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Articles published in China related to basic medial science and clinical research and indexed by [[PubMed]] increased on average by 31.2% and 22% each year between 2000 and 2009. [[Randomized clinical trial]] were about 1/3 of clinical research articles. However, in 2009 this still represented only 1.5% of worldwide clinical research articles and 1.7% of worldwide randomized clinical trials. Clinical research education for medical students and the involvement and the supporting environment for medical doctors regarding clinical research have shortcomings.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60017-2}}</ref>
Articles published in China related to basic medial science and clinical research and indexed by [[PubMed]] increased on average by 31.2% and 22% each year between 2000 and 2009. [[Randomized clinical trial]] were about 1/3 of clinical research articles. However, in 2009 this still represented only 1.5% of worldwide clinical research articles and 1.7% of worldwide randomized clinical trials. Clinical research education for medical students and the involvement and the supporting environment for medical doctors regarding clinical research have shortcomings.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60017-2}}</ref>


=== Biotechnology ===
=== Biotechnology and Genetics ===
{{Main|Biotechnology industry in the People's Republic of China}}
{{Main|Biotechnology industry in the People's Republic of China}}
China in 2011 stated that biotechnology (including biopharmacy, bio-engineering, bio-agriculture and biomanufacturing ) was a major priority for science and technology spending. Biotechnology will be used to enhance economic development as well as for improving Chinese environmental protection, nutrition, healthcare, and medicine. The Chinese governments expects biotechnology to add 1 million jobs during the 2011-2015 period.<ref>Wang Yu and Li Xiang , China placing priority on biotechnology, China Daily, 2011-06-28, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2011-06/28/content_12790544.htm</ref>
China in 2011 stated that biotechnology (including biopharmacy, bio-engineering, bio-agriculture and biomanufacturing ) was a major priority for science and technology spending. Biotechnology will be used to enhance economic development as well as for improving Chinese environmental protection, nutrition, healthcare, and medicine. The Chinese governments expects biotechnology to add 1 million jobs during the 2011-2015 period.<ref>Wang Yu and Li Xiang , China placing priority on biotechnology, China Daily, 2011-06-28, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2011-06/28/content_12790544.htm</ref>

[[Monitor Group]] in a 2010 report predicted that China within a decade will become the world leader in discovery and innovation in life sciences. Some research is seen as less controversial in China than elsewhere such as research regarding the genetic causes of intelligence. [[BGI]], formerly Beijing Genomics Institute, has been described as having the world's largest [[DNA sequencing]] facilities. <ref>Lone Frank, High-Quality DNA, Apr 24, 2011, The Daily Beast, http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/04/24/high-quality-dna.html</ref>


=== Environmental science ===
=== Environmental science ===

Revision as of 05:45, 23 March 2012

Science and technology in the People's Republic of China has in recent decades been growing rapidly. The government has placed emphasis through funding, reform, and and societal status on science and technology as a fundamental part of the socio-economic development of the country. China has made rapid advances in areas such as education, infrastructure, academic publishing, patents, and commercial applications. China is now increasingly targeting indigenous innovation and aims to reform remaining weaknesses.

History

Part of a series on the
History of science and technology in China
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By subject
By era
Building infrastructure has been a major task for Chinese engineering during the past decades. Above the 32.5 kilometres (20.2 mi) Donghai Bridge which connects mainland Shanghai and the offshore Yangshan Port which is one part of the Port of Shanghai which is the world's busiest container port.
Main article: History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China
For historical China, see History of science and technology in China.

China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty. Chinese discoveries and Chinese innovations such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions) contributed to the economic development in Asia and Europe. Chinese activity started to decrease in the fourteenth century. Unlike in Europe scientists did not attempt to reduce observations of nature to mathematical laws and they did not form a scholarly community with criticisms and progressive research. There was an increasing concentration on literature, arts, and public administration while science and technology were seen as trivial or restricted to limited practical applications.[1] The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated. One factor is argued to be the imperial examination system which removed the incentives for Chinese intellectuals to learn mathematics or to conduct experimentation.[2]

