Sierra Leone: Difference between revisions

Republic of Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone
Republic of Sierra Leone Sierra Leone
	Flag Coat of Arms
	Motto: "Unity, Freedom, Justice"
	Anthem: High We Exalt Thee, Realm of the Free
	Location of Sierra Leone (dark blue) – in Africa (light blue & dark grey); – in the African Union (light blue) – [Legend]
Capital and largest city	Freetown
Official languages	English
Vernacular	Mende, Temne, Krio
Demonym(s)	Sierra Leonean
Government	Unitary presidential Constitutional republic
• President	Ernest Bai Koroma (APC)
• Vice President	Alhaji Samuel Sam-Sumana (APC)
• Speaker of Parliament	Abel Nathaniel Bankole Stronge (APC)
• Chief Justice	Haja Umu Hawa Tejan-Jalloh
Legislature	Parliament
Independence
• from the United Kingdom	27 April 1961
• Republic declared	19 April 1971
Area
• Total	71,740 km2 (27,700 sq mi) (119th)
• Water (%)	1.1
Population
• Estimate	6.3 million (2008 estimate) [2][3][4][5][6][7]
• 2004 census	4,976,871
• Density	79.4/km2 (205.6/sq mi) (114th1)
GDP (PPP)	2011 estimate
• Total	$5.093 billion
• Per capita	$849
GDP (nominal)	2011 estimate
• Total	$2.196 billion
• Per capita	$366
Gini (2003)	62.9; very high inequality
HDI (2011)	0.336; Error: Invalid HDI value (180th)
Currency	Leone (SLL)
Time zone	UTC+0 (GMT)
Drives on	right
Calling code	232
ISO 3166 code	SL
Internet TLD	.sl
	1 Rank based on 2007 figures.

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Sierra Leone /siːˌɛrə liːˈoʊn/ ^ⓘ (Krio: Salone), officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of 71,740 km² (27,699 sq mi)^[2] and has an estimated population of 6.3 million.^[3]^[4]^[5] It was a colony under the auspices of the Sierra Leone Company from March 11, 1792 until it became a British colony in 1808.

Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests.^[6] Freetown is the capital, largest city as well as its economic, educational, cultural and financial center. The second largest city is Bo. Other major cities are Kenema, Makeni and Koidu Town.

Sierra Leone is divided into four geographical regions: the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area; which are subdivided into fourteen districts. The districts have their own directly elected local government known as district council, headed by a council chairman. The country's six municipalities of Freetown, Bo, Kenema, Makeni, Koidu Town and the coastal town of Bonthe have their own directly elected city councils headed by mayors.

Sierra Leone is a constitutional representative democratic republic, whereby the President is both the head of state and the head of government. Legislative power is vested by the House of Parliament of Sierra Leone. The Judiciary of Sierra Leone is independent of the executive and the legislative and is headed by the Supreme Court. Since Independence in 1961 to present, Sierra Leone's politics have been dominated by two major political parties: the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) and the All People's Congress (APC).^[7]^[8] Other political parties have also existed throughout but with no significant supports.

The country has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. It is among the top diamond producing nations in the world, and mineral exports remain the main foreign currency earner. Sierra Leone is also among the largest producers of titanium and bauxite, and a major producer of gold. The country has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile. Sierra Leone is also home to the third largest natural harbour in the world where shipping from all over the globe berth at Freetown's famous Queen Elizabeth II Quay. Despite this natural wealth, 70% of its people live in poverty.^[9]

Sierra Leone is a predominantly Muslim country, though with an influential Christian minority. Sierra Leone is ranked as one of the most religiously tolerant nations in the world.^[10]^[11]^[12] People are often married across ethnic and religious boundaries. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other peacefully.^[10] Religious violence is very rare in the country.

The population of Sierra Leone comprises sixteen ethnic groups, each with its own language and custom. The two largest and most influential are the Mende and Temne. The two are about equal in numbers and each comprises just over 30% of the population [8]. The Mende are predominantly found in South-Eastern Sierra Leone; the Temne likewise predominate in Northern Sierra Leone.

Although English is the language of instruction in schools and the official language in government administration, the Krio language (derived from English and several indigenous African languages) is the primary language of communication among Sierra Leone's different ethnic groups, and is spoken by 95% of the country's population.^[5] The Krio Language unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.^[13]

Between 1991 and 2002 the Sierra Leone Civil War devastated the country leaving more than 50,000 people dead, much of the country's infrastructure destroyed, and over two million people displaced in neighbouring countries; mainly to Guinea, which was home to around one million Sierra Leonean refugees.^[14] ECOMOG used cluster bomb in the war against convention.^[15] The war was resolved in 2002 after the Nigerian-led ECOMOG troops were heavily reinforced by a British force spearheaded by 1st Bn The Parachute Regiment, supported by the British Royal Navy The arrival of this force resulted in the defeat of rebel forces and restored the civilian government elected in 1996. On January 18, 2002 President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah declared the civil war officially over.^[16] Since then the country has re-established a functioning democracy.

Early inhabitants of Sierra Leone included the Sherbro, Temne and Limba peoples, and later the Mende,^[17] who knew the country as Romarong, and the Kono who settled in the east of the country.^[18] In 1462, it was visited by the Portuguese explorer Pedro da Cintra, who dubbed it Serra de Leão, meaning "Lion Mountains".^[19]^[20] Sierra Leone later became an important centre of the transatlantic trade in slaves until March 11, 1792 when Freetown was founded by the Sierra Leone Company as a home for former enslaved from (or freed by) the British Empire.^[21] In 1808, Freetown became a British Crown Colony, and in 1896, the interior of the country became a British Protectorate;^[18] in 1961, the two regions combined and gained independence.

History

Early history

Archaeological finds show that Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years,^[22] populated by successive movements from other parts of Africa.^[23] The use of iron was introduced to Sierra Leone by the 9th century, and by AD 1000 agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes.^[24] Sierra Leone's dense tropical rainforest largely protected it from the influence of any pre-colonial African empires^[25] and from further Islamic influence of the Mali Empire, the Islamic faith however became common in the 18th century.^[26]

European contacts within Sierra Leone were among the first in West Africa. In 1462,Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped the hills surrounding what is now Freetown Harbour, naming shaped formation Serra de Leão (Portuguese for Lion Mountains).^[20] The Italian rendering of this geographic formation is Sierra Leone, which became the country's name.

