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A modern electric multiple unit

A Multiple Unit is a train which does not have a separate locomotive. Typically these are passenger trains with accommodation in every vehicle and a driving position at each end. The term is further classified by the method of propulsion: Diesel (DMU), Electric (EMU) or Diesel-Electric (DEMU). The term is also used to describe a train such as the Advanced Passenger Train which was a permanent formation with 'power cars' in the train rather than a locomotive at one end.

This article describes the history, development and current use of diesel and electric multiple units in Great Britain.

Electric Multiple Units

Origins

Liverpool Overhead Railway carriage in the Museum of Liverpool, 2012

The first electric railway in Britain, the Volks Electric Railway, started passenger service in 1883[1] when Magnus Volk opened a short 2ft gauge electric railway running for +1⁄4 miles (402 m) in Brighton; electrical power at 50 V DC was supplied to a small car using the two running rails.[citation needed]

The City and South London Railway, a 3.2 miles (5.1 km) long deep-level tube railway, opened in 1890.[2] Carriages were hauled by using electric locomotives was powered by a third rail energised at 500V DC beneath the train and the running rails used as the return.[3] In 1893 the Liverpool Overhead Railway opened with two lightweight passenger cars coupled together;[4][5] on each car one bogie was powered with a single 60 hp (45 kW) motor.[6] Any number could be coupled together and all the motors controlled by the driver at the front.[5] Power was provided by a third rail between the tracks at 500V DC.[7] In 1898 the deep-level Waterloo and City Railway also opened with electric multiple units, the traction current for the two motor cars controlled in the leading driving cab. A central third rail provided traction current at approximately 520V DC.[citation needed]

In 1900 the Central London Railway (CLR) opened a deep-level tube electric railway. Initially electric locomotives hauled carriages, however in solving a design problem these were replaced with multiple units. The change to multiple unit operation was completed by June 1903 and all but two of the locomotives were scrapped.[8]

In 1900 the Metropolitan Railway and the Metropolitan District Railway ran an experimental multiple unit in passenger service for six months. A four rail system was used, two rails outside the running rail providing the traction current at 500V-550V DC. Only the leading motor car traction motors were used, the trailing motor free-wheeled.[9] In 1901 a Metropolitan and District joint committee recommended the Ganz three-phase AC system with overhead wires. Initially this was accepted by both parties,[10] however the District needed to raise the finance needed and found an investor in 1901, the American Charles Yerkes. Yerkes soon had control of the District Railway[11] and his experiences in the United States led him to favour DC, with a track level conductor rail pickup similar to that in use on the City & South London Railway and Central London Railway. After arbitration by the Board of Trade the DC system was taken up.[12]

In 1897 Frank J. Sprague demonstrated a system where the driving positions controlled all the motors on the train by the means of a low voltage control signal that had been developed for the South Side Elevated Railroad in Chicago.[13] When in 1903 the Metropolitan District Railway opened its line in June 1903 from Acton Town to South Harrow with experimental multiple units these used low voltage control systems from British Thomson-Houston (BTH) and Westinghouse.[14]

An early electric multiple unit on the Mersey Railway

The underground Mersey Railway started an electric service on 3 May 1903, electrified by British Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co. Ltd with electrical equipment shipped from the US.[15] A four rail DC system was installed, the positive outer rail set 22 inches (560 mm) from the running rail, the negative return between the rails.[16]

In London the Great Northern & City Railway was a 3+1⁄2 miles (5.6 km) underground line from Moorgate to Finsbury Park. The tunnels were large enough to take a standard gauge train; it was intended that Great Northern Railway trains would use the line. Electric multiple units were used from the opening on 14 February 1904; these picked up traction current from conductor rails both sides of the running rails. The BTH Company supplied all electrical equipment.[17]