After repeated defeats by Western nations, modern science and technology were started to be promoted as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communist victory in 1949 S&T were organized based on the the model of the Soviet Union. It was characterized by a bureaucratic organization led by nonscientists, research according to the goals of central plans, separation of research from production, specialized research institutes, concentration on practical applications, and restrictions on information flows. Researchers should work as collectives for society rather than as individuals seeking recognition. Many studied in the Soviet Union which also transferred technology. The Cultural revolution, which sought to remove perceived "bourgeois" influences and attitudes, caused large negative effects and disruptions. Among other measures it saw the scientific community and formal education attacked, intellectuals were sent to do manual labor, universities and academic journals were closed, most research ceased, and for nearly a decade China trained no new scientists and engineers.[1]

After Mao's death, S&T was established as one of the Four Modernizations in 1976. The new leader Deng Xiaoping, and architect the Chinese economic reform, was strong promoter of S&T and reversed the policies of the Cultural revolution. The Soviet inspired system was then gradually reformed. Media began promoting the value of S&T, scientific thinking, and scientific achievement. [1] The third and fourth generations of leaders came almost exclusively from technical backgrounds.

The State Council of the People's Republic of China in 1995 issued the "Decision on Accelerating S&T Development" which described planned Science & Technology development for the coming decades. It described S&T as the chief productive force and affecting economic development, social progress, national strength, and living standards. S&T should become closely associated with market needs. Not only Soviet style institutes should do research but also universities and private industries. State institutions should form joint ventures with Chinese or foreign venture capital in order for S&T developments to reach the industry. S&T personal should become more occupationally mobile, pay should be linked to economic results, and age and seniority should become less important for personal decisions. Intellectual property rights should be respected. Information exchange should improve and there should be competition and open bidding on projects. The environment should be protected. Chinese indigenous S&T in certain key areas should be especially promoted. Public officials should improve their understanding of S&T and incorporate S&T in decision making. Society, including Communit Pary youth organizations, labor unions and the mass media, should actively promote respect for knowledge and human talents.[3]

During the last 30 years China concentrated on building physical infrastructure such as roads and ports. One policy during the last decade has been to ask transfer of high tech technology in order for foreign companies to gain access to the Chinese market. China is now increasingly targeting indigenous innovation.[4]

Institutions

See also: Category:Research institutes in China

China's scientific research system is a cooperative one, comprising national institutes, schools of higher education, industrial departments, national defense departments, academic organizations, and local scientific research institutes.

The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) is China's highest academic institute and comprehensive research center in natural sciences. Its academic divisions include mathematics and physics, chemistry, geography, biology, technological sciences.

The role of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) is to support basic research and some applied research projects using government appropriations in line with the state's guiding principles and sci-tech development policies. Grants awarded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China fall within areas which are designated as scientific priorities by the current Five Year Plan. Thus funding decisions are based on a judgment on how research opportunities and interests of researcher match national science goals enunciated in the Five year Plan. Within these designated areas, the peer review panels make awards.

The Chinese Academy of Engineering (CAE) is the highest honorary, consultative institute in engineering science and technology, conducting strategic studies of the state's important engineering-related issues, providing consultation for decision-making, and promoting the development of engineering science and technology.

The national scientific and academic organizations affiliated to the China Association for Science and Technology, as well as its branches in various large and medium-sized cities, are also important forces in scientific and technological research.

There are five major systems for social sciences research: the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences which it the top academic organization in the field, local academies of social sciences, schools of higher learning, research units affiliated to government agencies and army-affiliated research units. The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences is responsible for creative theoretical exploration and policy research for the improvement of humanities and social sciences standards throughout China.

The C9 League, pitched as China's Ivy League, is an alliance of nine elite Chinese universities which receive a high amount of national research funding and produce a large share of national research output.

