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This article is about the city in the State of Palestine. For other uses, see Bethlehem (disambiguation).

Template:Infobox Palestinian Authority municipality Bethlehem (Hebrew: בֵּית לֶחֶם Bēṯ Leḥem, Modern: Bet Leḥem [bet ˈleχem], lit. "House of Bread"; Ancient Greek: Βηθλεέμ Greek pronunciation: [bɛːtʰle.ém]; Arabic: بيت لحم Bayt Laḥmⓘ or Bēt Laḥm, lit. "House of Meat) is a Palestinian city located in the central West Bank, neighboring south Jerusalem, with a population of about 25,000 people.[1][2] It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian Authority. The economy is primarily tourist-driven.[3][4]

The Hebrew Bible identifies Bethlehem as the city of David. The New Testament identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus. The town is inhabited by one of the oldest Christian communities in the world, although the size of the community has shrunk due to emigration. Bethlehem was sacked by the Samaritans in 529, but rebuilt by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. Bethlehem was conquered by the Arab Caliphate of 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb in 637, who guaranteed safety for the city's religious shrines. In 1099, Crusaders captured and fortified Bethlehem and replaced its Greek Orthodox clergy with a Latin one. The Latin clergy were expelled after the city was captured by Saladin, the sultan of Egypt and Syria. With the coming of the Mamluks in 1250, the city's walls were demolished, and were subsequently rebuilt during the rule of the Ottoman Empire.[5]

The British wrested control of the city from the Ottomans during World War I and it was to be included in an international zone under the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. Jordan annexed the city in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It was captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. Since 1995, Bethlehem has been governed by the Palestinian National Authority.[5]

Bethlehem has a Muslim majority, but is also home to one of the largest Palestinian Christian communities. Bethlehem's chief economic sector is tourism which peaks during the Christmas season when Christian pilgrims throng to the Church of the Nativity. Bethlehem has over thirty hotels and three hundred handicraft work shops.[6] Rachel's Tomb, an important Jewish holy site, is located at the northern entrance of Bethlehem.

History

Canaanite period

A historical reference to the town appears in the Amarna Letters (c. 1400 BC) when the King of Jerusalem appeals to his overlord, the King of Egypt, for help in retaking "Bit-Lahmi" in the wake of disturbances by the Apiru.[7] It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that this was a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals.[8]

Lachmo was the Akkadian god of fertility. Worshiped by the Canaanites as Lachama, some time in the 3rd millennium BC, they erected a temple to worship the god on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity. The town was known as Beit Lachama, meaning "House of Lachama."[9] William F. Albright notes the pronunciation of the name remained essentially the same for 3,500 years, but has meant different things: "'Temple of the God Lakhmu' in Canaanite, 'House of Bread' in Hebrew and Aramaic, 'House of Meat' in Arabic."

Israelite and Judean period

Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as an Israelite city was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a bulla (seal impression in dried clay) in ancient Hebrew script that reads "From the town of Bethlehem to the King," indicating that it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BC.[10]

Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem, located in the "hill country" of Judah, may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath,[11] which means "fertile", as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah.[12] The Bible also calls it Beth-Lehem Judah,[13] and the "City of David".[14] It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried "by the wayside" (Gen. 48:7). Rachel's Tomb, the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the Book of Ruth, the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi. It was the home of Jesse,[15] father of King David of Israel, and the site of David's anointment by the prophet Samuel.[16] It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam.[17]

According to historical sources and the Christian tradition, Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem.

Writing in the 4th century, the Pilgrim of Bordeaux reported that the sepulchers of David, Ezekiel, Asaph, Job, Jesse, and Solomon were located near Bethlehem.[18] There has been no corroboration of this.

