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Central European states and historic lands at times associated with the region

Central Europe is an area of the European continent lying between the variously defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. The term and widespread interest in the region itself came back into fashion[1] after the end of the Cold War, which, along with the Iron Curtain, had divided Europe politically into East and West, splitting Europe in half.

The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common identity, is somewhat elusive.[2][3][4] However, scholars assert that a distinct "Central European culture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists."[5][6] It is based on "similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural characteristics",[5][7] and it is identified as having been "one of the world's richest sources of creative talent" between the 17th and 20th centuries.[8] A UN paper employs 8 factors "to define a cultural region called 'Central Europe'".[9] Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central European Culture characterizes Central Europe "as an abandoned West or a place where East and West collide".[10]

From the 2000's on, Central Europe is going through a phase of "strategic awakening",[11] with initiatives like the CEI, Centrope or V4. While the region's economy shows high disparities with regard to income,[12] all Central European countries are listed by the Human Development Index as "very high development" countries.[13]

Regional data

  • Area : 1.036.370 km2 (2010) Steady
  • Population : ( calculated data ) 163.414.068 ( July 2011 ) Decrease

States

The comprehension of the concept of Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy,[14] though the Visegrád Group constituents are generally included as de facto C.E. countries.[1] According to the majority of sources (see section Current views on Central Europe for some) the region includes:

Some sources also add neighbouring countries (for historical, geographical and/or cultural reasons):

The Baltic states, often associated with Northern Europe, used to be considered part of Central Europe in the German tradition, as well as smaller parts of the following states:

Current views on Central Europe

Rather than a physical entity, Central Europe is a concept of shared history which contrasts with that of the surrounding regions. The issue how to name and define the Central European region is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on nationality and historical perspective of its author.

Main propositions, gathered by Jerzy Kłoczowski, include:[17]

According to Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád, Hungary and attended by the Polish, Hungarian and Czechoslovak presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.[19]

Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways.[20] According to him in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[20] He says there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether the Baltic states, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania, and Bulgaria are parts of Central Europe or not.[21]

Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Eastern and Southeast Europe:[22]

  • Multinational empires were a characteristic of Central Europe.[24] Hungary and Poland, small and medium-size states today, were empires during their early histories.[24] The historical Kingdom of Hungary was until 1918 three times larger than Hungary is today,[24] while Poland was the largest state in Europe in the sixteenth century.[24] Both these kingdoms housed a wide variety of different peoples.[24]
  • as a mode of self-perception, despite the debated nature of the concept Central Europeans generally agree on which peoples are to be excluded from this club: for example Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians and Russians.[25]

He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamical historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, Lithuania, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but 250 years ago they were in Poland.[24]
Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews[26][27] in the scientific community.

The Columbia Encyclopedia defines Central Europe as: Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary.[28] The World Factbook[29]Encyclopedia Britannica and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie use the same definition adding Slovenia too. Encarta Encyclopedia does not clearly define the region, but places the same countries into Central Europe in its individual articles on countries, adding Slovenia in "south central Europe".[30]

The German Encyclopaedia Meyers grosses Taschenlexikon (Template:Lang-en), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the Moravian Gate. Usually the countries considered to be Central European are Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, in the broader sense Romania too, occasionally also the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.

  • Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997)   The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book[20]   countries for which there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[21]
    Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997)
      The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book[20]
      countries for which there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[21]
  • According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group[1][19]
    According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group[1][19]
  • Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (1996)[31]   Countries usually considered Central European (citing the World Bank and the OECD)   Easternmost Western European countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term.
    Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (1996)[31]
      Countries usually considered Central European (citing the World Bank and the OECD)
      Easternmost Western European countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term.
  • Central Europe according to The World Factbook (2009)[29] Encyclopedia Britannica and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (1998)
    Central Europe according to The World Factbook (2009)[29] Encyclopedia Britannica and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (1998)
  • Central Europe according to Columbia Encyclopedia (2009)[28]
    Central Europe according to Columbia Encyclopedia (2009)[28]
  • Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009)[30]   Central European countries   Slovenia in "south central Europe"
    Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009)[30]
      Central European countries
      Slovenia in "south central Europe"
  • The Central European Countries according to Meyers grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):   Countries usually considered Central European   Central European countries in the broader sense of the term   Countries occasionally considered to be Central European
    The Central European Countries according to Meyers grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):
      Countries usually considered Central European
      Central European countries in the broader sense of the term
      Countries occasionally considered to be Central European
  • Central European states, according to the French Encyclopaedia Larousse (2009)[32]
    Central European states, according to the French Encyclopaedia Larousse (2009)[32]

