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This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, known as [[Cedar Revolution]], that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The [[United Nations Security Council]] unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on [[April 7]], [[2005]], which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8353.doc.htm "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005)"].</ref> The findings of the investigation were officially published on [[October 20]], [[2005]] in the [[Mehlis report]].<ref>[[United Nations Security Council]] (2005). [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAl.NSF/fd807e46661e3689852570d00069e918/308be5d60f79289b852570a5005d0d00!OpenDocument "Letter dated 20 October 2005 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council"]. Retrieved [[November 2]], [[2006]].</ref> Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.<ref>BBC News (2005). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4342705.stm "Syria begins Lebanon withdrawal"]. Retrieved [[December 11]], [[2006]].</ref> By [[April 26]], [[2005]], all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.<ref>CNN (2005). [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/04/26/lebanon/ "Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon"]. Retrieved [[December 11]], [[2006]].</ref> The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.
This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, known as [[Cedar Revolution]], that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The [[United Nations Security Council]] unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on [[April 7]], [[2005]], which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8353.doc.htm "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005)"].</ref> The findings of the investigation were officially published on [[October 20]], [[2005]] in the [[Mehlis report]].<ref>[[United Nations Security Council]] (2005). [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAl.NSF/fd807e46661e3689852570d00069e918/308be5d60f79289b852570a5005d0d00!OpenDocument "Letter dated 20 October 2005 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council"]. Retrieved [[November 2]], [[2006]].</ref> Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.<ref>BBC News (2005). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4342705.stm "Syria begins Lebanon withdrawal"]. Retrieved [[December 11]], [[2006]].</ref> By [[April 26]], [[2005]], all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.<ref>CNN (2005). [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/04/26/lebanon/ "Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon"]. Retrieved [[December 11]], [[2006]].</ref> The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.


On [[July 12]], [[2006]], Hezbollah captured two Israeli soldiers witch led to a escalation of the conflict with Israel. This escalation is known in Israel as [[July War]], that lasted until a [[United Nations]]-brokered [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701|ceasefire]] went into effect on [[14 August]] [[2006]].
On [[July 12]], [[2006]], Hezbollah kidnapped two Israeli soldiers and that led to a conflict, known in Lebanon as [[July War]], that lasted until a [[United Nations]]-brokered [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701|ceasefire]] went into effect on [[14 August]] [[2006]].


==Geography and climate==
==Geography and climate==

Revision as of 10:04, 18 February 2008

For other uses, see Lebanon (disambiguation).
الجمهورية اللبنانية
Al-Jumhūriyyah al-Lubnāniyyah
La République Libanaise

Lebanese Republic
Motto:  كلنا للوطن للعلى للعلم  (Arabic)
"Tous pour la Patrie, pour la gloire et le drapeau!"  (French)

"All for country, for glory, and the flag!"
Anthem: Kulluna lil-watan lil 'ula lil-'alam
Location of Lebanon
Capital
and largest city
Beirut
Official languagesArabic
French commonly spoken by majority
Demonym(s)Lebanese
GovernmentRepublic
• President
None (Émile Lahoud's term expired 11/23/07)
Fouad Siniora
Independence 
from France-administered League of Nations mandate
• Declared
November 26, 1941
• Recognized
November 22, 1943
Area
• Total
10,452 km2 (4,036 sq mi) (166th)
• Water (%)
1.6
Population
• July 2007 estimate
4,099,000 (128th)
• Density
358/km2 (927.2/sq mi) (26th)
GDP (PPP)2006 estimate
• Total
$21.45 billion (103rd)
• Per capita
$6,100 (90th)
HDI (2007)Decrease 0.772
Error: Invalid HDI value (88th)
CurrencyLebanese Lira (LL) (LBP)
Time zoneUTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+3 (EEST)
Calling code961
ISO 3166 codeLB
Internet TLD.lb

Lebanon (/ˈlɛbənɒn/) (Arabic: لبنان Lubnān; French: [Liban] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)), officially the Republic of Lebanon[1] or Lebanese Republic[2] (الجمهورية اللبنانية), La République Libanaise, is a small, predominantly mountainous country in Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon evolved a peculiar political system, known as confessionalism, based on a community-based power-sharing mechanism.[3] It was created when the ruling French mandatory powers expanded the borders of the former Maronite Christian autonomous Ottoman Mount Lebanon district.

The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This is a reference to the famous cedars of Lebanon, that were mentioned in the verses of the Tanakh/Old Testament, mostly in Psalms and the Song of Songs.

Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy.[4] It is considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the Middle East"[5][6] due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists,[7] to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East."[8]

Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.[9] By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,[10] and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts.[7] The 2006 war which Hezbollah started against Israel brought mounting, extensive damage to civilian infrastructure from July 12, 2006 until a ceasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006.

Etymology

Faraya, Mount Lebanon.

A widespread explanation links the name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Lebnén" in local dialect) to the Semitic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as "white" and "milk".[11] "White" could be regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.[12] Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 BC), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 BC), and 71 times in the Old Testament.[12][13][14] The name is even recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where r stood for Semitic l.[15]

History

Main article: History of Lebanon
History of the Levant
Prehistory
Ancient history
Classical antiquity
Middle Ages
Modern history
Sarcophagus of Ahiram, king of Byblos, now in the National Museum of Beirut
Inscription in Greek on one of the tombs found in the Roman-Byzantine necropolis in Tyre

Ancient history

Main article: History of ancient Lebanon

The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world,[16] remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago. [5]

Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.[17] After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and the people of Tyre refused defeat and therefore burned Tyre, the leading Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman.

Lebanese princess in the Ottoman period 19th century

French mandate and independence

Main article: French Mandate of Lebanon

Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria,[18] until 1918 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria.[19] Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate for Syria. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.[20] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

The flag of Greater Lebanon (1920-1943)

After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.

The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim.

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.

1948 Arab-Israeli war

Main article: 1948 Arab-Israeli war

Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined its fellow Arab League members and invaded Israel[21] during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while going on an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State.[21] After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in Operation Hiram,[22] Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949. Approximately 100,000 Palestinian refugees were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel on the land of Israel and the subsequent war.[23] The Lebanese-Israeli border remained closed, but quiet, until after the Six Day War in 1967.

Civil war and beyond

Main article: Lebanese civil war
See also: 1982 Lebanon War

In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed.[24] The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[25]

During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982,[26] the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence.[27] The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.[28]

Recent history

On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut.[29] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack[30] due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Others, namely the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the American CIA or the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country.[31]

This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, known as Cedar Revolution, that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.[32] The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report.[33] Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.[34] By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.[35] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.

On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah kidnapped two Israeli soldiers and that led to a conflict, known in Lebanon as July War, that lasted until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Lebanon
Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges

Lebanon is located in Western Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225 km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for Template:Km to mi and the Lebanon-Israel border for Template:Km to mi. The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations.[36]

Most of Lebanon's area is mountainous terrain,[37] except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, which plays an integral role in Lebanon's agriculture.

Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with frequent, sometimes heavy, snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry.[38] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.[39]

In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem.[40] However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.[40]

Governorates and districts

See also: Governorates of Lebanon and Districts of Lebanon

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).[41] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:

Beirut Governorate

The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut.

Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) - 4 districts
Beqaa Governorate - 5 districts North Governorate (al-Shamal) - 7 districts
Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) - 6 districts South Governorate (al-Janoub) - 3 districts

Demographics and religion

Main article: Demographics of Lebanon

No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance. The 2006 CIA World Fact Book, Lebanon entry, gives the following distribution: Muslim 58.7% (Shi'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian 40% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1.3% note: 17 religious sects recognized.[42] Lebanon has a population of Kurds. The numbers per religion vary from time to time, but mostly the Shias are nearly neck and neck with the Sunnis and the Maronites the largest amongst the Christians. According to electoral records statistics supported by recent research carried out by statistician Yousuf Al Duweihi and were published in the An-Nahar newspaper(11/12/2006), the distribution of sects in Lebanon is as follows: 4.855 million people, of whom 40% are Christian, 29% Shiite Muslims, 24% Sunni Muslims and 5% Druze. [6]. The New York Times show a distribution of 40% Christians, 35% Shiite Muslims, 25% Sunni Muslims, and 5% Druze [43].

The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July 2006.[42] There are approximately 16 million people of Lebanese descent spread all over the world, Brazil having the largest Lebanese community abroad.[44] Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela, USA, West Africa, and the Dominican Republic also have large Lebanese communities. A total of 394,532 Palestinian refugees, almost entirely Sunni Muslims, have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) since 1948.[45]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Lebanon

The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[46] Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[47] Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arabic speaking countries.[48]

Although Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arabic speaking world,[49] it does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce,[50] agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.[51]

Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,[50] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.[51]

The Kadisha Valley is a World Heritage Site

A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%)[50] have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.[51]

The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, as it leaves the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade.