Classical antiquity

A painting of Bethlehem, 1882

Between 132 and 135 the city was reoccupied by the Romans after its capture during the Bar Kokhba revolt. Its Jewish residents were expelled by the military order of Hadrian.[19] The Romans built a shrine to the Greek god Adonis on the site of the Nativity.[20] A church was erected in 326, when Helena, the mother of the first Byzantine emperor, Constantine, visited Bethlehem.[5]

During the Samaritan revolt of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed, but they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor Justinian I. In 614, the Persian Sassanid Empire, supported by Jewish rebels, invaded Palestina Prima and captured Bethlehem. A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the magi depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic.[5]

Islamic and Crusader rule

In 637, shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies, 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second Caliph, promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use.[5] A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church.[21] Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the Umayyads in the 8th century, then the Abbasids in the 9th century. A Persian geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town. In 985, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi visited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the "Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round."[22] In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in the structure's southern transept.[23]

In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders, who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox clergy were removed from their sees and replaced with Latin clerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100, Baldwin I, first king of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem, was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.[5]

In 1187, Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria who led the Muslim Ayyubids, captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims.[5]

William IV, Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present-day Burgundy, France. As such, The Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223. Clamecy remained the continuous 'in partibus infidelium' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the French Revolution in 1789.[24]

Bethlehem—along with Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Sidon—was briefly ceded to the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem by a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamil in 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders. The treaty expired in 1239, and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244.[25]

In 1250, with the coming to power of the Mamluks under Rukn al-Din Baibars, tolerance of Christianity declined; the clergies left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the Armenians.[5]

Ottoman and Egyptian rule

The Mosque of Omar (Umar), built in 1860 to commemorate the Caliph Umar's visit to Bethlehem
View of Bethlehem, 1898
Bethlehem, 1880

From 1517, during the years of Ottoman control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches.[5] By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and was subdivided into seven quarters.[26] The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period.[27] The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time. Its total revenue amounted to 30,000 akce.[28]

Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes. The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader; five leaders represented the village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims. Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes (the former being a more valuable commodity).[29]

From 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt. During this period, the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha.[30] In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment, compulsory military service, and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration, particularly to South America.[5] An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4,000, nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church. He also noted that a lack of water crippled the town's growth.[31]

Modern era

Bethlehem was administered by the British Mandate from 1920 to 1948.[32] In the United Nations General Assembly's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine, Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the United Nations.[33] Jordan captured the city during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.[34] Many refugees from areas captured by Israeli forces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in the what became the official refugee camps of 'Azza (Beit Jibrin) and 'Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south.[35] The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one.[36]

Jordan retained control of the city until the Six-Day War in 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of the West Bank. Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the city. In 1995, Israel turned it over to the Palestinian National Authority in accordance with the Oslo peace accord.

Israeli soldiers in Bethlehem, 1978

Today, the nearest towns and settlements to Bethlehem are Bayt Jala to the west, Bayt Sahour to the east, Deheisha to the south, and the Jerusalem neighborhood of Har Homa to the north (separated from Bethlehem by the West Bank barrier).

Palestinian control

Bethlehem residence, 2008

On December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem,[37] and three days later the city came under the complete administration and military control of the Palestinian National Authority in conformance with the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in 1995.[38]

During the Second Palestinian Intifada in 2000–2005, Bethlehem's infrastructure and tourism industry were damaged.[39][40] In 2002, it was a primary combat zone in Operation Defensive Shield, a major military counteroffensive by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF).[41]

During the counteroffensive, the IDF besieged the Church of the Nativity, where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge. The siege lasted for 39 days. Several militants were killed. It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the wanted militants to various foreign countries.[42]

Geography

Bethlehem stands at an elevation of about 775 meters (2,543 ft) above sea level, 30 meters (98 ft) higher than nearby Jerusalem.[43] Bethlehem is situated on the southern portion in the Judean Mountains.

The city is located 73 kilometers (45 mi) northeast of Gaza and the Mediterranean Sea, 75 kilometers (47 mi) west of Amman, Jordan, 59 kilometers (37 mi) southeast of Tel Aviv, Israel and 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) south of Jerusalem.[44] Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north, Beit Jala to the northwest, Husan to the west, al-Khadr and Artas to the southwest, and Beit Sahour to the east. Beit Jala and the latter form an agglomeration with Bethlehem and the Aida and Azza refugee camps are located within the city limits.[45]

In the center of Bethlehem is its old city. The old city consists of eight quarters, laid out in a mosaic style, forming the area around the Manger Square. The quarters include the Christian an-Najajreh, al-Farahiyeh, al-Anatreh, al-Tarajmeh, al-Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al-Fawaghreh — the only Muslim quarter.[46] Most of the Christian quarters are named after the Arab Ghassanid clans that settled there.[47] Al-Qawawsa Quarter was formed by Arab Christian emigrants from the nearby town of Tuqu' in the 18th century.[48] There is also a Syriac quarter outside of the old city,[46] whose inhabitants originate from Midyat and Ma'asarte in Turkey.[49] The total population of the old city is about 5,000.[46]