Soon after Portuguese traders arrived at the harbour and by 1495 a fort that acted as a trading post had been built.^[27] The Portuguese were joined by the Dutch and French; all of them using Sierra Leone as a trading point for slaves.^[28] In 1562, the English joined the trade in human beings when Sir John Hawkins shipped 300 enslaved people, acquired 'by the sword and partly by other means', to the new colonies in America.^[29]

Early colonies

In 1787 a settlement was founded in Sierra Leone in what was called the "Province of Freedom". A number of "Black Poor" arrived off the coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, accompanied by some English tradesmen. Many of the "black poor" were African Americans, who had been given their freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. After establishing Granville Town, disease and hostility from the indigenous people eliminated the first group of colonists and destroyed their settlement. A second Granville Town was established by 64 remaining colonists.^[30]

Through the impetus of Thomas Peters, the Sierra Leone Company was established to relocate 1,196 black Americans, most of whom had escaped enslavement in the United States by seeking protection with the British Army during the American Revolution. They had been given land in Nova Scotia and a few had died from the harsh winters there. These colonists built the second (and only permanent) Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown on March 11, 1792. In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotian Settlers or 'Nova Scotians' but were commonly known as the Settlers. The Settlers built Freetown and introduced architectural styles from the American South as well as Western fashion and American courtesy. In the 1790s, the Settlers voted for the first time in elections, as did women.^[31] The Sierra Leone Company refused to allow the settlers to take freehold of the land. Some of the Settlers revolted in 1799. The revolt was only put down by the arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons, who also arrived via Nova Scotia. In 1800, Jamaican Maroons from Trelawny Town, Jamaica were settled via Nova Scotia.

After sixteen years of running the Colony, the Sierra Leone Company was formed into the African Institution. The Institution met in 1807 to achieve more success by focusing on bettering the local economy, but it was constantly split between those British who meant to inspire local entrepreneurs and those with interest in the Macauley & Babington Company which held the (British) monopoly on Sierra Leone trade.^[32]

Beginning in 1808 (following the abolition of the slave trade in 1807), thousands of formerly enslaved Africans were liberated in Freetown. Most of these Liberated Africans or 'Recaptives' chose to remain in Sierra Leone. Cut off from their homes and traditions, the Liberated Africans assimilated the Western styles of Settlers and Maroons and built a flourishing trade of flowers and beads on the West African coast. These returned Africans were from many areas of Africa, but principally the west coast. During the 19th century many black Americans, Americo Liberian 'refugees', and particularly West Indians immigrated and settled in Freetown creating a new ethnicity called the Krio.

Colonial era

In the early 20th century, Freetown served as the residence of the British governor who also ruled the Gold Coast (now Ghana) and the Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone also served as the educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, established in 1827, rapidly became a magnet for English-speaking Africans on the West Coast. For more than a century, it was the only European-style university in western Sub-Saharan Africa.

During Sierra Leone's colonial history, indigenous people mounted several unsuccessful revolts against British rule. The most notable was the Hut Tax war of 1898. The Hut Tax War consisted of a Northern front, led by Bai Bureh, and Southern front that were sparked at different times and for different reasons. Bureh's fighters had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British for several months of the war. Hundreds of British troops and hundreds of Bureh's fighters were killed.^[33] Bai Bureh was finally captured on 11 November 1898 and sent into exile in the Gold Coast (now Ghana), while 96 of his comrades were hanged by the British.

The defeat in the Hut Tax war ended large scale organised resistance to colonialism; however resistance continued throughout the colonial period in the form of intermittent rioting and chaotic labour disturbances. Riots in 1955 and 1956 involved "many tens of thousands" of natives in the protectorate.^[34]

One notable event in 1935 was the granting of a monopoly on mineral mining to the Sierra Leone Selection Trust run by De Beers, which was scheduled to last 98 years.

In 1924, Sierra Leone was divided into a Colony and a Protectorate, with separate and different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate in 1947, when proposals were introduced to provide for a single political system for both the Colony and the Protectorate. Most of the proposals came from the Protectorate. The Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, opposed the proposals, the main effect of which would have been to diminish their political power. It was due to the astute politics of Sir Milton Margai that the educated Protectorate elite was won over to join forces with the paramount chiefs in the face of Krio intransigence. Later, Sir Milton used the same skills to win over opposition leaders and moderate Krio elements for the achievement of independence.

In November 1951, Sir Milton Margai oversaw the drafting of a new constitution, which united the separate Colonial and Protectorate legislatures and—-most importantly—-provided a framework for decolonization.^[35] In 1953, Sierra Leone was granted local ministerial powers, and Sir Milton Margai, was elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone.^[35] The new constitution ensured Sierra Leone a parliamentary system within the Commonwealth of Nations.^[35] In May 1957, Sierra Leone held its first parliamentary election. The SLPP, which was then the most popular political party in the colony of Sierra Leone, won the most seats in Parliament. Margai was also re-elected as Chief Minister by a landslide.

1960 Independence Conference

On April 20, 1960, Sir Milton Margai led the twenty four members of the Sierra Leonean delegation at the constitutional conferences that were held with Queen Elizabeth II and British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod in the negotiations for independence held at the Lancaster House in London. [9][10]. All of the twenty four members of the Sierra Leonean delegation were prominent and well-respected politicians including Sir Milton's younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, the outspoken trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP strongman Lamina Sankoh, outspoken Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown's Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings educationist Amadu Wurie, and Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman.^[36]

On the conclusion of talks in London, Britain agreed to grant Sierra Leone Independence on the 27 of April 1961. however, the outspoken trade unionist Siaka Stevens was the only delegate who refused to sign Sierra Leone's declaration of Independendence on the grounds that there had been a secret defence pact between Sierra Leone and Britain; another point of contention by Stevens was the Sierra Leonean government's position that there would be no elections held before independence which would effectively shut him out of Sierra Leone's political process [11] . Upon their return to Freetown on May 4, 1960, Stevens was promptly expelled from the People's National Party (PNP).

Opposition of the SLPP government

In 1960, Outspoken critic of the SLPP government, Siaka Stevens, formed an alliance with several prominent northern politicians like Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohammed Bash-Taqui, S.A.T. Koroma and S.A. Fofana to form their own political party called the All People's Congress (APC) in opposition of the SLPP government. Stevens took advantage of the dissatisfaction with the ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from the Northern part of Sierra Leone to form the APC; and Stevens used the Northern part of Sierra Leone as his political base.