When the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (L&YR) was considering electrification of the suburban Liverpool railway, concerns were being expressed, especially in the railway press, that engineering developments in Britain were being overtaken by electrification projects in America and Switzerland. The Preston based Dick, Kerr & Co. was made responsible for the traction systems and the L&YR built the rolling stock.[18] A 625 V DC four rail system was adopted. A live rail was position outside the running rails 3 ft 11+1⁄2 in (1.207 m) from the centre of the track and 3 in (76 mm) above the top of the running rails.[18] A return rail, cross-bonded to the running rails, was positioned centrally between the tracks.[19] The two driving motor cars were third class and each powered by four 150 hp (110 kW) motors. The traction current to all motors was directly controlled in a driving cab at both ends of the train. Electric service started on the line between Liverpool Exchange and Southport on 22 March 1904,[18]

The North Eastern Railway began using electric multiple units between New Bridge Street and Benton and 29 March 1904 and from 25 July 1904 over a circular route between Newcastle Central and Tynemouth.[20] The railway was electrified with a third rail at 600V DC.[20] The multiple units were built at the NER Carriage Works at York, with clerestory roofs, the first batch fitted with the electrical equipment being supplied by BTH.[20]

The Metropolitan Railway began its electric service from Uxbridge to Baker Street in 1905 with Metropolitan Railway electric multiple units with Westinghouse electric equipment; these also ran off-peak as 3-car units with a motor car and a driving trailer. Twenty trains with BTH equipment were ordered for the Hammersmith & City line that the Met jointly operated with the Great Western Railway.[21] The District Railway specfied BTH equipment for its B Stock; these started running in June 1905 and by the end of 1905 all its services used multiple units.[22]

LB&SCR train at Wandsworth c.1909

From 1909 the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway also used an overhead line energised at 6.7kV 25Hz.[23] The system was of German origin and the contractor for the electrical equipment was Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft of Berlin, while the main contractor was Robert W Blackwell & Co Ltd. Power supply was from the London Electric Supply Corporation (LESCo) at Deptford.[24][25][page needed] The first section to be electrified was the South London Line connecting London Bridge with Victoria via Denmark Hill, which was opened on 1 December 1909. The new service was marketed as 'The Elevated Electric' and was an immediate success.[26] By 1921 most of the inner London suburban lines were electrified and lines to Coulsdon and Sutton opened on 1 April 1925.[27]

Three types of stock were built. The initial South London (SL) stock was introduced as 3-car trains, but after 1910 the first class trailers were removed and these subsequently ran in 2, 4 or 6 car formations. In 1910 the CP stock was built for the Crystal Palace route; these normally ran as 3-car units. The later CW stock had motors fitted in driving motor luggage vans, passenger accommodation being provided in trailer cars. These were formed in five car sets.[28]

From 1913 to 1917, the L&YR operated an experimental electric service operated in the Manchester area on the line between Bury and Holcombe Brook. The equipment was provided by Dick, Kerr & Co. of Preston, which was developing its products for overseas sales. The system used was 3.5 kV DC overhead and two two-car units were built. After these tests, the L&YR electrified the Manchester to Bury line using 1200 V DC side-contact third rail. This opened in 1916 and the following year the branch to Holcombe Brook was converted to the same system.

From 1915 the London and South Western Railway introduced electric multiple units on suburban routes using a 660V DC third rail system.[23] Steam-hauled carriages were converted into cars and a trailer was formed with two driving motor cars with Westinghouse electrical equipment. After 1920 two car trailer sets were used between 3-car sets to lengthen peak services to eight cars.[29]

Grouping

In 1923 the main line railways in Britain were amalgamated (grouped) into four railway companies. South of London the Southern Railway took over 24+1⁄2 route miles (39.4 km) of railway electrified with overhead line at 6.7kV, 57 route miles (92 km) of railway electrified with a 3rd rail at 660V DC, and the 1+1⁄2-mile (2.4 km) long underground Waterloo & City Railway.[30] The route mileage of 3rd rail electrification was to more than double in 1925 when the current was switched on the routes to Guildford, Dorking and Effingham and the route from Victoria and Holborn Viaduct to Orpington via Herne Hill and the Catford Loop.[31] In 1926 electric trains started to run on the South Eastern Main Line route to Orpington and the three lines to Dartford using the 3rd rail system.[32] On 9 August 1926 the Southern announced that the DC system was to replace the AC system[33] and the last AC train ran on 29 September 1929.[34] Including the London Bridge to East Croydon route electrified in 1928, by the end of 1929 the Southern operated over 277+1⁄2 route miles (446.6 km) of 3rd rail electrified track and in that year ran 17.8 million electric train miles.[35]