Climate

Bethlehem has a Mediterranean climate, with hot and dry summers and cold winters. Winter temperatures (mid-December to mid-March) can be cold and rainy. January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius (33–55 °F). From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny. August is the hottest month, with a high of 30 degrees Celsius (81 °F). Bethlehem receives an average of 700 millimeters (28 in) of rainfall annually, 70% between November and January.[50]

Bethlehem's average annual relative humidity is 60% and reaches its highest rates between January and February. Humidity levels are at their lowest in May. Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year. The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid-day. However, Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot, dry, sandy and dust Khamaseen winds from the Arabian Desert, during April, May and mid-June.[50]

Climate data for Bethlehem
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 12
(54) 		13
(55) 		16
(61) 		22
(72) 		26
(79) 		28
(82) 		30
(86) 		30
(86) 		28
(82) 		26
(79) 		20
(68) 		14
(57) 		22
(72)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 5
(41) 		5
(41) 		7
(45) 		10
(50) 		14
(57) 		17
(63) 		19
(66) 		19
(66) 		17
(63) 		15
(59) 		11
(52) 		7
(45) 		12
(54)
Average rainy days 12 11 9 4 2 0 0 0 0 3 7 11 59
Average snowy days 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3
Source: myweather2.com[51]

Demographics

Population

Year Population
1867 3,000-4,000[52]
1945 8,820[53]
1961 22,450
1983 16,300[54][verification needed]
1997 21,930[55]
2004 (Projected) 28,010[56]
2006 (Projected) 29,930[56]
2007 25,266[55]

According to Ottoman tax records, Christians made up roughly 60% of the population in the early 16th century, while the Christian and Muslim population became equal by the mid-16th century. However, there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century, with a recorded population of 287 adult male tax-payers. Christians, like all non-Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire, were required to pay the jizya tax.[26] In 1867 an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3,000 to 4,000; of whom about 100 were Protestants, 300 were Muslims and "the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians."[52] Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3,000, with an additional 50 Muslims.[57]

In 1948, the religious makeup of the city was 85% Christian, mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations, and 13% Muslim.[58] In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities, the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14,439 inhabitants, its 7,790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53.9% of the population, while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6,231 or 46.1%.[59]

In the PCBS's 1997 census, the city had a population of 21,670, including a total of 6,570 refugees, accounting for 30.3% of the city's population.[55][60] In 1997, the age distribution of Bethlehem's inhabitants was 27.4% under the age of 10, 20% from 10 to 19, 17.3% from 20-29, 17.7% from 30 to 44, 12.1% from 45-64 and 5.3% above the age of 65. There were 11,079 males and 10,594 females.[55]

According to a PCBS estimate, Bethlehem's population was 29,930 in mid-2006.[56] The 2007 PCBS census, however, revealed a population of 25,266, of which 12,753 were males and 12,513 were females. There were 6,709 housing units, of which 5,211 were households. The average household consisted of 4.8 family members.[61]

By 2005, the proportion of Christian residents had decreased dramatically, to about 40% from 50%.[62] The only mosque in the Old City is the Mosque of Omar, located in the Manger Square.[21]

Christian population

See also: Palestinian Christians

After the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the local Christians were Arabized as well even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans.[63] Bethlehem's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids, including al-Farahiyyah and an-Najajreh.[63] The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen and from the Wadi Musa area in present-day Jordan and an-Najajreh descend from Najran.[63] Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anatreh, also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids.[63]

Four Bethlehem Christian women, 1911

The percentage of Christians in the town has been steadily falling, primarily due to emigration. The lower birth rate of Christians also accounts for some of the decline. In 1947, Christians made up 85% of the population, but by 1998 the figure had declined to 40%.[58] In 2005, the mayor of Bethlehem, Victor Batarseh explained that "due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are a minority."[64] The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians, although there have been incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service and militant factions.[65]

The outbreak of the Second Intifada and the resultant decrease in tourism also affected the Christian minority, as they are the owners of many Bethlehem hotels and services that cater to foreign tourists.[66] A statistical analysis of the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity, especially due to the Christians' middle-class status and higher education.[67] Since the Second Intifada, 10% of the Christian population have left the city.[64]