An Independent nation and Sir Milton Margai Administration

On April 27, 1961, Sir Milton Margai lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Great Britain and became the country's first Prime Minister. Thousands of Sierra Leoneans across the newly independent nation took to the street in celebration of independence. Sierra Leone retained a parliamentary system of government and was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The leader of the main oppositon APC, Siaka Stevens, along with outspoken critic of the SLPP government, Isaac Wallace-Johnson, were arested and placed under house arrested in Freetown, along with sixteen others charged with disrupting the independence celebration[12]. In May 1962 Sierra Leone held its first general election as an Independent nation. The Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) won plurality of seats in parliament and Sir Milton Margai was re-elected as prime minister.

The years just after independence were prosperous with money from mineral resources being used for development and the founding of Njala University. An important aspect of Sir Milton's character was his self-effacement. He was neither corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of his power or status. Sir Milton's government was based on the rule of law and the notion of separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly viable representative structures. Margai used his conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials with a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employed a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups and the paramount chiefs in the provinces.

Sir Albert Administration

Upon Sir Milton's death in 1964, his half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, was appointed as Prime Minister by parliament. Sir Albert's leadership was briefly challenged by Sierra Leone's Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who questioned Sir Albert's succession to the SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support in Parliament in his attempt to have Margai stripped of the SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn in as Prime Minister, he immediately dismissed several senior government officials who had served under his elder brother Sir Milton's government, as he viewed them as traitors and a threat to his administration.

Unlike his late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert proved unpopular and resorted to increasingly authoritarian actions in response to protests, including enacted several laws against the opposition All People's Congress (APC) and attempting to establish a single-party state. Unlike his late brother Milton, Sir Albert was opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing the country's Paramount Chiefs executive powers and he was seen as a threat to the existence of the ruling houses across the country. In 1967, Riots broke out in Freetown against Sir Albert's policies; in response Margai declare a state of emergency across the country. Sir Albert was accused of corruption and of a policy of affirmative action in favor of his own Mende ethnic group ^[37]

Sir Albert had the opportunity to perpetuate himself in power, but he elected not to do so even when the opportunities presented themselves. He had the police and the army on his side and nothing could have prevented him from achieving his ambition to hold on to power, but he chose not to and called for a free and fair elections

Three Military Coups, 1967-1968

The APC, with its leader Siaka Stevens, narrowly won a small majority seats in Parliament over the SLPP in a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election and Stevens was sworn in as Prime Minister on April 26, 1968. Within hours after taking office, Stevens was ousted in a bloodless military coup lead by the commander of the army Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who had appointed him to the position in 1964. Brigadier Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest in Freetown and insisted the determination of office of the Prime Minister should await the election of the tribal representatives to the house.

On March 23, 1968, A group of senior military officers in the Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode this action by seizing control of the government, arresting Brigadier Lansana, and suspending the constitution. The group constituted itself as the National Reformation Council (NRC) with Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith as its chairman and Head of State of the country [13]. In April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves the Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthrew the NRC junta. The ACRM juntas arrested many senior NRC members. The democratic constitution was restored, and power was handed back to Stevens, who at last assumed the office of Prime Minister. .^[38]

Stevens' government and one party state

Stevens assumed power again in 1968 with a great deal of hope and ambition. Much trust was placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens had campaigned on a platform of bringing the tribes together under socialist principles. During his first decade or so in power, Stevens renegotiated some of what he called "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by his predecessors, both Albert Margai of the SLPP and Juxon-Smith of the NRC. Some of these policies by the SLPP and the NRC were said to have left the country in an economically deprived state. Stevens reorganized the country's refinery, the government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, and a Cement factory. He cancelled Juxon-Smith's construction of a Church and Mosque on the grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens began efforts that would later bridge the distance between the provinces and the city. Roads and hospitals were constructed in the provinces, and Paramount Chiefs and provincial peoples became a prominent force in Freetown.

Under the pressure of several coup attempts, real and perceived, Stevens' rule grew more and more authoritarian, and his relationship with some of his ardent supporters deteriorated. He removed the SLPP party from competitive politics in general elections, some believed, through the use of violence and intimidation. To maintain the support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as the head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.

After the return to civilian rule, by-elections were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed. Calm was not completely restored. In November 1968, unrest in the provinces led Stevens to declare a state of emergency across the country. Brigadier General Bangura, who had reinstated Stevens as Prime Minister, was widely considered the only person who could put the brakes on Stevens. The army was devoted to Bangura, and it was believed, in some quarters, that this made him potentially dangerous to Steven's. In January 1970, Bangura was arrested and charged with conspiracy and plotting to commit a coup against the Stevens' government. After a trial that lasted a few months, Bangura was convicted and hanged On 29 March 1970 in Freetown.

On March 23, 1971, a group of soldiers loyal to the executed Brigadier Bangura attempted an unsuccessful coup to topple the Stevens' government. Several soldiers were arrested for their involvement in the coup attempt, including Corporal Foday Sankoh who was jail for seven years at Freetown's Pademba Road Prison, after he was convicted of treason. In April 1971, a new republican constitution was adopted under which Stevens became President. In the 1972 by-elections the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and procedural obstruction by the APC and militia. These problems became so severe that the SLPP boycotted the 1973 general election; as a result the APC won 84 of the 85 elected seats.^[39] An alleged plot to overthrow president Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed. In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition for a second five-year term as president. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army and government officials including Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Mohamed Sorie Forna, Brigadier General Ibrahim Bash Taqi and Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara were executed after being convicted for allegedly attempting a coup to topple president Stevens' government.

In 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against the government disrupted Sierra Leone politics. However, the demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens' own SSD security forces, which he had created to maintain his hold on power. A general election was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15. In 1978, the APC dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state. The 1978 constitition made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.^[40] This move lead to another major demonstration against the government in many parts of the country but again it was put down by the army and the SSD police. Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but reduced ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominating APC government

Siaka Stevens retired from politics in November 1985 after being in power for eighteen years. The APC named a new presidential candidate to succeed Stevens at their last delegate conference held in Freetown in November 1985. He was Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh, the commander of the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces and Stevens' own choice to succeed him. As head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces, Major General Momoh was very loyal to Stevens who had appointed him to the position. Like Stevens, Momoh was also a member of the minority Limba ethnic group.