Gross Domestic Expenditures on Research and Development

Between 2000 and 2008 Gross Domestic Expenditures on Research and Development (GERD) rose by an average of 22.8% annually which increased the share of GERD to GDP from 0.9% to 1.54%. China aims to increaes this to 2.5% by 2020. In 2008 82.76% went to experimental development, 12.46% to applied research, and 4.78% to basic research. Business enterprises contributed 59.95% of GERD in 2000 and 73.26% in 2008. Spending by enterprises is predominantly on experimental development.[5] China aims to increase basic research's share to 15% by 2020.[4]

The research firm Battelle estimates that China's R&D expenditures will exceed that of the United States in 2023.[6]

Education and R&D personal

See also: Education in the People's Republic of China and Higher education in China

China has become of the world's biggest sources for research and development personal. Between 2000 and 2008 the number of engineers and scientists more than doubled to 1.59 million. Relative to population size this is still low compared to major developed nations like the United States and Japan but the gap is rapidly closing.[5] The number of doctorate awards in science and engineering have increased tenfold since the early 1990s.[7] The number of students in general at universities increased from 1 million to 5.4 million during the 1998-2007 period.[4]

Chinese universities contribute an unusually large share of patents. The universities receive about half of R&D money from private enterprises.[4]

Eight out of nine members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China have engineering degrees.[4]

In the first participation of Chinese student in an international student assessment test, the 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment, 15-years-old students from Shanghai ranked first in all of the three categories: mathematics, science, and reading. The Chinese students scored particularly well compared to other nations in mathematics. One explanation for the Chinese results may be a culture emphasizing education and competitive examinations and more time spent studying in part due to less participation in activities such as sports. Teaching have become a higher status occupation. Also, industrialized Shanghai which has done important educational reforms may not be representative for the rest of China. While there was no evidence of cheating or technical problems with the testing, Shanghai which attracts many immigrants from the rest of China may have allowed particularly good students to study in the city and the students may have been told that the test was important for China's image. The OECD director of the testing, Andreas Schleicher, said that the results were expected to produce astonishment and had been examined for accuracy by international experts after the OECD received the Shanghai scores. He also said that the results "refute the commonly held hypothesis that China just produces rote learning" and "Large fractions of these students demonstrate their ability to extrapolate from what they know and apply their knowledge very creatively in novel situations".[8]

Awards

The State Science and Technology Prizes, including the State Preeminent Science and Technology Award, are the highest honor in People's Republic of China in science and technology, in order to recognize citizens and organizations who have made remarkable contributions to scientific and technological progress, and to promote the development of science and technology.

Innovation

A 2005 report found serious shortcomings to China’s national innovation system. There were problems with services to help turn S&T work into results and the allocation of national funding to support S&T was far from optimal. Sometimes researchers became short-sighted if they get too close to the market. Another serious problem was that companies facing severe competition looked first to purchase foreign technology rather than investing in developing technology and technology development capacity at home in China. Many of the patent applications came from medium sized enterprises (70%) since small enterprises invest little in research.[9] China's hierarchical, top-down society where authority is greatly respected and feared has been argued to stifle creative debate.[10]

China in a 2006 report outlined policies for improving innovation. They include 20 large megaprojects in areas such as nanotechnology, high-end generic microchips, aircraft, biotechnology, and new drugs. This is combined with a more bottom-up approach on a Silicon Valley model consisting of small start-ups, venture capital, and cooperation between industry and universities. The Chinese government, a large buyer of high-tech products, has proposed controversial policies demanding that companies selling to it promote Chinese innovation and that the products sold are free of foreign intellectual property. China has also been accused of not protecting foreign intellectual property and tacitly allowing such technologies to be copied and claimed to be Chinese intellectual property.[11]

Patents

China in 2011 became the nation with highest amount of filled patent applications. However, this reflects in parts that the government gives companies incentives for filing patent applications regardless of if eventually granted. The percentage of patents applications in China filed by Chinese companies rose from from less than 52% in 2006 to nearly 73% in 2010. World Intellectual Property Office data shows that Chinese companies have also become more important regarding patents overseas with Chinese companies now being on place two and four regarding number of patent applications filed by individual companies. China aims to transform the economy from "Made in China" to "Designed in China" and from contract manufacturing to having brand name companies with resulting improved profit margins.[12]

The relative proportion of granted patents is lower with China being behind Japan and the United States when measuring the number of granted patents at the patent offices of the US, Japan, the EU, South Korea, and China (who together administer about 75% of the world's patents). However, China is now granted about twice as many patents as South Korea or the EU while five years ago China was granted about the same amount as each of these regions.[6]