In 2006, the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city's Christians according to which 90% said they had had Muslim friends, 73.3% agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78% attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli travel restrictions.[68] However, other commentators attribute the diminishing Christian population primarily to persecution of Christians by Muslims.[69][70]

Economy

Shopping is a major draw, especially during the Christmas season. The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling Palestinian handicrafts, Middle Eastern spices, jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa.[71] Olive wood carvings [72] are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem.[73] Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from mother-of-pearl, as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses.[72] Other industries are stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings.[74] Bethlehem factories also produce paints, plastics, synthetic rubber, pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery.[74]

Cremisan Wine, founded in 1885, is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan. The grapes are grown mainly in the al-Khader district. In 2007, the monastery's wine production was around 700,000 liters per year.[75]

In 2008, Bethlehem hosted the largest ever economic conference in the Palestinian territories. It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince over 1,000 businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout the Middle East to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. A total of 1.4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories.[76]

Tourism

Church of the Nativity

Tourism is Bethlehem's main industry and unlike other Palestinian localities before 2000, the majority of the working residents did not work in Israel.[39] More than 20% of the working population is employed in the industry.[77] Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of the Palestinian National Authority.[78]

The city has more than two million visitors every year.[77]

The Church of the Nativity is one of Bethlehem's major tourist attractions and a magnet for Christian pilgrims. It stands in the center of the city — a part of the Manger Square — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, where Jesus supposedly was born. Nearby is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave where St. Jerome spent thirty years creating the Vulgate, the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation.[5]

There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem.[6] Jacir Palace, built in 1910 near the church, is one of Bethlehem's most successful hotels and its oldest. It was closed down in 2000 due to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace Intercontinental at Bethlehem.[79]

Religion

Birthplace of Jesus

Further information: Church of the Nativity and Nativity of Jesus
Silver star marking the place where Jesus was born according to Christian tradition

Two accounts in the New Testament describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem. According to the Gospel of Luke,[14] Jesus' parents lived in Nazareth and travelled for the Census of Quirinius to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, after which they returned home. The Gospel of Matthew account implies that the family already lived in Bethlehem and later fled to Nazareth to escape persecution. Matthew says that Herod the Great, told that a 'King of the Jews' has been born in Bethlehem, ordered the killing of all the children aged two and under in the town and surrounding areas. Joseph is warned of this in a dream, and the family escapes this fate by fleeing to Egypt and returning only after Herod has died. Most modern biographers of Herod doubt the massacre was a real event.[80]

Early Christians interpreted a verse in the Book of Micah[81] as a prophecy of the birth of the Messiah in Bethlehem.[82] Modern scholars question whether Jesus was born in Bethlehem, seeing the biblical stories not as historical accounts but as symbolic narratives invented to present the birth of Jesus as fulfillment of prophecy and imply a connection to the lineage of King David.[83][84][85][86][87] The Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative, but refer to him only as being from Nazareth.[88] In a 2005 article in Archaeology magazine, archaeologist Aviram Oshri points to an absence of evidence of the settlement of Bethlehem near Jerusalem at the time when Jesus was born, and postulates that Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Galilee.[89] In a 2011 article in Biblical Archaeology Review magazine, Jerome Murphy-O'Connor argues for the traditional position that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem.[90]

The existence of early traditions of Jesus' birth in Bethlehem is attested by the Christian apologist Justin Martyr, who stated in his Dialogue with Trypho (c. 155–161) that the Holy Family had taken refuge in a cave outside of the town.[91] Origen of Alexandria, writing around the year 247, referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus.[92]

Christmas celebrations

Catholic procession on Christmas Eve, 2006

Christmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates: December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations, but Greek, Coptic and Syrian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on January 6 and Armenian Orthodox Christians on January 19. Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square, the plaza outside the Basilica of the Nativity. Roman Catholic services take place in St. Catherine's Church and Protestants often hold services at Shepherds' Fields.[93]

Other religious festivals

Christmas pilgrims, 1890

Bethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore. One such festival is the annual Feast of Saint George (al-Khadr) on 5–6 May. During the celebrations, Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town of al-Khader to baptize newborns in the waters around the Monastery of St. George and sacrifice a sheep in ritual.[94] The Feast of St. Elijah is commemorated by a procession to Mar Elias, a Greek Orthodox monastery north of Bethlehem.