The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.[42] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.[52]

Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars.[53] By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon had already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.[53] Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).

Beirut's airport, Rafiq Hariri International Airport, re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with $US 1.5 billion pledged),[54] the European Union (with about $1 billion)[55] and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[56]

Education

Schools

All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all,[57] may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, history, civics, geography, Arabic, and either French or English or both. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects. Arabic and French are both mandatory and are taught throughout the 12 year span of school.

The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities, and 12th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.

Students go through three academic phases:

  • Elementary: Six years.
  • Intermediate: Three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion.
  • Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade. Students studying at French-system schools may also graduate with a French Baccalaureate that is considered equivalent to the Lebanese Baccalaureate.

These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory.[58] Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced.

Higher education

Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad.

Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.[59][60] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon respectively.[61][62] The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon.[63]

At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II. The University academic degrees for the first stage are the Bachelor or the Licence, for the second stage are the Master or the DEA and the third stage is the doctorate.

The United Nations assigned Lebanon an Education Index of 0.84 in 2005.[64]

Language

Lebanon's official language is Arabic per article 11 of the Constitution.[65] Although the law allows French to be used for some official purposes, and French is therefore considered as an administrative language. Armenian and English are also widely spoken and understood. The majority of Lebanese people speak Arabic and French fluently.

The colloquial variant of Arabic used in Lebanon is one part of a grouping of dialects called Levantine Arabic, differing in a way from the literary Modern Standard Arabic, owing its historical blend to Arabic, Turkish, and the Syriac dialect of Aramaic. Lebanese people usually tend to mix a variant of French when speaking Arabic. In recent years, it has become increasingly common for Lebanese people, especially the better educated, to converse in a combination of Arabic, English and French whereby the same sentence would include words or expressions from the different languages.

Regional influences and occupations throughout the centuries could possibly explain why Lebanese people speak so many languages, even incorporating them into their own. In addition, due to the importance of the Lebanese diaspora and business interests of Lebanese worldwide, it has always been important to master languages other than Arabic.

In the Christian communities, until the Lebanese Civil War, it was seen as a mark of status to not speak Arabic.[citation needed] The reason for this could possibly be that Christians generally were educated in many of the French educational institutions and so a general Francophonic class emerged in their communities. English has been making significant headway in the past two decades. However, as the Muslim population increased in previously Christian areas, Arabic in public is omnipresent, not merely commonplace.[citation needed]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Lebanon

Overview

Phoenicia and its colonies.
The Triumphal Arch in Tyre.

The area including modern Lebanon has been home to various civilizations and cultures for thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine, and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Western Asia, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate.[66] Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is often considered to serve as the European gateway to Western Asia as well as the Arab gateway to the Western World.[67]

Cuisine

Main article: Lebanese Cuisine

The Lebanese Cuisine is considered to be a Mediterranean basically Levantine Arabic delicacy consisting of a variety of fresh vegetarian recipes, salads and stews all seasoned with a flavorsome combination of herbs and spices. One of the most world known Lebanese specialties is called the Maza, also written "Mezze", which is a selection of appetisers: olives, cheeses, Labanee, or small portions also known as muqabbilat (Arabic for starters).

As with most Mediterranean cuisines, Lebanese cuisine is considered to be a very balanced, healthy diet.

The cuisine of Lebanon is the epitome of the Mediterranean diet. It includes an abundance of starches, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and seafood; animal fats are consumed sparingly. Poultry is eaten more often than red meat, and when red meat is eaten it is usually lamb. It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil-nary a meal goes by in Lebanon that does not include these two ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked or sauted in olive oil; butter or cream is rarely used other than in a few desserts. Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled as well as cooked. While the cuisine of Lebanon doesn't boast an entire repertoire of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices and the freshness of ingredients; the assortment of dishes and combinations are almost limitless. The meals are full of robust, earthy flavors and, like most Mediterranean countries, much of what the Lebanese eat is dictated by the seasons.

Food and music overlap greatly with those of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Turkey (all were Ottoman provinces for 400 years.)

Creative arts

Main article: Music of Lebanon

Lebanese music is known around the world for its soothing rhythms and oriental beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular as are western rhythms.