Momoh Administration

Momoh was elected President as the only contesting candidate and was sworn in as Sierra Leone's second president on November 28, 1985 in Freetown. A one party parliamentary election between APC members was held in May 1986. President Momoh's strong links with the army and his verbal attacks on corruption earned him much needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. With the lack of new faces in the new APC cabinet under president Momoh and the return of many of the old faces from Stevens government, criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens. The next couple of years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise his war against corruption, President Momoh announced a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders and Public Servants." After an alleged attempt to overthrow President Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice-President Francis Minah, who was removed from office, convicted for plotting the coup, and executed by hanging in 1989 along with 5 others.

Multi-party constitution and Revolutionary United Front rebellion (1991 to 2001)

In October 1990, due to mounting pressure from both within and outside the country for political and economic reform, president Momoh set up a constitutional review commission to review the 1978 one-party constitution. Based on the commission's recommendations a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system was approved by the exclusive APC Parliament by a 60% majority vote, becoming effective on 1 October 1991. There was great suspicion that president Momoh was not serious about his promise of political reform, as APC rule continued to be increasingly marked by abuses of power.

The brutal civil war that was going on in neighbouring Liberia played an undeniable role in the outbreak of fighting in Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—then leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly helped form the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under the command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Saybana Sankoh, an ethnic Temne from Tonkolili District in Northern Sierra Leone. Sankoh was a British trained former army corporal who had also undergone guerrilla training in Libya. Taylor’s aim was for the RUF to attack the bases of Nigerian dominated peacekeeping troops in Sierra Leone who were opposed to his rebel movement in Liberia.

NPRC Junta

On 29 April 1992, a twenty five year old Captain Valentine Strasser lead a group of seven junior officers in the Sierra Leone army that included Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Sergeant Solomon Musa, Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, Captain Julius Maada Bio and Captain Komba Mondeh that launched a military coup, which sent president Momoh into exile in Guinea and the young soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) with Strasser as its chairman and Head of State of the country. Seagent Solomon Musa, a close friend of Strasser and one of the leaders of the coup became the deputy leader of the NPRC junta. The NPRC Junta immediately suspended the constitution, banned all political parties, limited freedom of speech and freedom of the press and enacted a rule-by-decree policy, in which soldiers were granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial, and challenges against such detentions in court were precluded.

The NPRC Junta maintained relations with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and strengthened support for Sierra Leone-based ECOMOG troops fighting in Liberia. In December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against the NPRC administration of Strasser, aimed at freeing the detained Colonel Yahya Kanu, Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya and former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara was foiled. Seargent Mohamed Lamin Bangura, and some junior army officers were identified as being behind the coup plot. The coup plot led to the execution of seventeen soldiers, including Seargent Mohamed Lamin Bangura, Colonel Yahya Kanu and Lieutenant Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya. Several prominent members of the Momoh government who had been in detention at the Pa Demba Road prison, including former insepctor general of police Bambay Kamara were also executed [14]. On July 5, 1994 the deputy NPRC leader Seargent Solomon Musu was arrested and sent into exite after he was accused of planning a coup to topple Strasser. Strasser replaced Musa as deputy NPRC chairman with Captain Julius Maada Bio, who was instanly promoted by Strasser to Brigadier.

The NPRC proved to be nearly as ineffectual as the Momoh-led APC government in repelling the RUF. More and more of the country fell to RUF fighters, and by 1994 they held much of the diamond-rich Eastern Province and were at the edge of Freetown. In response, the NPRC hired several hundred mercenaries from the private firm Executive Outcomes. Within a month they had driven RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone’s borders, and cleared the RUF from the Kono diamond producing areas of Sierra Leone

On January 16, 1996 after about four years in power, Strasser was arrested in a coup by his fellow NPRC soldiers, lead by his deputy Brigadier Julis Maada Bio and backed by many high ranking soldiers of the NPRC junta. Strasser was immediately flown into exile in a military helicopter to Conakry, Guinea. In his first public broadcast to the nation following the 1996 coup, Brigadier Bio stated that his support for returning Sierra Leone to a democratically elected civilian government and his commitment to ending the Sierra Leone civil war were his motivations for the coup.[15].

Return to civilian rule

Promises of a return to civilian rule were fulfilled by Bio, who handed power over to Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), after the conclusion of elections in early 1996. President Kabbah took power with a great promise of ending the civil war. President Kabbah open dialogue with the RUF and invited RUF leader Foday Sankoh for peace negotiation.

AFRC junta

On May 25, 1997, a group of seventeen soldiers in the Sierra Leone army lead by Corporal Tamba Gborie and loyal to the detained Major General Johnny Paul Koroma launched a military coup which sent President Kabbah into exile in Guinea and they established the Armed Forces Revolutionay Council (AFRC). Corporal Gborie quickly went to the SLBS FM 99.9 headquarters in Freetown to announce the coup to a shock nation and to alert all soldiers across the country to report for guard duty. The soldiers immediately released Koroma from prison and installed him as their chairman and Head of State, with Corporal Tamba Gborie as deputy in command of the AFRC. Koroma suspended the constitution, banned demonstrations, shut down all private radio stations in the country and invited the RUF to join the new junta government, with its leader Foday Sankoh as the Vice-Chairman of the new AFRC-RUF coalition junta government. Within days, Freetown was overwhelmed by the presence of the RUF combatants who came to the city in their thousands. The Kamajors, a group of traditional fighters mostly from the Mende ethnic group under the command of deputy Defence Minister Samuel Hinga Norman, remained loyal to President Kabbah and defended the Southern part Sierra Leone from the soldiers.

Kabbah's government and the end of civil war

After 10 months in office, the junta was ousted by the Nigeria-led ECOMOG forces, and the democratically elected government of president Kabbah was reinstated in March 1998. On October 12, 1998 twenty five soldiers in the Sierra Leone army, including Corporal Tamba Gborie, Brigadier Hassan Karim Conteh and Colonel Abdul Karim Sesay were executed after they were convicted at a court martial in Freetown for orchestrating the 1997 coup that ousted president Kabbah from power [16].

In October 1999, the United Nations agreed to send peacekeepers to help restore order and disarm the rebels. The first of the 6,000-member force began arriving in December, and the UN Security Council voted in February 2000 to increase the force to 11,000, and later to 13,000. But in May, when nearly all Nigerian forces had left and UN forces were trying to disarm the RUF in eastern Sierra Leone, Sankoh's forces clashed with the UN troops, and some 500 peacekeepers were taken hostage as the peace accord effectively collapsed. The hostage crisis resulted in more fighting between the RUF and the government as UN troops launched Operation Khukri to end the siege. The Operation was successful with Indian and British Special Forces being the main contingents.