Culture

Embroidery

See also: Palestinian costumes

The women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear.[95] Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its "strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance."[96] Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat (bisht) from locally woven wool worn over top. Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a short taqsireh jacket known as the Bethlehem jacket. The taqsireh was made of velvet or broadcloth, usually with heavy embroidery.[95]

Woman in traditional Bethlehem costume

Bethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord, or silk cord onto the silk, wool, felt or velvet used for the garment, to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines. This technique was used for "royal" wedding dresses (thob malak), taqsirehs and the shatwehs worn by married women. It has been traced by some to Byzantium, and by others to the formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire's elite. As a Christian village, local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade.[95]

Mother-of-pearl carving

Craftsmen working with mother-of-pearl, early 20th century

The art of mother-of-pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced by Franciscan friars from Italy.[97] A constant stream of pilgrims generated a demand for these items, which also provided jobs for women.[98] The industry was noted by Richard Pococke, who visited Bethlehem in 1727.[99]

Cultural centers and museums

Bethlehem is home to the Palestinian Heritage Center, established in 1991. The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery, art and folklore.[100] The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem. It provides language and guide training, woman's studies and arts and crafts displays, and training.[4]

The Bethlehem branch of the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music has about 500 students. Its primary goals are to teach children music, train teachers for other schools, sponsor music research, and the study of Palestinian folklore music.[101]

Bethlehem has four museums: The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 3D models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus. Its theater presents a 20-minute animated show. The Badd Giacaman Museum, located in the Old City of Bethlehem, dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process of olive oil production.[4] Baituna al-Talhami Museum, established in 1972, contains displays of Bethlehem culture.[4] The International Museum of Nativity was built by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to exhibit "high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere".[4]

Local government

A Hamas rally in Bethlehem

Bethlehem is the muhfaza (seat) or district capital of the Bethlehem Governorate.

Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876, after the mukhtars ("heads") of the quarters of Bethlehem's Old City (excluding the Syriac Quarter) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town. A Basic Law was established so that if the victor for mayor was a Catholic, his deputy should be of the Greek Orthodox community.[102]

Throughout, Bethlehem's rule by the British and Jordan, the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election, as were the Ta'amrah Bedouins and Palestinian refugees, hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11. In 1976, an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25.[102]

Today, the Bethlehem Municipal Council consists of 15 elected members, including the mayor and deputy mayor. A special statute requires that the mayor and a majority of the municipal council be Christian, while the remainder are open seats, not restricted to any religion.[66]

There are several branches of political parties on the council, including Communist, Islamist, and secular. The leftist factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Palestinian People's Party (PPP) usually dominate the reserved seats. Hamas gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections.[103]

In the October 2012 municipal elections, Fatah member Vera Baboun won, becoming the first female mayor of Bethlehem.[104]

Mayors

The mayor and the deputy mayor of Bethlehem are required by municipal law to be Christian.[66]

Education

According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, approximately 84% of Bethlehem's population over the age of 10 was literate. Of the city's population, 10,414 were enrolled in schools (4,015 in primary school, 3,578 in secondary and 2,821 in high school). About 14.1% of high school students received diplomas.[107] There were 135 schools in the Bethlehem Governorate in 2006; 100 run the Education Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority, seven by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and 28 were private.[108]

Bethlehem is home to Bethlehem University, a Catholic Christian co-educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition, open to students of all faiths. Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank, and can trace its roots to 1893 when the De La Salle Christian Brothers opened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt.[109]

Transportation

A street in Bethlehem

Bethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour, Hebron, Nahalin, Battir, al-Khader, al-Ubeidiya and Beit Fajjar. There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour, Beit Jala, Jerusalem, Tuqu' and Herodium. There are also two car rental departments: Murad and 'Orabi. Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel, including Jerusalem, without a permit.[110]

The Israeli construction of the West Bank barrier has had an impact on Bethlehem politically, socially, and economically. The barrier runs along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within meters of houses in 'Aida refugee camp on one side, and the Jerusalem municipality on the other.[39] Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of the West Bank are currently subject to Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks. The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives. Travel for Bethlehem's Palestinian residents from the West Bank into Jerusalem is regulated by a permit-system.[111] Palestinians require a permit to enter the Jewish holy site of Rachel's Tomb. Israeli citizens are barred from entering Bethlehem and the nearby biblical Solomon's Pools.[39]