Academic publishing

The Royal Society in a 2011 report on academic publishing stated that in share of English scientific research papers the United States was first followed by China, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, and Canada. The report predicted that China would overtake the United States some time before 2020, possibly as early as 2013. China's scientific impact, as measured by other scientists citing the published papers the next year, is smaller although also increasing.[13]

Science-Metrix, a Canadian data-analysis company, predicted that in 2010 China would publish as many natural sciences and engineering peer-reviewed papers as the United States. In 2015 China is predicted to publish as many papers as the US across all fields. In 2030 China is predicted to surpass the US in life and social sciences.[14]

There are 8,000 journals and 4,600 in scientific fields. Almost all Chinese science organisations publish their own journal. The government owns or supports most journals with only a small number being privately owned. The "publish or perish" system has been argued to contribute to many low quality journals and articles that are infrequently cited and also to plagiarism and fraud. The Chinese government has put into place stricter regulations, punished or terminated some journals, and aims increase quality control and peer evaluation of journals as well as to create five to ten large publishing groups.[15]

Corruption

Concerned about corruption in Chinese science,[16] some Chinese scientists, including Professor Liu Ming 刘明 of Zhejiang University in his 2005 book "Critique of the Academic Evaluation System" 学术评价制度批判, argue that interference from government officials and university bureaucrats makes peer review far less effective in China than it could be. The time scientists spend cultivating politically influential people is lost to scientific research. Liu argues that the command economy mentality of measuring everything by the numbers combined with pervasive political interference results in a great waste of money, human talent as well as considerable corruption in Chinese science.[17]

Research areas

Electronics and information technology

File:Loongson 3.png
China uses the Loongson processor family to achieve technology independence.
See also: Electronics industry in the People's Republic of China, Telecommunications industry in the People's Republic of China, Supercomputing in China, and Internet in China

China Internet Network Information Center stated that China had 457 million internet users at the end of 2010. This was an increase by 73 million since the previous year. There were 303 million mobile internet users as compared with 230 million the previous year. China had the world's largest internet market counting the number of internet users but more than half the Chinese population were still not internet users.[18]

Robotics

In some regions, such as the Pearl River Delta, manufacturers have problems with labor shortages, raising wages, and higher expectations regarding work from more highly educated young people. This has increased the demand for industrial robots. In 2014 China is predicted to be ranked fifth regarding the total number of robots installed and to be ranked first regarding the number of new robots installed.[19]

Material science

Material science is the research area where China is most influential counting the percentage of worldwide published scientific paper.[5]

Agriculture

China's population is projected to reach 1.6 billion by 2030. There is a lack of arable land and water which means only new technology can increase food production. Former President Jiang Zemin's has therefore called for a "new revolution in agricultural science and technology."[20]

Pharmaceuticals

The malaria drug artemisinin was developed by Chinese scientists from traditional Chinese herbology which is part of traditional Chinese medicine.
Main article: Pharmaceutical industry in the People's Republic of China

Merrill Lynch predicted in 2011 that China would become the world's second largest pharmaceutical market in 2013 and the largest in 2020.[21] The chief executive of Roche in 2012 stated a few years ago many Chinese life sciences scientists had to leave China but that many were now returning to conditions often better than in the West regarding laboratories, funding, and political support for the industry.[22]

Medicine

Articles published in China related to basic medial science and clinical research and indexed by PubMed increased on average by 31.2% and 22% each year between 2000 and 2009. Randomized clinical trial were about 1/3 of clinical research articles. However, in 2009 this still represented only 1.5% of worldwide clinical research articles and 1.7% of worldwide randomized clinical trials. Clinical research education for medical students and the involvement and the supporting environment for medical doctors regarding clinical research have shortcomings.[23]

Biotechnology and Genetics

Main article: Biotechnology industry in the People's Republic of China

China in 2011 stated that biotechnology (including biopharmacy, bio-engineering, bio-agriculture and biomanufacturing ) was a major priority for science and technology spending. Biotechnology will be used to enhance economic development as well as for improving Chinese environmental protection, nutrition, healthcare, and medicine. The Chinese governments expects biotechnology to add 1 million jobs during the 2011-2015 period.[24]

Monitor Group in a 2010 report predicted that China within a decade will become the world leader in discovery and innovation in life sciences. Some research is seen as less controversial in China than elsewhere such as research regarding the genetic causes of intelligence. BGI, formerly Beijing Genomics Institute, has been described as having the world's largest DNA sequencing facilities. [25]

Environmental science

Rapid industrialization has been accompanied by many environmental problems. One part of the Chinese response involves advanced technology such as the world's largest high-speed rail network and high fuel efficiency requirements for vehicles.[26]

Power generation

See also: Energy policy of the People's Republic of China

As China rapidly industrializes power consumption and power generation are also increasing as well as research on these issues.