For its suburban railways the Southern continued the LSWR practice of running a three-car EMU off-peak and an unpowered two-car trailer between two three-car units during peak hours. Most of the EMU were re-built by the Southern from locomotive hauled stock, mounted on new underframe and fitted with Westinghouse electrical equipment.[29] However, the lack of a driving position in the unpowered trailer proved inflexible and after World War II the units were gradually re-built into four-car units, the 4 SUBs.[36]

The London Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) inherited the LNWR four rail DC system in London from Euston and Broad Street to Watford and Richmond and a section from Willensden Junction to Earl's Court. In Liverpool they inherited the L&YR Liverpool to Southport 625V DC system. They also inherited the Midland Railway 6.7kV 25Hz Lancaster - Morecambe - Heysham system and the former L&YR Manchester Victoria to Bury route.

On 11 May 1931, the LMS jointly with the LNER opened the Manchester, South Junction and Altrincham Railway with an 1500 V DC overhead system, introducing the British Rail Class 505.

The 1935–40 New Works Programme converted most of the District line stock to electro-pneumatic brakes and air-operated doors.[37]

In 1938 the Wirral Railway was electrified with a 3rd railway DC system and to allow through running on the still independent Mersey Railway, and the British Rail Class 503 introduced. Simular British Rail Class 502 unit replaced original L&YR units on the Liverpool to Southport routes from 1940 to 1943.

The London and North Eastern Railway had inherited the North Eastern Railway Tyneside Electrics 3rd rail DC system and in 1938 the system was to extended to South Shields and the LNER electric units bought to replace units destroyed by fire and allow for service expansion.

Nationalisation

A mark 1 (Mk1) 750 volt, 3rd rail electric multiple unit at Victoria station.

The Southern Region of British Railways continued the legacy and experience the Southern had created. Southern electric multiple units since the late 1920s had mainly consisted of two electrically powered carriages, each with a cab unit at one end, often pulling two non-powered carriages coupled between them. These trains were fairly reliable, based more on evolution rather than innovation.

Although a number of pre-war designs were gradually withdrawn, over the years, the use of others and post-war designs outlived British Rail, although designs evolved to meet changing demands. Even when these 1st generation designs were finally phased out rapidly in 2005 (some after up to 40 years' or more service), it was not for any reasons related to performance or technical reliability. Reasons for the rapid phase out included stricter crash-worthiness standards[citation needed] and a desire to eliminate manually operated 'slam doors'.[citation needed]

Outside of the Southern Region, 1st generation units were varied. Classes AM1-AM11 (later Classes 302-311) were developed from the mid-1950s to support AC electrification schemes across British Railways. Of these Class AM1 was the prototype unit, initially working at 6.6 kV 50 Hz, and later at 25 kV 50 Hz (both AC) and in bodywork terms did not differ considerably from pre-nationalisation DC units already in use by the LMS (from which some of the class were converted), despite the change to AC supply. Class 306 initially a 1500 V DC design was also based on pre war designs (in this case LNER) and shared characteristics with the later British Rail Class 506 units developed for suburban use on the electrified Woodhead route out of Manchester. The initial choice of 6.6 kV for some units was due to clearance concerns, which later technological advances overcame allowing 25 kV to be used exclusively.

Design of other AC units was subject to considerable variation, although the Class 304 is regarded as having influence on a number of related units. This influence included the Class 504 DC units which utilised an unusual (for British Railways) 1200 V DC side contact system and were thus unique to a particular line in the Manchester area. Although developed at a much later date Class 312 Clacton unit stock shares many traits with 1st generation AC EMU.

Non Southern DC unit designs (as they existed) were based on:

A 1980s third rail EMU - these units were built using the electrical equipment from the units they replaced

Later models of EMU had air-assisted sliding-doors added to them. In the late 1970s, new prototype 4Pep trains were issued with air-assisted sliding-doors. These followed by a temporary batch of Class 508 before the production batch of Class 455 units was delivered (The 508's being transferred to Liverpool). These trains were nicknamed 'push-button' units since they were the first in the region to have passenger-operated push-button sliding doors. London Underground, on the other hand, let the drivers open them from the cab controls instead.