Twin towns — Sister cities

Bethlehem is twinned with:[112][113][114]

See also

References

Bibliography

  • Amara, Muhammad (1999). Politics and sociolinguistic reflexes: Palestinian border villages (Illustrated ed.). John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-4128-3.
  • Brynen, Rex (2000). A very political economy: peacebuilding and foreign aid in the West Bank and Gaza (Illustrated ed.). US Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 978-1-929223-04-6.
  • Vermes, Geza (2006). "The Nativity: History and Legend". Penguin Press. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Edwin D., Freed (2004). "Stories of Jesus' Birth". Continuum International. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Sanders, E. P. (1993). "The Historical Figure of Jesus". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Crossan, John Dominic; Watts, Richard G. "Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus". Westminster John Knox Press. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • James D. G. Dunn (2003). Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-3931-2. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
  • Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey (1990). "Mercer Dictionary of the Bible". 5. Mercer University Press. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Petersen, Andrew (2005). The Towns of Palestine Under Muslim Rule. British Archaeological Reports. ISBN 978-1-84171-821-7.
  • Taylor, Joan E. (1993). "Christians and the Holy Places". Oxford University Press. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • le Strange, Guy (1890). "Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500". Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Retrieved 2009-07-22. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Paul Read, Peirs (2000). The Templars. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-26658-8.
  • Thomson, Revered W.M. (1860). "The Land and the Book". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Sawsan & Qustandi Shomali. Bethlehem 2000. A Guide to Bethlehem and it Surroundings.Waldbrol, Flamm Druck Wagener GMBH, 1997.