Coal is predicted to remain the most important power source in the near future and China has been seen as the world leader in clean coal technology.[27][28][29] In 2009 China become the world's largest investor in renewable energy technologies.[30] Nuclear power is planned to be rapidly expanded with China wanting to maximize self-reliance in nuclear reactor technology manufacturing and design although international cooperation and technology transfer are also encouraged. Advanced pressurized water reactors such as the CPR-1000 and the AP1000 are the mainstream technology in the near future. Later very high temperature reactors, such as pebble bed reactors, are a priority. By mid-century fast neutron reactors are seen as the main technology.[31]

Communications

Chinese designed CRH380A holds the world record for the fastest production train at 486.1 km/h.[32]
See also: Transport in the People's Republic of China

BBC wrote in a 2011 article on high-speed rail in China that China in 2005 had no high speed railways. In 2010 it had more than Europe and in 2012 China was expected to have more than the rest of the world combined. China demanded that foreign companies wanting to participate had to share their technology. 10,000 Chinese engineers and academics then in three years produced a faster Chinese high-speed train. China is now exporting it to other nations.[10]

Commercial aircraft

The state owned Comac aerospace manufacturer aims to reduce Chinese dependency on foreign companies for large passenger aircraft.[33] The future C919 aims to be completely made in China.[34]

Space science

Artist's impression of the Chinese space station.
Main article: Chinese space program

The Chinese space program is directed by the China National Space Administration. Its technological roots can be traced back to the late 1950s, when the People's Republic began a rudimentary ballistic missile program in response to perceived American (and, later, Soviet) threats. However, the first Chinese crewed flight program only began in earnest several decades later, when an accelerated program of technological development culminated in Yang Liwei's successful 2003 flight aboard Shenzhou 5. This achievement made China the third country to independently send humans into space. Future plans include a Chinese space station "around 2020", the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, and eventually a crewed mission to Mars.

The Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope to be completed in 2016 will be the world's largest radio telescope.[35]

Military technology

File:Df-21d-on-the-highway.jpg
The DF-21D anti-ship ballistic missile.
See also: Cyberwarfare in the People's Republic of China

One example of new Chinese military technology is the DF-21D anti-ship ballistic missile which reportedly has contributed to a quick and major change in US naval strategy.[36] China is developing anti-satellite weapons and plans to make the navigational Beidou system global by 2020.[37] Other new technologies include Chinese anti ballistic missile developments, the Chengdu J-20 fifth-generation jet fighter, and possibly electromagnetic pulse weapons.[38] [39] Despite increased defense spending, China's share of the world's import of arms is rapidly falling, in part reflecting the increased abilities of the indigenous military production.[40]

Economic and Technological Development Zones

Based on the success of the Special Economic Zones of the People's Republic of China, China has created Economic and Technological Development Zones. They have the purposes of building up high-tech industries, attracting foreign investment, increasing exports, and improve the regional economy. They are considered to have been very successful and have been expanded from an initial fourteen to fifty-four.[41]

National programs

China's national R&D programs include:[42]

  • Key Technologies Program (renamed in 2006 as "zhicheng" or Support)
  • National High Technology Program (863 Program)
  • National Basic Research Program (973 Program)
  • Spark Program - Rural technology
  • Torch Program - New technology commercialization by creating special hi-tech zones and incubators
  • Key Laboratories Program
  • Engineering Research Centers
  • State Key and New Product Program
  • Innovation Fund for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
  • Special Technology Development Project for Research Institutes
  • Action Plan for Promoting Trade by Science and Technology
  • National New Products Program
  • Agricultural S&T Transfer Fund