The situation in the country deteriorated to such an extent that British troops were deployed in Operation Palliser, originally simply to evacuate foreign nationals. However, the British exceeded their original mandate, and took full military action to finally defeat the rebels and restore order. The British were the catalyst for the ceasefire that ended the civil war. Elements of the British Army, together with administrators and politicians, remain in Sierra Leone to this day, helping train the armed forces, improve the infrastructure of the country and administer financial and material aid. Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Britain at the time of the British intervention, is regarded as a hero by the people of Sierra Leone, many of whom are keen for more British involvement.^{[citation needed]} Sierra Leoneans have been described as "The World's Most Resilient People".^[42]

Between 1991 and 2001, about 50,000 people were killed in Sierra Leone's civil war. Hundreds of thousands of people were forced from their homes and many became refugees in Guinea and Liberia. In 2001, UN forces moved into rebel-held areas and began to disarm rebel soldiers. By January 2002, the war was declared over. In May 2002, Kabbah was re-elected president by a landslide. By 2004, the disarmament process was complete. Also in 2004, a UN-backed war crimes court began holding trials of senior leaders from both sides of the war. In December 2005, UN peacekeeping forces pulled out of Sierra Leone. TheRUF leaders had custodial deaths in the so called democratic governments. In the uN court only RUF leaders were given strong punishments, pro government leaders were declared guilty but not given big sentences.

In August 2007, Sierra Leone held presidential and parliamentary elections. However, no presidential candidate won the 50% plus one vote majority stipulated in the constitution on the first round of voting. A runoff election was held in September 2007, and Ernest Bai Koroma, the candidate of the main opposition APC, was elected president. By 2007, there had been an increase in the number of drug cartels, many from Colombia, using Sierra Leone as a base to ship drugs on to Europe.^[31] It was feared that this might lead to increased corruption and violence and turn the country, like neighbouring Guinea-Bissau, into a narco state. However, the new government of president Koroma quickly amended the laws against drug trafficking in the country, updating the existing legislation from those inherited at independence in 1961, to address the international concerns, increasing punishment for offenders both in terms of higher, if not prohibitive, fines, lengthier prison terms and provision for possible extradition of offenders wanted elsewhere, including to the United States.

Geography and climate

Sierra Leone is located on the west coast of Africa, lying mostly between latitudes 7° and 10°N (a small area is south of 7°), and longitudes 10° and 14°W.

The country is bordered by Guinea to the north and northeast, Liberia to the south and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.^[43]

Sierra Leone has a total area of 71,740 km² (27,699 sq mi), divided into a land area of 71,620 km² (27,653 sq mi) and water of 120 km² (46 sq mi).^[5] The country has four distinct geographical regions. In eastern Sierra Leone the plateau is interspersed with high mountains, where Mount Bintumani reaches 1,948 m (6,391 ft), the highest point in the country. The upper part of the drainage basin of the Moa River is located in the south of this region.

The centre of the country is a region of lowland plains, containing forests, bush and farmland,^[43] that occupies about 43% of Sierra Leone's land area. The northern section of this has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic ecoregion, while the south is rain-forested plains and farmland. In the west Sierra Leone has some 400 km (249 mi) of Atlantic coastline, giving it both bountiful marine resources and attractive tourist potential. The coast has areas of low-lying Guinean mangroves swamp. The national capital Freetown sits on a coastal peninsula, situated next to the Sierra Leone Harbour, the world's third largest natural harbour.

The climate is tropical, with two seasons determining the agricultural cycle: the rainy season from May to November, and a dry season from December to May, which includes harmattan, when cool, dry winds blow in off the Sahara Desert and the night-time temperature can be as low as 16 °C (60.8 °F). The average temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and varies from around 26 °C (78.8 °F) to 36 °C (96.8 °F) during the year.^[44]^[45]

Environment

Human activities claimed to be responsible or contributing to land degradation in Sierra Leone include unsustainable agricultural land use, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation, removal of natural vegetation, fuelwood consumption and to a lesser extent overgrazing and urbanization.^[46]

Deforestation, both for commercial timber and to make room for agriculture, is the major concern and represents an enormous loss of natural economic wealth to the nation.^[47] Mining and slash and burn for land conversion – such as cattle grazing – dramatically diminished forested land in Sierra Leone since the 1980s. It is listed among countries of concern for emissions, as having Low Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD).^[48] There are concerns that heavy logging continues in the Tama-Tonkoli Forest Reserve in the north, they have extended their operations to Nimini, Kono District, Eastern Province; Jui, Western Rural District, Western Area; Loma Mountains National Park, Koinadougu, Northern Province; and with plans to start operations in the Kambui Forest reserve in the Kenema District, Eastern Province.^[48]

Habitat degradation for the African Wild Dog, Lycaon pictus, has been decreased, such that this canid is deemed to have been extirpated in Sierra Leone.^[49]

Until 2002, Sierra Leone lacked a forest management system due to the civil war that caused tens of thousands of deaths. Deforestation rates have increased 7.3% since the end of the civil war.^[50] On paper, 55 protected areas covered 4.5% of Sierra Leone as of 2003. The country has 2,090 known species of higher plants, 147 mammals, 626 birds, 67 reptiles, 35 amphibians, and 99 fish species.^[50]

The Environmental Justice Foundation has documented how the number of illegal fishing vessels in Sierra Leone's waters has multiplied in recent years. The amount of illegal fishing has significantly depleted fish stocks, depriving local fishing communities of an important resource for survival. The situation is particularly serious as fishing provides the only source of income for many communities in a country still recovering from over a decade of civil war.^[51]

In June 2005, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and Bird Life International agreed to support a conservation-sustainable development project in the Gola Forest in south eastern Sierra Leone,^[52] an important surviving fragment of rainforest in Sierra Leone.

Government and politics

Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. The current system of government in Sierra Leone, established under the 1991 Constitution, is modelled on the following structure of government: the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary.^[53]

Within the confines of the 1991 Constitution, supreme legislative powers are vested in Parliament, which is the law making body of the nation. Supreme executive authority rests in the president and members of his cabinet and judicial power with the judiciary of which the Chief Justice is head.

The president is the head of state, the head of government and the commander-in-chief of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces and the Sierra Leone Police. The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers, which must be approved by the Parliament. The president is elected by popular vote to a maximum of two five-year terms. The president is the highest and most influential position within the government of Sierra Leone.

To be elected president of Sierra Leone, a candidate must gain at least 55% of the vote. If no candidate gets 55%, there is to be a second-round runoff between the top two candidates.