In the 1980s the third rail was extended to Weymouth, around the same time the decision was taken replace to the powerful (3200 hp) 4REP tractor units and 4TC trailers, which were built from redundant loco-hauled stock. However the budget did not permit the construction of completely new units. The decision was taken to salvage the relatively modern electrical equipment from the elderly bodywork and combine it with an improved version of the Mark 3 HST carriage. The central motor coach was based on an Irish generator van with the required floor strength for the traction equipment. The result was the Class 442 Wessex Electric, with a high speed officially of 109 mph (during testing, though it has been known to achieve higher). These have proved popular with both enthusiasts and passengers.

PEP family

Classes 445, 313, 314, 315, 507 and 508.

Mark 3 based designs

Classes 455, 456, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 325 and 442.

Networker family

Classes 365, 465 and 466.

London Underground

See also: London Underground rolling stock § Electric multiple units
Deep-level lines

London Underground's unit operations continued post-war, with new units for the deep-level lines (known as 'tube stock') being developed to meet changing needs.

The 1959 tube stock was initially developed to replace pre-war designs, and entered service on the Picadilly Line and later on the Central (1962). An experimental unit (which became known as 1960 stock) did not enter into production.

As new lines were developed by London Transport, the rolling stock developed too. The 1967 tube stock for the Victoria line included (for the time) cutting-edge technology in the form of automatic operation. For the Fleet (later 'Jubilee') line the 1972 tube stock (in two variants) was developed. The 72 stock was, however, eventually cascaded to the Bakerloo, and Northern Lines, with the Jubilee line getting a new design (83 tube stock) to itself. Extension of the Picadilly to Heathrow Airport, saw the introduction of 73 tube stock, which incorporated improved luggage space within the tight constraints of the tube loading gauge.

In the 1980s, prototype designs were trialled in order to generate feedback about future developments. These led directly to the 1992 tube stock which was to replace the ageing 59/62 stock. In the 1990s 95 tube stock also supplanted the 59 and 72 stocks which had (by this date) ended up on the Northern line. The extension of the Jubilee line also saw the development of the externally similar 96 tube stock, but with vastly different internal technology. Although inter-operation of 83 and 95 tube stocks had been considered, the operation of a consistent fleet proved to have better economics and hence the 83 tube stock was withdrawn earlier than had been expected. The PPP of the early 2000s saw commitments to replacement of much of the existing tube stock with modern designs, these upgrades are likely to continue despite the seeming failure of some PPP arrangements.

Surface lines

Post-war development on the 'surface' lines was initially just pre-war designs, suitably updated (London Underground R Stock), for the District line, replacing older units. The District line also continued to operate with the pre-war (CO/CP) and post-war (R) designs, until the late 1970s when the more square-shaped D (District) stock was introduced between 1978 and 1983.

Extension of electrification of the Metropolitan line as far as Amersham (where the original Metropolitan route was truncated) saw the introduction of A60 or A62 surface stock. This extension also effectively saw the end of locomotive-hauled operation, with the former Aylesbury service being operated by Class 115 DMU units operating from Marylebone. (These units would themselves be replaced by Class 165 Networker units when the Chiltern Line route was modernised in the mid 1990s). By comparison to the almost suburban design of the 'A', the 'C' (Circle) stock of 1967 incorporated a number of features for its role in Central London: a greater number of doors, and vastly greater standing/seated passenger ratio were two features to cope with the higher passenger densities and more frequent station stops found on the Circle line.

In the first decade of the new millennium (2000s), it was announced that the A, C and D stock would be phased-out in favour of a common 'S' stock for all the surface lines. The first of these 'S' stocks (designed and built by Bombadier) began entry into service in 2010 on the Metropolitan.

Glasgow

Main article: Glasgow Subway

Tyneside

Main article: Tyne and Wear Metro rolling stock

Privatisation

The first Electrostar units built were the Class 357 for c2c. These were followed by the Class 375 and Class 376 for Connex South Eastern (now Southeastern) and the Class 377 for Connex South Central (now Southern). A batch of Class 378 units was also built for London Overground.