One of the most well-known Lebanese singers is Fairuz; her songs are broadcast every morning on most radio stations and many TV channels, both in Lebanon and the Arab world in general. Other prominent artists include Julia Boutros, composer and oud player Marcel Khalife, Majida El Roumi, and Sabah.

Some Lebanese artists, such as Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani, remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'jabali' ("from the mountains"), while other artists incorporate Western style into their songs. Lebanese artists are perhaps the most popular in the Arab world, alongside Egyptian performers, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Najwa Karam, Nancy Ajram, Elissa (singer), Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares, Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Haifa Wehbe, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri, Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hijazi and Majida El Roumi.

Sports

Because of Lebanon's unique geography, both summer and winter sports thrive in the country. In fact, in autumn and spring it is sometimes possible to engage in both during the same, skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean during the afternoon. At the competitive level, basketball, football are among Lebanon's most popular sports. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the Asian Cup and the Pan-Arab Games; the country will host the Winter Asian Games in 2009. To meet the needs of these international competitions, Lebanon maintains state-of-the-art athletic facilities, which in turn encourage local sporting activities. Lebanon sends athletes to both the winter and summer games of the Olympics and Special Olympics. The Lebanese national soccer team has progressed past the first round of qualifying for the FIFA World Cup 2010 by eliminating India, 6-3 on aggregate. Rugby league is also popular in Lebanon. The national rugby league team nearly qualified for the 2008 World Cup, but were narrowly beaten by Samoa in their final game.

Lebanon boasts six ski resorts, with slopes suitable for skiers and snowboarders of all ages and levels of experience. Off-slope, there are many opportunities for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling. In the summer, skilifts can be used to access some of Lebanon's best hiking trails, with panoramic views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and spelunking are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad. Shorter races are also held for youth and less serious competitors. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing.

Arts and literature

Lebanon's contribution to the Arab Rennaissance during the middle of the 19th century is immense. This flowering allowed for the modernisation of the Arabic language moving it away from its Koranic classical dictums, and allowing for the creation and adaptation of previously unknown terms/ words as Al-Watan (the nation), Al-Watania (Nationalism).

The first theatre production in the Arab world was performed at the Al-Kahzen household in 1862, a Lebanese aristocratic family who were also representatives of France.

By the turn of the 20th century, Beirut was vying with Cairo as the major centre for modern Arab thought, with untold number of newspapers, magazines, and literary societies.

Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek.

In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran is known to be one of the world's famous writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages.[68]

Several contemporary Lebanese writers have achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf and Hanan al-Shaykh.

In art, Moustafa Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Mustafa Farroukh (1901-1957) was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. His work was applauded for its representation of real life in Lebanon in pictures of the country, its people and its customs. Farroukh became highly regarded as a Lebanese nationalist painter at a time when Lebanon was asserting its political independence. His art captured the spirit and character of the Lebanese people and he became recognized as the outstanding Lebanese painter of his generation. His total paintings were more than 2000 sold to collectors inside and outside of Lebanon. He also wrote five books and taught art at the American University of Beirut.

Festivals

Beiteddine Palace, the venue of Beiteddine Festival.

Several international music festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Beiteddine Festival, Byblos International Festival, and the Al-Bustan Festival. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces.

Politics

Politics of Lebanon

Arab League Member State of the Arab League

Constitution
Human rights
Executive
Legislature
Subdivisions
Elections
Foreign relations

flag Lebanon portal

Main article: Politics of Lebanon

Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism.[69] This system, allegedly meant to insure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body.[70][71] As such, high-ranking offices in the government are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim and the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian.[72][73]

The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'Étoile

This trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided equally between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.[72] According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years, although for much of Lebanon’s recent history, civil war precluded the exercise of this right.

The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term. At the urging of the Syrian government, this constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad hoc amendment twice in recent history. Elias Hrawi’s term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years.[74] This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007.[75]

The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding).[76] Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.

The Grand Serail, the government headquarters in downtown Beirut

Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related.[77] These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".[78]

After Rafic Hariri's assassination on 14 February 2005, the country has seen turbulent political times, and it shaped the Cedar Revolution and the rise of the March 14 alliance which is made of: Lebanese Forces, Future Movement and the PSP.