The current president of Sierra Leone is Ernest Bai Koroma, who was sworn in on 17 September 2007, shortly after being declared the winner of a tense run-off election over the incumbent Vice president, Solomon Berewa of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP).^[54]

Next to the president is the Vice president, who is the second-highest ranking government official in the executive branch of the Sierra Leone Government. As designated by the Sierra Leone Constitution, the vice president is to become the new president of Sierra Leone upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president by parliament and to assume the Presidency temporarily while the president is otherwise temporarily unable to fulfil his or her duties. The vice president is elected jointly with the president as his or her running mate. Sierra Leone's current vice president is Samuel Sam-Sumana, sworn in on 17 September 2007.

The Parliament of Sierra Leone is unicameral, with 124 seats. Each of the country's fourteen districts is represented in parliament. 112 members are elected concurrently with the presidential elections; the other 12 seats are filled by paramount chiefs from each of the country's 12 administrative districts.

The current parliament in the August 2007 Parliamentary elections is made up of three political parties. The most recent parliamentary elections were held on 11 August 2007. The All People's Congress (APC), won 59 of 112 parliamentary seats; the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) won 43; and the People's Movement for Democratic Change (PMDC) won 10. To be qualified as Member of Parliament, the person must be a citizen of Sierra Leone, must be at least 21 years old, must be able to speak, read and write the English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him to actively take part in proceedings in Parliament; and must not have any criminal conviction.^[53]

Since independence in 1961, Sierra Leone's politics has been dominated by two major political parties, the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), and the ruling All People's Congress (APC), although other minor political parties have also existed but with no significant supports. The next election is scheduled for November 17, 2012.^[55]

The judicial power of Sierra Leone is vested in the judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice and comprising the Sierra Leone Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the country and its ruling therefore cannot be appealed; High Court of Justice; the Court of Appeal; the magistrate courts; and traditional courts in rural villages. The president appoints and parliament approves Justices for the three courts. The Judiciary have jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters throughout the country. The current Sierra Leone's Chief Justice is Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh, who was appointed by President Ernest Bai Koroma and took office on 25 January 2008 upon her confirmation by parliament. She is the first woman in the history of Sierra Leone to hold such position.^[56]

Foreign relations

The Sierra Leone Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, headed by Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation Joseph Bandabla Dauda is responsible for foreign policy of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone has diplomatic relations that include China, Libya, Iran, and Cuba. Sierra Leone has good relations with the West, including the United States and has maintained historical ties with the United Kingdom and other former British colonies through membership of the Commonwealth of Nations.^[57] The United Kingdom has played a major role in providing aid to the former colony, together with administrative help and military training since intervening to end the Civil War in 2000.

Former President Siaka Stevens' government had sought closer relations with other West African countries under the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) a policy continued by the current. Sierra Leone, along with Liberia and Guinea form the Mano River Union (MRU) primarily designed to implement development projects and promote regional economic integration between the three countries.^[58]

Sierra Leone is also a member of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, the African Union, the African Development Bank (AFDB), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).^[59] Sierra Leone is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US military (as covered under Article 98).

The Office of National Security plays an important security coordination role, including in the leadup to the 2007 elections.^[60]

Provinces and districts

The Republic of Sierra Leone is composed of four regions the Northern Province, Southern Province, the Eastern Province and the Western Area. The first three provinces are further divided into 12 districts, and the districts are further divided into 149 chiefdoms. The Local Government Act 2004 designated units of government called localities each of which would have a council to exercise authority and carry out functions at a local level.^[61]^[62] There are 13 district councils, one for each of the 12 districts and one for the Western Area Rural, and six municipalities each with a council, Freetown, Bo, Bonthe, Kenema, Koidu and Makeni.^[61]

District	Capital	Area km²	Province	Population (2004 census)^[63]	Population (2008 estimates)
Bombali District	Makeni	7,985	Northern Province	408,390	424,100^[64]
Koinadugu District	Kabala	12,121		265,758
Port Loko District	Port Loko	5,719		455,746	483,752^[65]
Tonkolili District	Magburaka	7,003		347,197	370,425^[66]
Kambia District	Kambia	3,108		270,462	299,725^[67]
Kenema District	Kenema	6,053	Eastern Province	497,948	522,656^[68]
Kono District	Koidu Town	5,641		335,401
Kailahun District	Kailahun	3,859		358,190	389,253^[69]
Bo District	Bo	5,473.6^[70]	Southern Province	463,668	527,131^[71]
Bonthe District	Mattru Jong	3,468		129,947	137,155^[72]
Pujehun District	Pujehun	4,105		228,392	262,073^[73]
Moyamba District	Moyamba	6,902		260,910
Western Area Urban District	Freetown	3,568	Western Area	1,272,873	1,473,873
Western Area Rural District	Waterloo	4,175	Western Area	174,249	205,400

Economy

Sierra Leone is slowly emerging from a protracted civil war and is showing signs of a successful transition. Investor and consumer confidence continue to rise, adding impetus to the country’s economic recovery. There is greater freedom of movement and the successful re-habitation and resettlement of residential areas.

Rich in minerals, Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. The country is among the top 10 diamond producing nations in the world. Mineral exports remain the main foreign currency earner. Sierra Leone is a major producer of gem-quality diamonds. Though rich in diamonds, it has historically struggled to manage their exploitation and export.

Annual production of Sierra Leone's diamond estimates range between $250–300 million US$. Some of that is smuggled, where it is possibly used for money laundering or financing illicit activities. Formal exports have dramatically improved since the civil war with efforts to improve the management of them having some success. In October 2000, a UN-approved certification system for exporting diamonds from the country was put in place and led to a dramatic increase in legal exports. In 2001, the government created a mining community development fund (DACDF), which returns a portion of diamond export taxes to diamond mining communities. The fund was created to raise local communities' stake in the legal diamond trade.

Sierra Leone is also known for its blood diamonds that were mined and sold to diamond conglomerates during the civil war, in order to buy the weapons that fuelled the atrocities of the civil war.^[74] In the 1970s and early 1980s, economic growth rate slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasing corruption among government officials. Its largest website is www.tipsnass.tumblr.com

By the 1990s economic activity was declining and economic infrastructure had become seriously degraded. Over the next decade much of the formal economy was destroyed in the country’s civil war. Since the end of hostilities in January 2002, massive infusions of outside assistance have helped Sierra Leone begin to recover. Much of the recovery will depend on the success of the government's efforts to limit corruption by officials, which many feel was the chief cause for the civil war. A key indicator of success will be the effectiveness of government management of its diamond sector.