Notes

  1. ^ Amara, 1999, p. 18.
  2. ^ Brynen, 2000, p. 202.
  3. ^ Kaufman, David; Katz, Marisa S. (2006-04-16). "In the West Bank, Politics and Tourism Remain Bound Together Inextricably - New York Times". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  4. ^ a b c d e "Places to Visit In & Around Bethlehem". Bethlehem Hotel. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "History and Mithology of Bethlehem". Bethlehem Municipality. Archived from the original on 2008-01-13. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  6. ^ a b Patience, Martin (2007-12-22). "Better times return to Bethlehem". BBC News. BBC MMVIII. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  7. ^ "Oxford Archeological Guides: The Holy Land", Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, pp. 198–199, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-19-288013-6.
  8. ^ "International Dictionary of Historic Places: Vol 4, Middle East and Africa", Trudy Ring, K.A Berney, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger, p. 133, Taylor & Francis, 1996, ISBN 1-884964-03-6.
  9. ^ Richard R. Losch (2005). The uttermost part of the earth: a guide to places in the Bible (Illustrated ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2805-7.
  10. ^ Israel Antiquities Authority, May, 2012, http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=25&subj_id=240&id=1938&module_id=#as
  11. ^ Gen. 35:16, Gen. 48:7, Ruth 4:11
  12. ^ Micah 5:2
  13. ^ Sam 17:12Template:Bibleverse with invalid book
  14. ^ a b Luke 2:4
  15. ^ 1Sam 16:1
  16. ^ 1Sam 16:4–13
  17. ^ 2Sam 23:13–17
  18. ^ "The Bordeaux Pilgrim @". Centuryone.com. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
  19. ^ History of Bethlehem Bethlehem Homepage.
  20. ^ Murphy, Jerome. "Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, ''Bethlehem ... Of Course'', Biblical Archaeology Review". Bib-arch.org. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
  21. ^ a b "Mosque of Omar, Bethlehem". Atlas Travel and Tourist Agency. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  22. ^ le Strange, 1890, pp. 298–300.
  23. ^ "Church of the Nativity - Bethlehem". Bethlehem, West Bank, Israel: Sacred-destinations.com. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
  24. ^ de Sivry, L: "Dictionnaire de Geographie Ecclesiastique", p. 375., 1852 ed, from ecclesiastical record of letters between the Bishops of Bethlehem 'in partibus' to the bishops of Auxerre.
  25. ^ Paul Reed, 2000, p. 206.
  26. ^ a b Singer, 1994, p. 80.
  27. ^ Singer, 1994, p. 33.
  28. ^ Petersen, 2005, p. 141.
  29. ^ Singer, 1994, p. 84.
  30. ^ Thomson, 1860, p. 647.
  31. ^ W. M. Thomson, p. 647.
  32. ^ Bethlehem.
  33. ^ "IMEU: Maps: 2.7 - Jerusalem and the Corpus Separatum proposed in 1947". Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  34. ^ A Jerusalem Timeline, 3,000 Years of The City's History (2001–02) National Public Radio and BBC News.
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  36. ^ Population in the Bethlehem District Bethlehem.ps.
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  38. ^ Kessel, Jerrold (1995-12-24). "Muslims, Christians celebrate in Bethlehem". CNN News. Cable News Network. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  39. ^ a b c d Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) & Office of the Special Coordinator for the Peace Process in the Middle East (2004). "Costs of Conflict: The Changing Face of Bethlehem" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 2009-07-22. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  40. ^ "Better times return to Bethlehem". BBC News. 2007-12-22. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  41. ^ "Vatican outrage over church siege". BBC News. BBC MMIII. 2002-04-08. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
  42. ^ "Chronology of the Siege". PBS. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
  43. ^ "Tourism In Bethlehem Governorate". Palestinian National Information Center.
  44. ^ Distance from Bethlehem to Tel Aviv, Distance from Bethlehem to Gaza Time and Date AS / Steffen Thorsen.
  45. ^ Detailed map of the West Bank.
  46. ^ a b c Bethlehem's Quarters Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation
  47. ^ Clans -2 Mediterranean Voices: Oral History and Cultural Practice in Mediterranean Cities
  48. ^ Tqoa' area Zeiter, Leila. Centre for Preservation of Culture and History.
  49. ^ Short Overview of the Bato Family BatoFamily.com
  50. ^ a b "Bethlehem City: Climate". Bethlehem Municipality. Archived from the original on 2007-11-28.
  51. ^ "January Climate History for Bethlehem | Local | Israel". Myweather2.com. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
  52. ^ a b Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches - notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. p. 148.
  53. ^ Hadawi, Sami. "Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine". Palestine Liberation Organization - Research Center. Retrieved 2011-06-16.
  54. ^ Census by Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
  55. ^ a b c d Palestinian Population by Locality, Sex and Age Groups in Years: Bethlehem Governorate (1997) Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2007-12-23.
  56. ^ a b c "Projected Mid -Year Population for Bethlehem Governorate by Locality 2004–2006". Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  57. ^ William Wyndham Malet (1868). The olive leaf: a pilgrimage to Rome, Jerusalem, and Constantinople, in 1867, for the reunion of the faithful. T. Bosworth. p. 116. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
  58. ^ a b Andrea Pacini (1998). Socio-Political and Community Dynamics of Arab Christians in Jordan, Israel, and the Autonomous Palestinian Territories. Clarendon Press. p.  282. ISBN 0-19-829388-7.
  59. ^ Bethlehem
  60. ^ "Palestinian Population by Locality and Refugee Status". Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  61. ^ "2007 PCBS Census" (PDF). Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. p. 117. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
  62. ^ "Bethlehem Christians Worry About Islamic Takeover in Jesus' Birthplace". 2005-05-19. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  63. ^ a b c d Bethlehem, The Holy Land's Collective Cultural National Identity: A Palestinian Arab Historical Perspective Musallam, Adnan. Bethlehem University.