See also

Articles about recent events
Miscellaneous

Footnotes

  1. ^ According to the website of the Embassy of Lebanon in the U.S. and the website of the Lebanese presidency
  2. ^ According to U.S. government sources such as the CIA and State Department country guides
  3. ^ Countries Quest. "Lebanon, Government". Retrieved December 14, 2006.
  4. ^ U.S. Department of State. "Background Note: Lebanon (History) August 2005" Retrieved December 2, 2006.
  5. ^ USPG. "Anglican Church in Jerusalem responds to Western Asia crisis". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  6. ^ Socialist Party (2005). "A new crisis in Western Asia?". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  7. ^ a b Anna Johnson (2006). "Lebanon: Tourism Depends on Stability". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  8. ^ TC Online (2002). "Paris of Western Asia". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  9. ^ Canadian International Development Agency. "Lebanon: Country Profile". Retrieved December 2, 2006.
  10. ^ Center for the Study of the Built Environment. "Deconstructing Beirut's Reconstruction: 1990-2000". Retrieved October 31, 2006.
  11. ^ Joumana Medlej. "The Mountain". Retrieved December 15, 2006.
  12. ^ a b Antoine Harb (2004). "Lebanon: A Name through 4000 Years". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  13. ^ Christian World News. "Lebanon Historically Linked to the Bible". Retrieved February 21, 2007.
  14. ^ Roger Yazbeck. "Lebanon was mentioned 71 times in the Holy Bible...". Retrieved February 21, 2007.
  15. ^ Ross, Kelley L. "The Pronunciation of Ancient Egyptian". The Proceedings of the Friesian School, Fourth Series. [1].
  16. ^ "Byblos". Retrieved July 31, 2007.
  17. ^ About.com (1987)."Lebanon in Ancient Times". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  18. ^ U.S. Library of Congress. "History: Present-Day Syria". Retrieved May 2, 2007.
  19. ^ Chorbishop Seely Beggiani (2005). "Aspects of Maronite History (Part Eleven) The twentieth century in Western Asia". Retrieved January 24, 2007.
  20. ^ Lebanese Global Information Center. "History of Lebanon". Retrieved December 9, 2006.
  21. ^ a b Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Arab-Israeli Conflict. The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841763721, p. 27
  22. ^ Avi Shlaim. "Israel and the Arab Coalition in 1948". Retrieved December 9, 2006.
  23. ^ Amnesty International. "Palestinian refugees in Lebanon". Retrieved November 14, 2006.
  24. ^ Time (1991). "After the War, the Mop-Up". Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  25. ^ Council on Foreign Relations (2006). "The Future of Lebanon". Retrieved December 18, 2006.
  26. ^ People's Daily (2000). "Lebanese Troops Patrol Near Fatma Gate Along Border With Israel". Retrieved December 18, 2006.
  27. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000)."Withdrawal from Lebanon: Press Briefing by Foreign Minister David Levy". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  28. ^ The key to Shebaa, Al-Jazeera online, Retrieved April 1, 2007.
  29. ^ Hariri.info (2005). "Rafik Hariri". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  30. ^ CBC News Indepth (2006). "Recent background on Syria's presence in Lebanon". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  31. ^ See this MEMRI bulletin, includes several statements and sources.
  32. ^ "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005)".
  33. ^ United Nations Security Council (2005). "Letter dated 20 October 2005 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council". Retrieved November 2, 2006.
  34. ^ BBC News (2005). "Syria begins Lebanon withdrawal". Retrieved December 11, 2006.
  35. ^ CNN (2005). "Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon". Retrieved December 11, 2006.
  36. ^ Telegraph (2000) "Israel's Withdrawal from Lebanon Given UN's Endorsement". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  37. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Lebanon". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  38. ^ (Bonechi et al.) (2004) Golden Book Lebanon, p. 3, Florence, Italy: Casa Editrice Bonechi. ISBN 88-476-1489-9
  39. ^ Country Studies US. "Lebanon - Climate". Retrieved November 5, 2006.
  40. ^ a b Blue Planet Biomes. "Lebanon Cedar - Cedrus libani". Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  41. ^ USAID Lebanon. "USAID Lebanon—Definitions of Terms used". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  42. ^ a b c CIA, the World Factbook (2006). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 7, 2006.
  43. ^ The New York Times > International > Interactive Feature > Interactive Graphic: Attacks, Day by Day