History of the concept

Middle Ages

The Great Schism with former borders in 1054

As elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were considered the Roman Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe that remained Orthodox Christian, was the area of Byzantine cultural influence, and after the schism will develop cultural unity and protection against the Catholic and Protestant (Western) world, within the framework of Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.[33] In 1335 the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Kings of Hungary was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary.[34] They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, inspiring their late successors to launch a successful Central European initiative.[34]

Before World War I

A view of Central Europe dating from the time before the First World War (1902):[35]
  Central European countries and regions: Germany and Austria-Hungary (without Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia)
  Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and Eastern Europe: Romania

The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century,[36] but its real life began in the 20th century and immediately became an object of intensive interest. However, the very first concept mixed science, politics and economy – it was strictly connected with intensively growing German economy and its aspirations to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans.[37] An example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903.[38]

On 21 January 1904 - Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria–Hungary (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The “bible” of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa[39] in which he called for an economic federation to be established after the war. Naumann's idea was that the federation would have at its center Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire but would also include all European nations outside the Anglo-French alliance, on one side, and Russia, on the other.[40] The concept failed after the German defeat in the World War I and the dissolution of Austria–Hungary. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.

Interwar period

Interwar Central Europe, according to the French geographer Emmanuel de Martonne (1927)

According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included: Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania. Italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe.[41]

The interwar period (1918–1939) brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have reappeared on the map of Europe: Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic and national problems of "new" states, being a way to face German and Soviet pressures. However, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Międzymorze ideas succeeded.

The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German states (Germany, Austria), non-German territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination - German leadership position was to be the natural result of economic dominance.[36] After the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.

Little Entente defence union, The Versailles System and CE, Oxford journals[42]

Magda Adam, in the Versailles System and Central Europe, published in the Oxford journals: "Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down".[42]

The avant-garde movements of Central Europe were an essential part of modernism’s evolution, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.[43] The manifestos and magazines of Western European radical art circles are well known to Western scholars and are being taught at primary universities of their kind in the western world.

Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain

Following World War II, large parts of Europe that were culturally and historically Western became part of the Eastern bloc. Czech author Milan Kundera (emigrant to France) thus wrote in 1984 about the "Tragedy of Central Europe" in the New York Review of Books.[44] Consequently, the English term Central Europe was increasingly applied only to the westernmost former Warsaw Pact countries (East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary) to specify them as communist states that were culturally tied to Western Europe.[45] This usage continued after the end of the Warsaw Pact when these countries started to undergo transition.

The post-World War II period brought blocking of the research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe.[46] At the end of the communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially anti-communist opposition, came back to their research.[47]

According to Mayers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon,[48] Central Europe is a part of Europe composed by the surface of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states- Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia) as well as northeastern France. Sometimes,[citation needed] the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg are not regarded as Central European.

  • Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)[49]
    Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)[49]
  • Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)
    Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)
  • Central Europe according to Mayers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)
    Central Europe according to Mayers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)

Mitteleuropa, the German term

German Mitteleuropa, covering Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Baltic States and parts of Ukraine, Russia, Romania, Serbia, France and Italy.

The German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal translation into English, Middle Europe[50]) is an ambiguous German concept.[50] It is sometimes used in English to refer to an area somewhat larger than most conceptions of 'Central Europe'; it refers to territories under German(ic) cultural hegemony until World War I (encompassing Austria–Hungary and Germany in their pre-war formations but usually excluding the Baltic countries north of East Prussia).[citation needed] According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871-1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus.[51] Professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.[52]

In Germany the connotation is also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line which were lost as the result of World War II, annexed by People's Republic of Poland and the Soviet Union, and ethnically cleansed of Germans by communist authorities and forces (see expulsion of Germans after World War II) due to Yalta Conference and Potsdam Conference decisions. In this view Bohemia and Moravia, with its dual Western Slavic and Germanic heritage, combined with the historic element of the "Sudetenland", is a core region illustrating the problems and features of the entire Central European region.
The term Mitteleuropa conjures up negative historical associations, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region.[25] Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century.[53] German-speaking Jews from turn-of-the-century Vienna, Budapest and Prague became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi version of "Mitteleuropa" destroyed this kind of culture.[53] Some German speakers are sensitive enough to the pejorative connotations of the term Mitteleuropa to use Zentraleuropa instead.[50] Adolf Hitler was obsessed by the idea of Lebensraum and many non-German Central Europeans identify Mitteleuropa with the instruments he employed to acquire it: war, deportations, genocide.[54]

Physical geography

Between the Alps and the Baltics

Geography strongly defines Central Europe's borders with its neighbouring regions to the North and South, namely Northern Europe (or Scandinavia) across the Baltic Sea, the Apennine peninsula (or Italy) across the Alps and the Balkan peninsula across the Soča-Krka-Sava-Danube line. The borders to Western Europe and Eastern Europe are geographically less defined and for this reason the cultural and historical boundaries migrate more easily West-East than South-North. The Rhine river which runs South-North through Western Germany is an exception.