Siemens Desiro

a high speed tilting EMU

Introduced from 2002 onwards by Virgin Trains, the Class 390 units are tilting EMUs built for the West Coast Main Line (WCML) modernisation of the early 2000s. The units are based on Alstom-Fiat Ferroviaria’s Pendolino design, modified for the British loading gauge. The original order of 53 9-car sets were assembled at the former Metro-Cammell works in Washwood Heath, Birmingham. The units are employed almost exclusively on long distance express services between London Euston and Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and Glasgow.

The units replaced most of the former WCML long distance fleet made up primarily of Mark 2 and Mark 3 coaches hauled by Class 86, 87 and 90 locomotives. The Class 390 tilting technology has its design roots in British Rail’s ill-fated Advanced Passenger Train, and they were designed with a maximum speed of 140 mph (225 km/h). The units are currently restricted to 125 mph (201 km/h) in operational service, as the proposed installation of moving block signalling systems on the WCML was abandoned.

A further four 11-car sets were procured in 2010, and 31 of the original batch will be lengthened to 11 cars. They are expected to enter service in 2012 under the new InterCity West Coast franchise.

Planned trains

To provide new trains for the Thameslink Programme, the Thameslink rolling stock programme, a consortium of Siemens Project Ventures GmbH, Innisfree Ltd., and 3i Infrastructure Ltd. was named preferred bidder and entry into service is now scheduled from 2015 to 2018.[38]

The Intercity Express Programme trains are planned to enter service on the Great Western main line from 2016.[39] in 8-carriage or 5-carriage sets.[40]

Crossrail electric multiple units, given TOPS class 345, are planned to enter service in 2018.[41]

Railcars and Diesel Multiple Units

One of the earlier, more-streamlined GWR diesel railcars, still in British Railways service in May 1956.

The GWR network included many minor routes and branch lines, and there was a need for more economical trains for lesser-used routes. Having borrowed an LSWR steam railmotor in 1903, the GWR developed their own range of steam rail-motors. These were single carriages, with a boiler and steam engine unit at one end, and a driving cab at both ends. As the railmotors could not haul additional vehicles, in the 1920s the GWR developed the auto-train for routes where the railmotor was insufficient. An autotrain comprised a suitably equipped steam locomotive that could be controlled from the driving cab of a special 'autocoach'. This arrangement avoided the need for the locomotive to run round the train at the terminus. Up to four autocoaches could be used in a train, with the locomotive in the middle, driven from either end like a multiple unit. Autotrains remained in use right through to the end of steam operation on British Railways in the 1960s.

As the last steam railmotors were being withdrawn in the mid-1930s, the GWR introduced a series of diesel railcars. Although most were single units, there were two sets of 'power twins' (pairs of single-cabbed railcars that operated together), a form of multiple unit that could be expanded to take additional centre coaches. The railcars were also successful and most survived into British Railways ownership, eventually being displaced in the late 1950s by the closure of unprofitable routes and the introduction of the 'first-generation' BR diesel multiple units.

Main article: LMS railcars

The London Midland and Scottish Railway used a number of single diesel railcars and built a prototype streamlined multiple unit, prior to nationalisation.

First Generation DMUs

A 1st Generation (Heritage) Diesel Unit

As part of the 1955 Modernisation Plan of British Railways, provision was made for a number of railcars or DMUs. The earliest of these were the "Derby Lightweights", built by BR's own Derby works, and they quickly became popular with crews (for the increased comfort compared to a steam loco), operating authorities (they were, and still are, cheaper to operate than a loco hauled train, and are much more flexible, requiring no run around) and passengers (they were much cleaner than the old steam hauled stock and if you were lucky enough you could get a view of the line ahead).

Over the next few years a number of different designs came about, though nearly all were able to operate together thanks to BR standardising on the 'Blue Square' coupling code for multiple working. Although there were a few design differences, the units could basically be classified as suburban (Doors for each seating bay, 3+2 seating in second class- an example is Class 118), Medium Density (2 doors per vehicle side, 3+2 bus style seating in second class- an example is Class 114), Cross Country (externally similar to Medium Density, 2+2 bus style seating in second class- an example is Class 120) and finally Intercity (Interiors to same standard as loco hauled stock- an example is Class 124).