  44. ^ Marina Sarruf (2006). "Brazil Has More Lebanese than Lebanon". Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  45. ^ UNRWA (December 31, 2003). These continue to face all sorts of discrimination and exclusion largely due to their religious identity."UNRWA: Palestinian Refugees". Retrieved November 25, 2006.
  46. ^ U.S. Department of State (1994) Header: People, 4th paragraph. Retrieved December 3, 2006.
  47. ^ Background Note: Lebanon "www.washingtoninstitute.org" Retrieved December 3, 2006.
  48. ^ United Nations Population Fund."Lebanon - Overview". Retrieved November 9, 2006.
  49. ^ Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, U.S.A. 1986-1988. [2]. Retrieved December 2, 2006.
  50. ^ a b c Jean Hayek et al, 1999. The Structure, Properties, and Main Foundations of the Lebanese Economy. In The Scientific Series in Geography, Grade 11, 110-114. Beirut: Dar Habib.
  51. ^ a b c US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  52. ^ CIA World Factbook 2001. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  53. ^ a b Bank Audi (2006). "Lebanon Economic Report: 2nd Quarter, 2006". Retrieved November 27, 2005.
  54. ^ Cyprus News (2006). "Saudi Arabia Key Contributor To Lebanon's Reconstruction". Retrieved November 26, 2006.
  55. ^ Lebanon Under Siege (2006). "Donors pledge more than $940 million for Lebanon". Retrieved November 26, 2006.
  56. ^ Ain-Al-Yaqeen (2006). "The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Reviews with the Jordanian King the Situation in Lebanon...". Retrieved November 27, 2006.
  57. ^ Samidoun (2006). "Aid groups scramble to fix buildings, fill backpacks before school bell rings". Retrieved December 9, 2006.
  58. ^ US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved December 15, 2006.
  59. ^ Infopro Management. "Lebanon Opportunities - Business Information". Retrieved January 30, 2007.
  60. ^ Template:Ar iconLebanese Directory of Higher Education. "Decrees". Retrieved January 30, 2007.
  61. ^ eIFL.net Regional Workshop (2005). "Country Report: Lebanon". Retrieved December 14, 2006.
  62. ^ Université Saint-Joseph. "125 years of history - A timeline". Retrieved December 8, 2006.
  63. ^ Yalla!. "Yalla! Students". Retrieved December 15, 2006.
  64. ^ "Human development indicators" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports. Retrieved 2006-11-16.
  65. ^ ["Article 11 of the Lebanese Constitution" http://www.servat.unibe.ch/law/icl/le00000_.html#A011_]. Retrieved December 16, 2007.
  66. ^ Lebanon CIA World Fact Book. [3]. December 18, 2006.
  67. ^ Lebanon Culture. [4]. December 18, 2006.
  68. ^ The Hindu (January 5, 2003). "Called by life";. Retrieved January 8, 2007.
  69. ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2002). "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2002: Lebanon". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  70. ^ Lijphart, Arend. Consociational Democracy, in "World Politics", Vol. 21, No. 2 (January 1969), pp. 207-225.
  71. ^ Lijphart, Arend. Multiethnic democracy, in S. Lipset (ed.), "The Encyclopedia of Democracy". London, Routledge, 1995, Volume III, pp. 853-865.
  72. ^ a b United States Institute of Peace (March 2006). "Lebanon's Confessionalism: Problems and Prospects". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  73. ^ Marie-Joëlle Zahar. "CHAPTER 9 POWER SHARING IN LEBANON: FOREIGN PROTECTORS, DOMESTIC PEACE, AND DEMOCRATIC FAILURE1". (DOC) Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  74. ^ Western Asia Intelligence Bulletin (2004). "The US and France Tip the Scale in Lebanon's Power Struggle". Retrieved January 6, 2007.
  75. ^ New Age International (November 6, 2006). "Lebanon leaders head for talks amid street protest threats". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  76. ^ Lebanon2000.com. "Factbook - Lebanon". Retrieved January 3, 2006.
  77. ^ US Department of State (2006). "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2005: Lebanon". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  78. ^ Amnesty International (2005). "A Human Rights Agenda for the Parliamentary Elections, Lebanon". Retrieved December 17, 2006.

Book References

  • Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Nation Books, 2002.
  • Firzli, Nicola Y. Al-Baath wa-Lubnân [Arabic only] ("The Baath and Lebanon"). Beirut: Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973
  • Hitti Philip K. History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine, Vol. 2 (2002) (ISBN 1-931956-61-8)
  • Holst, Sanford. Phoenicians: Lebanon's Epic Heritage. Los Angeles: Cambridge and Boston Press, 2005.
  • Norton, Augustus R. Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987.
  • Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Salibi, Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

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