The major national programs receive 15-20% of government R&D spending. They fund research, after a stated competitive proposal procure, in universities, institutes, and enterprise. Important project may receive funding from several programs. The programs are argued to have had a large effect but also been involved in scandals, corruption, fraud, accused of producing derivative works with few innovations, and claimed to ignore merit in selecting projects in favor of cronyism. China is trying to improve the efficiency by measures such as more peer-review and evaluations.[42]

Industrial espionage

One of the objectives of Chinese intelligence activity abroad is argued to be industrial espionage as well gaining military technology. Also private companies have been accused of espionage. Intelligence agencies suspect that thousands of Western companies may have been affected by data breaches that can be traced back to China.[43]

International cooperation

The China Internet Information Center stated in a 2005 article that China has inter-governmental cooperative S&T agreements with 96 nations, cooperative S&T programs with 152 nations and regions, and participates in more than 1,000 international S&T cooperative organizations. Also NGO international exchanges and cooperative activities have increased. The China Association for Science and Technology and related organizations as well as the National Natural Science Foundation of China also participates in many cooperative international organizations. Chinese researchers held 281 leading posts on international organizations' expert committees and held 293 executive member-director or higher level positions.[44]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Donald D. DeGlopper, Chapter 9 - Science and Technology, A Country Study: China, Library of Congress, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html
  2. ^ Justin Yifu Lin, "Demystifying the Chinese Economy", 2011, Cambridge University Press, Preface xiv, http://assets.cambridge.org/97805211/91807/frontmatter/9780521191807_frontmatter.pdf
  3. ^ US Embassy Beijing November 1996 report, "PRC State Council Decision on Accelerating S&T Development."
  4. ^ a b c d e "2011 Global R&D Funding Forecast",Battelle, http://www.battelle.org/aboutus/rd/2011.pdf
  5. ^ a b c UNESCO Science Report 2010, Chapter 18 China, 2010, UNESCO, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001899/189958e.pdf
  6. ^ a b "2012 Global R&D Funding Forecast", Battelle, http://www.battelle.org/ABOUTUS/rd/2012.pdf
  7. ^ Dieter Ernest, China's Innovation Policy Is A Wake-Up Call For America, Analysis From The East-West Center, No. 100, May 2011, http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/api100.pdf
  8. ^ Sam Dillon, Top Test Scores From Shanghai Stun Educators, December 7, 2010, New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/07/education/07education.html?_r=3&pagewanted=1
  9. ^ "Issues in Building a National Innovation System" in 2005 High Technology Development Report (Gao Jishu Fazhan Baogao) from the Chinese Academy of Science (Kexue Chubanshe, Beijing 2005).
  10. ^ a b Robinson, Michael (2010-08-01). "BBC News – China's new industrial revolution". BBC. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
  11. ^ Adam Segal, China's Innovation Wall, September 28, 2010, Foreign Affairs, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/66753/adam-segal/chinas-innovation-wall
  12. ^ China tops U.S, Japan to become top patent filer, Lee Chyen Yee, Wed Dec 21, 2011 8:15am EST, Reuters, http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/12/21/us-china-patents-idUSTRE7BK0LQ20111221
  13. ^ China poised to overhaul US as biggest publisher of scientific papers, Alok Jha, Monday 28 March 2011, The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2011/mar/28/china-us-publisher-scientific-papers
  14. ^ Debora MacKenzie, "Iran showing fastest scientific growth of any country", New Scientist, 2:52 18 February 2010, http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18546-iran-showing-fastest-scientific-growth-of-any-country.html
  15. ^ Yojana Sharma, CHINA: Crackdown on sub-standard journals, 27 February 2011 Issue No:160, University World News, http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20110227085921588
  16. ^ See for example the mid March 2006 issue of China Newsweek 中国新闻周刊 "A SARS-like Epidemic of Corruption in Higher Education" and Science 9 June 2006:Vol. 312. no. 5779, pp. 1464–1466.
  17. ^ Liu Ming, Critique of the Academic Evaluation System 学术评价制度批判 Changjiang Wenyi Chubanshe, 2005.