Sierra Leone has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile, a titanium ore used as paint pigment and welding rod coatings. Sierra Rutile Limited, owned by a consortium of United States and European investors, began commercial mining operations near the city of Bonthe, in the Southern Province, in early 1979. It was then the largest non-petroleum US investment in West Africa. The export of 88,000 tons realized $75 million in export earnings in 1990. In 1990, the company and the government made a new agreement on the terms of the company's concession in Sierra Leone. Rutile and bauxite mining operations were suspended when rebels invaded the mining sites in 1995, but exports resumed in 2005. The new Mines and Minerals Act was passed by Parliament in November 2009, which aimed to improve concessions management in the Ministry of Mineral Resources. Sierra Leone is an EITI candidate country.

About two-thirds of the population engages in subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 52.5% of national income. The government is trying to increase food and cash crop production and upgrade small farmer skills. The government works with several foreign donors to operate integrated rural development and agricultural projects.

Despite its successes and development, the Sierra Leone economy still faces significant challenges. There is high unemployment, particularly among the youth and ex-combatants. Authorities have been slow to implement reforms in the civil service, and the pace of the privatisation programme is also slacking and donors have urged its advancement.

Sierra Leone’s currency is the Leone. The central bank of the country is the Bank of Sierra Leone which is located in the capital, Freetown. Sierra Leone operates a floating exchange rate system, and foreign currencies can be exchanged at any of the commercial banks, recognised foreign exchange bureaux and most hotels. Credit card use is limited in Sierra Leone, though they may be used at some hotels and restaurants. There are a few internationally linked automated teller machines that accept Visa cards in Freetown operated by ProCredit Bank.

Demographics

Sierra Leone had an estimated 2010 population of 5,245,695 and growth rate of 2.216 percent a year.^[5] The country's population is mostly young, with an estimated 41.7 percent under 15, and rural, with an estimated 62 percent of people living outside the cities.^[5] As a result of migration to cities the population is becoming more urban with an estimated rate of urbanisation growth of 2.9 percent a year.^[5]^[76] Population density varies greatly with the country. The Western Area Urban District, including Freetown, the capital and largest city, has a population density of 1,224 persons per square km whereas the largest district Koinadugu has a density of 21.4 persons per square km.^[76]

Although English is the official language,^[77] spoken at schools, government administration and the media, Krio (derived from English and several indigenous African languages, the language of the Sierra Leone Krio people), is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. The Krio language is spoken by 97% of the country's population^[5]^[78] and unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.^[13] According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Sierra Leone had a population of 8,700 refugees and asylum seekers at the end of 2007. Nearly 20,000 Liberian refugees voluntarily returned to Liberia over the course of 2007. Of the refugees remaining in Sierra Leone nearly all were Liberian.^[79]

Template:Largest cities of Sierra Leone

The populations quoted above for the five largest cities are from the 2004 census. Other figures are estimates from the source cited. Different sources give different estimates. Some claim that Magburaka should be included in the above list, but one source estimates the population at only 14,915,^[80] whilst another puts it as high as 85,313.^[81] "Pandebu-Tokpombu" is presumably the extended town of Torgbonbu which had a population of 10,716 in the 2004 census, though "Gbendembu" had a larger population of 12,139 in that census. In the 2004 census, Waterloo had a population of 34,079.

Religion

[17]

Sierra Leone religious sects^[82]
Religion			Percent
Islam			70%
Christianity			28%
African indigenous			2%

Followers of Islam constitute the majority of the population, while Christians form a significant minority. Muslims are estimated to comprise 60% of Sierra Leone's population according to the US Department of State,^[83] while 20 to 30% are reported to be followers of Christianity, and 5 to 10% of the population practice indigenous animist beliefs. The 2007 UNHCR's "Report on International Religious Freedom in Sierra Leone"^[82] estimated 60% Muslim, 20 to 30% Christian and 5 to 10% other beliefs, with many citizens practising a mixture of Islam and traditional indigenous religious beliefs or Christianity and traditional indigenous beliefs. The Pew Research Center estimates the Muslim population at 71.3% (4,059,000).^[84] Muslims predominate in all of the country's three provinces and the Western Area, though formerly they were concentrated in the north with the south being mainly Christian.

The constitution of Sierra Leone provides for freedom of religion and the government generally protects this right and does not tolerate its abuse.^{[citation needed]}

Ethnic groups

Ethnic groups of Sierra Leone [18]
Temne
Mende
Limba
Kono
Mandingo
Krio
Fula
Kuranko
Sherbro
Susu
Loko
Kissi
Yalunka
Vai
Oku

Sierra Leone government is home to about sixteen ethnic groups,^[85] each with its own language and custom. Unlike most African nations, Sierra Leone has no serious ethnic divisions and no serious religious divisions. People often married across tribal and religious boundaries.

The largest and most dominant groups are the Temne at 35% [19] and the Mende at 31% [20]. The Temne predominate in the Northern Province. The Mende likewise predominate in the South-Eastern Provinces. The Mende, who are believed to be descendants of the Mane, were originally in the Liberian hinterland. They began moving into Sierra Leone slowly and peacefully in the eighteenth century. The Temne are believed to have come from Futa Jallon, which is in present-day Guinea. Sierra Leone's national politics centres on the competition between the north-west, dominated by the Temne, and the south-east dominated by the Mende.

The third-largest ethnic group are the Limba at 8.5% of the population. The Limba are native people of Sierra Leone. They have no tradition of origin and they have always lived in Sierra Leone since it was discovered. The Limba are primarily found in Northern Sierra Leone and they seen as an ally of the Temne. Sierra Leone's first president Siaka Stevens and the country's second president Joseph Saidu Momoh are ethnic Limba.

The fourth largest ethnic group are the Fula at around (8%) of the population (descendants of 17th- and 18th-century Fulani settlers from the Fouta Djalon region of Guinea); they live primarily in the northeast and the western area of Sierra Leone. The Fula are primarily traders and many live in middle class homes. Because of their trading, the Fulas are found in virtually all parts of the country. Some notable ethnic Fula include Sierra Leone's current chief justice Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh.