Today around 300 vehicles survive in preservation, various vehicles (mainly 101s and 121/122s) survive in departmental use, and Chiltern Railways use a Class 121 on its Aylesbury-Princes Risborough Line.

The Southern Region of British Rail preferred Diesel Electric Multiple units for use on non electrified routes. Routes they were used on included London to Hastings (now electrified), London to Uckfield, Portsmouth to Southampton (now electrified) and Southampton to Salisbury. Each Unit consisted of a motor coach and a number of trailers in formations of between two and six coaches depending on the type.

By the early 1980s it had become apparent that the Modernisation Plan DMUs were showing their age, and needed replacement or refurbishment. As several were insulated with blue asbestos, which BR was obliged to eradicate from its stock, the problem was compounded. Many of the designs produced were of non-standard design meaning that the procurement of parts to keep the units running became increasingly hard. For the second generation, British Rail pursued two basic designs - the Class 14x Pacer series, which were based on Leyland bus parts and were intended to be low cost trains to be used on regional branch lines, and the Class 15x Sprinter series - based largely on the Mark 3 bodyshell design, and intended for more demanding commuter routes, and also medium distance inter-city work.

Second Generation DMUs

Pacer units

Main article: Pacer (train)

The Pacer series was the result of an experiment to see whether the possibility of using bus parts to create a diesel multiple unit was viable. The initial prototype, known as LEV-1, was a joint project by the British Rail Research Division and Leyland Motors using a bus body mounted on a modification of an existing freight vehicle underframe (HSFV1).

Sprinter units

A 1980s Sprinter unit in Centro livery at Kidderminster. These also have sliding doors.

Sprinters were intended for longer distance routes and were designed from the outset as rail vehicles - unlike the Pacers. Most were based on the Mark 3 bodyshell design with the exception of the single-car Class 153 and the later 158/159 units. Using technology proven on the continent in the form of Cummins engines and a Voith hydraulic transmission[disambiguation needed] gave the extremely high reliability required. There are 6 types of Sprinter (plus a prototype for a seventh type that did not make it into production). The first type to enter service was the BREL British Rail Class 150 with a high density layout suitable for short suburban services, quickly followed by the 150/2 with gangway between units and improved interior. For longer distance journeys there were the Leyland Class 155 and Metro-Cammell Class 156. These were fully carpeted with end doors, luxury unheard of at the time on the routes they operated. Some class 155 units were later split into two single car units with a new and very compact cab being grafted onto the inner ends forming Class 153. The conversion was undertaken by Hunslet. The class 153's are used on rural branchlines and for strengthening other services. For regional services the Class 158 was built. This offered near intercity levels of comfort with full air conditioning and a quiet interior. The last of the Sprinters to be built was the Class 159 for Network South East for use of the West of England Main Line between Exeter and London Waterloo. These were three car versions of the Class 158 with an upgraded interior.

Class 210

The British Rail Class 210 was a prototype DEMU. It was based on the then standard design of EMU (Classes 317 and 455) with a diesel engine mounted at the end of one of the driving cars. It was not a success due to weight and cost and the decision was made to order diesel hydraulic Sprinters.

Network Turbo

The Turbo family was originally a standardised model for diesel suburban services around London. There were two types, the first Class 165 was a two or three coach unit used on the Chiltern and Thames routes. This was followed by the Class 166 which featured air conditioning and seating more suited to longer distance services.

Privatisation

During the privatisation process, there was a gap of more than two years during which no new rolling stock orders were placed. The first new order placed was in May 1996 for a fleet of Class 168 Clubman DMUs for Chiltern Railways. These were a development of the Network Turbo design already in use by Chiltern and other operators, and themselves became the basis for the Class 170/171 Turbostar fleet which operate local and regional services throughout the country.