  18. ^ Michael Kan, "China's Internet Users Reach 457 Million", Jan 19, 2011, PC World, http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/216979/chinas_internet_users_reach_457_million.html
  19. ^ "A message from robots – it's our turn". China Daily, 30 December 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
  20. ^ Introduction, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, http://www.caas.net.cn/engforcaas/intrduction.htm
  21. ^ V. Phani Kumar, In China drug industry, reward may outweigh risk, January 14, 2011, Marketwatch, http://articles.marketwatch.com/2011-01-14/markets/30792439_1_drug-makers-drug-industry-drug-market
  22. ^ KEVIN GROGAN, China more positive about pharma than many in west, MARCH 06, 2012, Pharma Times, http://www.pharmatimes.com/article/12-03-06/China_more_positive_about_pharma_than_many_in_west_-_Schwan.aspx
  23. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60017-2, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60017-2 instead.
  24. ^ Wang Yu and Li Xiang , China placing priority on biotechnology, China Daily, 2011-06-28, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2011-06/28/content_12790544.htm
  25. ^ Lone Frank, High-Quality DNA, Apr 24, 2011, The Daily Beast, http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/04/24/high-quality-dna.html
  26. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60062-1, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60062-1 instead.
  27. ^ JAMES FALLOWS, Dirty Coal, Clean Future, DECEMBER 2010 ATLANTIC MAGAZINE, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010/12/dirty-coal-clean-future/8307/1/
  28. ^ China's coal reserves 'will make it new Middle East', says energy chief, Leo Hickman, Tuesday 8 March 2011, The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/mar/08/china-coal-new-middle-east
  29. ^ KEITH BRADSHER, China Outpaces U.S. in Cleaner Coal-Fired Plants, May 10, 2009, The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/11/world/asia/11coal.html
  30. ^ China steams ahead on clean energy
  31. ^ Nuclear Power in China, Updated March 2012, World Nuclear Association, http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf63.html
  32. ^ "沪杭高铁首发列车侧记_新闻中心_人民铁道网". Peoplerail.com. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
  33. ^ Staff writers (Sunday, 11 May 2008). "Chinese plane business gets wings". BBC News. Retrieved 25 June 2011. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  34. ^ Ray Kwong, China's Aviation Industry Takes Flight, 5/17/2010, Forbes, http://www.forbes.com/sites/china/2010/05/17/chinas-aviation-industry-takes-flight/
  35. ^ China starts building world's biggest radio telescope, 13 June 2011, Anil Ananthaswamy, New Scientist, http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028165.300-china-starts-building-worlds-biggest-radio-telescope.html?
  36. ^ Report: Chinese Develop Special "Kill Weapon" to Destroy U.S. Aircraft Carriers, U. S. Naval Institute, March 31, 2009.
  37. ^ Mike Wall, China's Space Advances Worry US Military, 28 February 2012, Space.com, http://www.space.com/14697-china-space-program-military-threat.html
  38. ^ "How China is advancing its military reach", 18 January 2012, BBC, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-16588557
  39. ^ Bill Gertz, Report: China building electromagnetic pulse weapons for use against U.S. carriers, July 21, 2011The Washington Times, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/jul/21/beijing-develops-radiation-weapons/?page=all
  40. ^ Daniel Ten Kate, China's Share of Global Arms Imports Falls, Sipri Says, Mar 19, 2012, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-18/china-buys-fewer-weapons-as-local-industry-expands-sipri-says.html
  41. ^ Economic and Technological Development Zones, china.org.cn, http://www.china.org.cn/english/SPORT-c/76751.htm
  42. ^ a b China’s Program for Science and Technology Modernization: Implications for American Competitiveness Prepared for THE U.S.-CHINA ECONOMIC AND SECURITY REVIEW COMMISSION, CENTRA Technology, Inc, http://www.uscc.gov/researchpapers/2011/USCC_REPORT_China's_Program_forScience_and_Technology_Modernization.pdf
  43. ^ Michael A. Riley and Ashlee Vance , China Corporate Espionage Boom Knocks Wind Out of U.S. Companies, Mar 15, 2012, Bloomberg, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-15/china-corporate-espionage-boom-knocks-wind-out-of-u-s-companies.html
  44. ^ International Cooperation in Science and Technology, China.org.cn, http://www.china.org.cn/features/china2005/2005-09/23/content_1142234.htm

External links

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