2016). A Look at the Legal Environment for Driverless Vehicles (PDF) (Report). National Cooperative Highway Research Program Legal Research Digest. Vol. 69. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. ISBN 978-0-309-37501-6. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
- Meyer, Gereon; Beiker, Sven, eds. (2014). Road vehicle automation. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-05990-7.
- Meyer, Gereon; Beiker, Sven, eds. (2015). Road vehicle automation 2. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-19078-5.
- Newbold, Richard (17 June 2015). "The driving forces behind what would be the next revolution in the haulage sector". The Loadstar. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
- Bergen, Mark (27 October 2015). "Meet the Companies Building Self-Driving Cars for Google and Tesla (And Maybe Apple)". re/code.
- John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center (March 2016). "Review of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) for Automated Vehicles: Identifying potential barriers and challenges for the certification of automated vehicles using existing FMVSS" (PDF). National Transportation Library. U.S. Department of Transportation.
- Slone, Sean (August 2016). "State Laws on Autonomous Vehicles" (PDF). Capitol Research - Transportation Policy. Council of State Governments. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
- Steve Henn (31 July 2015). "Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism".
- James M. Anderson; et al. (2016). "Autonomous Vehicle Technology: A Guide for Policymakers" (PDF). RAND Corporation.
{{cite web}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)