Carpathian countries (north to south): AT, CZ, PL, SK, HU, UA, RO, SRB

Pannonian Plain and Carpathian Mountains

The Pannonian Plain, between the Alps (west), the Carpathians (north and east), and the Sava/Danube (south)

Geographically speaking, the Carpathian mountains divide the European Plain into two sections: the Central Europe's Pannonian Plain in the west,[55] and the East European Plain, which lie eastward of the Carpathians. Southwards, the Pannonian Plain is bounded by the rivers Sava and Danube- and their respective floodplains.[56] This area mostly corresponds to the borders of the former Austria-Hungary. The Pannonian Plain extends into the following countries: Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine.

Dinaric Alps

As southeastern division of the Eastern Alps,[57] the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, where the mountain direction changes to north-south. According to the Freie Universitaet Berlin[58] this mountain chain is classified as South Central European.

The European floristic regions

Flora

The Central European Flora region stretches from Central France (Massif Central) to Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia.[59]

Central Europe subdivision

Sometimes, Central Europe is divided into Western-central and Eastern-Central Europe.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c "Central Europe — The future of the Visegrad group", The Economist, 14 April 2005, retrieved 7 March 2009
  2. ^ Agh 1998, pp. 2–8
  3. ^ Central European Identity in Politics — Jiří Pehe (in Template:Cs icon), Pehe.cz, retrieved 31 January 2010{{citation}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  4. ^ Culturelink Network - International Conference, Culturelink.org, 24 November 1996, retrieved 31 January 2010
  5. ^ a b Comparative Central European culture - Google Books, Books.google.com, 2002, ISBN 9781557532404, retrieved 31 January 2010
  6. ^ "An Introduction to Central Europe: History, Culture, and Politics - Preparatory Course for Study Abroad Undergraduate Students at CEU" (PDF), Central European University, Budapest, Fall 2006
  7. ^ Ben Koschalka - content, Monika Lasota - design and coding, To Be (or Not To Be) Central European: 20th Century Central and Eastern European Literature - Centre for European Studies, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Ces.uj.edu.pl, retrieved 31 January 2010
  8. ^ Ten Untaught Lessons about Central Europe-Charles Ingrao, H-net.org, retrieved 31 January 2010
  9. ^ "A Subdivision of Europe into Larger Regions by Cultural Criteria". Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  10. ^ Cross Currents, Quod.lib.umich.edu, retrieved 31 January 2010
  11. ^ The Mice that Roared: Central Europe Is Reshaping Global Politics - SPIEGEL ONLINE - News - International, Spiegel.de, retrieved 31 January 2010
  12. ^ http://www.central2013.eu/about-central/regions/
  13. ^ 2010 Human Development Index
  14. ^ For the Record - The Washington Post - HighBeam Research, Highbeam.com, 3 May 1990, retrieved 31 January 2010
  15. ^ http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Vojvodina_gradovi.png&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vojvodina_gradovi.png&usg=__bn0Eql_2cPOuIBMF5tnzat3b1co=&h=2008&w=1952&sz=196&hl=en&start=44&sig2=CXSOP8dg-5W4WBV2YlE8-g&zoom=1&tbnid=da3bLibZZGDtOM:&tbnh=161&tbnw=155&ei=PZTiTImfNMXrsgbHu6CFDA&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dvojvodina%2Bmap%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26biw%3D1280%26bih%3D681%26tbs%3Disch:10,1214&um=1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=337&vpy=212&dur=2819&hovh=228&hovw=221&tx=157&ty=95&oei=MZTiTMG9HcOxtAbwwKjACw&esq=3&page=3&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:7,s:44&biw=1280&bih=681
  16. ^ Vlada Autonomne Pokrajine Vojvodine - Index, Vojvodina.gov.rs, 27 January 2010, retrieved 31 January 2010
  17. ^ Jerzy Kłoczowski, Actualité des grandes traditions de la cohabitation et du dialogue des cultures en Europe du Centre-Est, in: L'héritage historique de la Res Publica de Plusieurs Nations, Lublin 2004, pp. 29–30
  18. ^ Oskar Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History, Sheed & Ward: London and New York 1950, chapter VII
  19. ^ a b Tiersky, p. 472
  20. ^ a b c Katzenstein, p. 6