A modern high speed DMU (Class 180)

The Coradia is a family of multiple units produced by Alstom. The British diesel versions are the 100 mph Class 175 for First North Western's North Wales Services (later moving to Arriva Trains Wales) and the 125 mph Class 180 Adelante for First Great Western's semi-fast services. The (Class 185 Pennine) is in service on Transpennine Express services. The first train was unveiled in Germany in November 2005 and arrived in the UK a month later. The first train went into public service in March 2006 with deliveries of the 51 strong fleet continuing into 2006, and being complete in December 2006, now all 51 units are in operation

The Voyager family is a series of high speed DEMUs. Virgin Trains were looking to replace the Cross Country fleet as part of their franchise obligations. The new train had to replace a mixture of life expired loco-hauled trains and mid-life HSTs and have tilt for use on the West Coast Mainline. The result was the non-tilt Class 220 Voyager and tilting Class 221 Super Voyager. Midland Mainline and Hull Trains since ordered a non-tilt version. The Class 222 Meridian and Pioneer units replaced slower Turbostars on semi-fast mainline services.

References

Notes

  1. ^ a b Hedges 1980, p. 135.
  2. ^ Day & Reed 2008, p. 42.
  3. ^ Day & Reed 2008, p. 44.
  4. ^ Gahan 1982, p. 21.
  5. ^ a b "Trial Running and Inspection (reprinted)". Manchester Weekly Times. 13 January 1893. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
  6. ^ Gahan 1982, p. 29.
  7. ^ Gahan 1982, pp. 24, 34.
  8. ^ Day & Reed 2008, pp. 57–58.
  9. ^ Jackson 1986, pp. 161–162.
  10. ^ Green 1987, p. 24.
  11. ^ Horne 2006, p. 37.
  12. ^ Green 1987, p. 25.
  13. ^ Jackson 1986, p. 158.
  14. ^ Horne 2006, pp. 42–42.
  15. ^ Parkin 1965, pp. 25–27.
  16. ^ Parkin 1965, pp. 53, 58.
  17. ^ Bruce 1983, p. 48.
  18. ^ a b c "Liverpool to Southport Electrification" (PDF). lyrs.org. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
  19. ^ "Accident at Hall Road on 27 July 1905". Railways Archive. Board of Trade. 2 September 1905. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
  20. ^ a b c "The NER Tyneside Electric Multiple Units". lner.info. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accesdate= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Bruce 1983, pp. 37–39.
  22. ^ Horne 2006, pp. 41–42.
  23. ^ a b c Hedges 1980, p. 136.
  24. ^ Marshall 1963, p. 1.
  25. ^ Grant 2011.
  26. ^ Moody 1968, pp. 6–7.
  27. ^ Dawson 1921.
  28. ^ "The LBSCR a.c. fleets". www.southernelectric.org.uk. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
  29. ^ a b "3-car motor units and 2-car trailer sets". www.southernelectric.org.uk. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
  30. ^ White 1969, p. 181.
  31. ^ White 1969, pp. 182–183.
  32. ^ White 1969, p. 183.
  33. ^ White 1969, p. 182.
  34. ^ White 1969, p. 184.
  35. ^ White 1969, p. 193.
  36. ^ "4 Sub". www.southernelectric.org.uk. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help); Text "http://www.southernelectric.org.uk/histfeat/fleet_sub.html" ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accesdate= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ Bruce 1983, p. 97.
  38. ^ "Siemens beats Bombardier to Thameslink train order". Railway Gazette International. 16 June 2011.
  39. ^ "Intercity Express Programme". Department for Transport. Retrieved 8 September 2011. The first units to be built under the Intercity Express Programme will be tested on the network from 2015 and introduced into revenue-earning service on the Great Western Main Line from 2016, and on the East Coast Main Line from 2018.
  40. ^ Intercity rail travel presentation to the Institute of Mechanical engineers, Slide2
  41. ^ "Crossrail Rolling Stock". www.crossrail.co.uk. Retrieved 16 July 2012.

Bibliography

General References

  • Locomotives and coaching stock of 1986 (Platform 5)
  • Locomotives and coaching stock of 1998 (Platform 5)
  • Diesel multiple units 1979: (A.B.C)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diesel multiple units of the United Kingdom and Electric multiple units of the United Kingdom.
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