  64. ^ a b Jim Teeple (24 December 2005). "Christians Disappearing in the Birthplace of Jesus". Voice of America. Archived from the original on May 5, 2008. Retrieved 2009-07-22. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  65. ^ David Raab (5 January 2003). "The Beleaguered Christians of the Palestinian-Controlled Areas: Official PA Domination of Christians". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
  66. ^ a b c "O, Muslim town of Bethlehem ..." the Daily Mail. London. 2006-12-16. Retrieved 2013-10-19.
  67. ^ Marsh, Leonard (July 2005). "Palestinian Christianity – A Study in Religion and Politics". International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church. 57 (7): 147–66. doi:10.1080/14742250500220228. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  68. ^ "Americans not sure where Bethlehem is, survey shows". Ekklesia. 2006-12-20. Retrieved 2007-05-07.
  69. ^ Why Are Christians Really Leaving Bethlehem? - Inside Israel - CBN News - Christian News 24-7 - CBN.com
  70. ^ Daniel Schwammenthal: Bethlehem's Persecuted Christians - WSJ.com
  71. ^ "Bethlehem Municipality(Site Under Construction)". Archived from the original on February 26, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-22. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  72. ^ a b "Bethlehem: Shopping". TouristHub. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
  73. ^ "Handicrafts: Olive-wood carving". Bethlehem Municipality. Archived from the original on 2007-11-21.
  74. ^ a b "Bethlehem Information". Bethlehem Chamber of Commerce & Industry. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  75. ^ Jahsan, Ruby. "Wine". The Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation. Archived from the original on 2007-11-17. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
  76. ^ Palestinians bidding for business Maqbool, Aleem. BBC News. BBC MMVIII. 2008-05-21. Retrieved on 2008-05-22.
  77. ^ a b "The City Economy". Bethlehem Municipality. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  78. ^ "Bethlehem's struggles continue". Al Jazeera English. 25 December 2007. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  79. ^ Jacir Palace, InterContinental Bethlehem re-opens for business InterContinental Hotels Group
  80. ^ "most recent biographies of Herod the Great deny it entirely." Paul L. Maier, "Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem", in Chronos, Kairos, Christos II, Mercer University Press (1998), p.170
  81. ^ Micah 5:2
  82. ^ Freed, 2004, p. 77.
  83. ^ Vermes, 2006, p. 22.
  84. ^ Sanders, 1993, p. 85.
  85. ^ Crossan and Watts, p. 19.
  86. ^ Dunn, 2003, pp. 344–345.
  87. ^ Marcus J. Borg, Meeting Jesus for the First Time (Harper San Francisco, 1995) page 22–23.
  88. ^ Mills and Bullard, 1990, pp. 445–446. See Mark 6:1-4; and John 1:46.
  89. ^ Aviram Oshri, "Where was Jesus Born?", Archaeology, Volume 58 Number 6, November/December 2005.
  90. ^ Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, Bethlehem ... Of Course, Biblical Archaeology Review.
  91. ^ Taylor, 1993, pp. 99–100. "Joseph ... took up his quarters in a certain cave near the village; and while they were there Mary brought forth the Christ and placed him in a manger, and here the Magi who came from Arabia found him."(Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, chapter LXXVIII).
  92. ^ In Bethlehem the cave is pointed out where he was born, and the manger in the cave where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes. And the rumor is in those places, and among foreigners of the Faith, that indeed Jesus was born in this cave who is worshipped and reverenced by the Christians. (Origen, Contra Celsum, book I, chapter LI).
  93. ^ "Christmas in Bethlehem". Sacred Destinations. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  94. ^ St. George's Feast Bethlehem.ps.
  95. ^ a b c "Palestine costume before 1948: by region". Palestine Costume Archive. Archived from the original on 2006-10-24. Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  96. ^ Stillman, Yedida Kalfon (1979). Palestinian costume and jewelry. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p.  46. ISBN 0-8263-0490-7.
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  98. ^ Weir, pp. 128, 280, n.30
  99. ^ A Description of the East and Some other Countries, p. 436
  100. ^ "Palestinian Heritage Center: Objectives". Archived from the original on 2007-11-12.
  101. ^ "The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music". Archived from the original on 2008-02-14. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  102. ^ a b Municipal Council Elections during the British and Jordanian Periods Bethlehem Municipal Council.
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  104. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference wafa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  105. ^ "Municipalities Info". Archived from the original on 2007-02-21.
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  108. ^ "Statistics about General Education in Palestine 2005–2006" (PDF). Education Minister of the Palestinian National Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-10-14. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
  109. ^ "Mission and History". Bethlehem University. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  110. ^ "Bethlehem Public Transport System". Archived from the original on 2007-12-27. Retrieved 2008-01-22. Bethlehem Municipality.
  111. ^ "Impact of Israel's separation barrier on affected West Bank communities - OCHA update report #2". 30 September 2003. Retrieved 4 August 2013.
  112. ^ a b "Twinning with Palestine". The Britain - Palestine Twinning Network. 1998–2008. Retrieved 2008-11-29.
  113. ^ The City of Bethlehem has signed a twinning agreements with the following cities Bethlehem Municipality.
  114. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al "Bethlehem Municipality". www.bethlehem-city.org. Retrieved 2011-06-21.
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  120. ^ Ayuntamiento de Zaragoza. Hermanamientos y Protocolos de Colaboración
  121. ^ Sacramento to Bethlehem Sister City Initiative
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