  21. ^ a b Katzenstein, p. 4
  22. ^ "Central Europe: enemies, neighbors, friends", by Lonnie R. Johnson, Oxford University Press, 1996
  23. ^ a b Johnson, p.4
  24. ^ a b c d e f Johnson, p. 4
  25. ^ a b Johnson, p. 6
  26. ^ Legvold, Robert (May/June 1997), "Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends", Foreign Affairs, Council on Foreign Relations, retrieved 2009-05-20 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ "Selected as "Editor's Choice" of the History Book Club", Oxford University Press, retrieved 20 May 2009
  28. ^ a b "Europe", Columbia Encyclopedia, Columbia University Press, 2009 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  29. ^ a b "The World Factbook: Field listing - Location", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 2009, retrieved 3 May 2009
  30. ^ a b "Slovenia", Encarta, archived from the original on 31 October 2009, retrieved 1 May 2009 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Johnson, p.11-12
  32. ^ http://www.larousse.fr/
  33. ^ http://rediscover.manuscriptorium.com/files/rediscover/RO_Text_Catalogue_ENG_0.doc
  34. ^ a b Halman, Loek (2004), European values at the turn of the millennium, Brill Publishers, p. 120, ISBN 9789004139817 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Source: Geographisches Handbuch zu Andrees Handatlas, vierte Auflage, Bielefeld und Leipzig, Velhagen und Klasing, 1902.
  36. ^ a b "Mitteleuropa" is a multi-facetted concept and difficult to handle (PDF), retrieved 31 January 2010
  37. ^ A. Podraza, Europa Środkowa jako region historyczny, 17th Congress of Polish Historians, Jagiellonian University 2004
  38. ^ Joseph Franz Maria Partsch, Clementina Black, Halford John Mackinder, Central Europe, New York 1903
  39. ^ F. Naumann, Mitteleuropa, Berlin: Reimer, 1915
  40. ^ Regions and Eastern Europe Regionalism - Central Versus Eastern Europe, Science.jrank.org, retrieved 31 January 2010
  41. ^ [1], [2] and [3]; Géographie universelle (1927), edited by Paul Vidal de la Blache and Lucien Gallois)
  42. ^ a b Deak, I., "The Versailles System and Central Europe - Deák CXXI (490): 338 - The English Historical Review", The English Historical Review, CXXI, Ehr.oxfordjournals.org: 338, doi:10.1093/ehr/cej100, retrieved 31 January 2010
  43. ^ Between Worlds - The MIT Press, Mitpress.mit.edu, retrieved 31 January 2010
  44. ^ Kundera's article in pdf format
  45. ^ Central versus Eastern Europe
  46. ^ One of the main representatives was Oscar Halecki and his book The limits and divisions of European history, London and New York 1950
  47. ^ A. Podraza, Europa Środkowa jako region historyczny, 17th Congress of Polish Historians, Jagiellonian University 2004
  48. ^ Band 16, Bibliographisches Institut Mannheim/Wien/Zürich, Lexikon Verlag 1980
  49. ^ Erich Schenk, Mitteleuropa. Düsseldorf, 1950
  50. ^ a b c Johnson, p. 165
  51. ^ Hayes, p. 16
  52. ^ Hayes, p. 17
  53. ^ a b Johnson, p. 7
  54. ^ Johnson, p. 170
  55. ^ Dark Series Research by Christine Feehan, Christinefeehan.com, 13 November 2008, retrieved 31 January 2010
  56. ^ http://www.icpdr.org/icpdr-files/14017
  57. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Dinaric Alps (mountains, Europe) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia, Britannica.com, retrieved 31 January 2010{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ Juliane Dittrich, Die Alpen - Höhenstufen und Vegetation - Hauptseminararbeit, GRIN, retrieved 31 January 2010
  59. ^ Wolfgang Frey and Rainer Lösch; Lehrbuch der Geobotanik. Pflanze und Vegetation in Raum und Zeit. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, München 2004

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Jacques Rupnik, "In Search of Central Europe: Ten Years Later", in Gardner, Hall, with Schaeffer, Elinore & Kobtzeff, Oleg, (ed.), Central and South-central Europe in Transition, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2000 (translated form French by Oleg Kobtzeff)
  • Article 'Mapping Central Europe' in hidden europe, 5, pp. 14–15 (November 2005)
  • A journal in three languages (English, German, French) dealing with the region: http://www.ece.ceu.hu
Look up central europe in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to East/Central Europe.

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