The fifth-largest ethnic group are the Mandingo (also known as Mandinka) at 7% (they are the descendants of the Mandinka traders from Guinea, who immigrated to Sierra Leone between 1840 to about 1898). The Mandinka are predominantly found in the east and the northern part of the country, and they are the largest inhabitant of the large towns, most notably Kabal and Falaba in Koinadugu District in the north and Yengema, Kono District in the east of the country. Some notable Mandinka includes Sierra Leone's third president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, former Sierra Leone's vice president Sorie Ibrahim Koroma and current Sierra Leone natural resources minister Minkailu Mansaray.

After the Mandinka, are the Kono, who live primarily in Kono District in Eastern Sierra Leone. The Kono are descendants from Guinea. The Kono are primarily farmers and diamond miners. Some notable ethnic Kono include current Sierra Leone vice president Alhaji Samuel Sam-Sumana and current Sierra Leone's first lady Sia Nyama Koroma. The Kono are about split between Muslims and Christians.

Behind the Kono, are the Creole (at 5%) (descendants of freed slaves from the British Empire which landed in Freetown between 1787 and about 1885) are primarily found in the capital city of Freetown and its surrounding Western Area. Creole culture is unlike that of all other ethnic groups in Sierra Leone, and it is typical of Western culture and ideals.

Much smaller ethnic groups are the Kuranko, who are related to the Mandingo. The Kuranko are believed to have begun arriving in Sierra Leone from Guinea in about 1600 and settle in the north. The Loko in the north are native people of Sierra Leone and they have lived in Sierra Leone since it was discovered. The Susu and Yalunka in the far north in Kambia District around the border with Guinea are related people and they are both descendants from Guinea. The Kissi and the much smaller group of Vai, (who are largely Muslim) are further inland in Kailahun District in the East next to the border with Liberia. On the coast in Bonthe District in the south are the Sherbro, who are native people of Sierra Leone and have settled in Sherbro island since it was founded. In the past, Sierra Leoneans were noted for their educational achievements, trading activity, entrepreneurial skills, and arts and crafts work, particularly wood carving. Many are part of larger ethnic networks extending into several countries, which link West African states in the area. But the level of education and infrastructure has declined sharply over the last 30 years.^[86]

List of Sierra Leoneans

Education

Education in Sierra Leone is legally required for all children for six years at primary level (Class P1-P6) and three years in junior secondary education,^[87] but a shortage of schools and teachers has made implementation impossible.^[41] Two thirds of the adult population of the country are illiterate.^[88] The Sierra Leone Civil War resulted in the destruction of 1,270 primary schools and in 2001 67 percent of all school-age children were out of school.^[41] The situation has improved considerably since then with primary school enrollment doubling between 2001 and 2005 and the reconstruction of many schools since the end of the war.^[89] Students at primary schools are usually 6 to 12 years old, and in secondary schools 13 to 18. Primary education is free and compulsory in government-sponsored public schools.

The country has three universities: Fourah Bay College, founded in 1827 (the oldest university in West Africa),^[90] University of Makeni (established initially in September 2005 as The Fatima Institute, the college was granted university status in August 2009, and assumed the name University of Makeni, or UNIMAK), and Njala University, primarily located in Bo District. Njala University was established as the Njala Agricultural Experimental Station in 1910 and became a university in 2005.^[91] Teacher training colleges and religious seminaries are found in many parts of the country.

Health

Health care is provided by the government and others. Since April 2010, the government has instituted the Free Health Care Initiative which commits to free services for pregnant and lactating women and children under 5. This policy has been supported by increased aid from the United Kingdom and is recognised as a progressive move that other African countries may follow.^[92] Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 56.55 years in 2012.^[93] Estimates for infant mortality in Sierra Leone are among the highest in the world; for every 1,000 live births, approximately 77 children do not survive to their first birthday.^[94] The maternal death rates are also the highest in the world, at 2,000 deaths per 100,000 live births. The country suffers from epidemic outbreaks of diseases including yellow fever, cholera, lassa fever and meningitis.^[95] The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the population is 1.6 percent, higher than the world average of 1 percent but lower than the average of 6.1 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa.^[96]

During the Civil War (1991–2002) many soldiers took part in atrocities and many children were forced to fight. This left them traumatized with an estimated 400.000 people (by 2009) being mentally ill. Also thousands of former child soldiers have fallen into substance abuse as they try to blunt their memories. Mental healthcare in the country is almost non existing with many patients trying to cure themselves with the help of traditional healers.^[97]

Military

The Military of Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces (RSLAF), are the unified armed forces of Sierra Leone responsible for the territorial security of Sierra Leone's border and defending the national interests of Sierra Leone within the framework of its international obligations. The armed forces were formed after independence in 1961, on the basis of elements of the former British Royal West African Frontier Force present in the country. The Sierra Leone Armed Forces currently consist of around 15,500 personnel, comprising the largest Sierra Leone Army,^[98] the Sierra Leone Navy and the Sierra Leone Air Wing.^[99] The president of Sierra Leone is the Commander in Chief of the military, with the Minister of Defence responsible for defence policy and the formulation of the armed forces. The current Sierra Leone Defence Minister is Ret. Major Alfred Paolo Conteh. The Military of Sierra Leone also has a Chief of the Defence Staff who is a uniformed military official responsible for the administration and the operational control of the Sierra Leone military.^[100] Brigadier General Alfred Nelson-Williams who was appointed by president Koroma succeeded the retired Major General Edward Sam M’boma on 12 September 2008 as the Chief of Defence Staff of the Military.^[101]

Before Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961 the military was known as the Royal Sierra Leone Military Force. The military seized control in 1968, bringing the National Reformation Council into power. On 19 April 1971, when Sierra Leone became a republic, the Royal Sierra Leone Military Forces were renamed the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force (RSLMF).^[102] The RSLMF remained a single service organization until 1979, when the Sierra Leone Navy was established. It then remained largely unchanged for 16 years until in 1995 when Defence Headquarters was established and the Sierra Leone Air Wing formed. This gave the need for the RSLMF to be renamed the Armed Forces of the Republic of Sierra Leone (AFRSL).

Law enforcement

Law enforcement in Sierra Leone is primarily the responsibility of the Sierra Leone Police (SLP). Sierra Leone Police was established by the British colony back in 1894 and is one of the oldest police forces in West Africa. The key mission of the Sierra Leone Police include to prevent crime, to protect life and property, to detect and prosecute offenders, to maintain public order, to ensure safety and security, to enhance access to justice. The Sierra Leone Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police, the professional head of the Sierra Leone Police force and is appointed by the President of Sierra Leone. Each one of Sierra Leone's 14 districts is headed by a District Police commissioner who is the professional head of their respective district. The Districts Police Commissioners report directly to the Inspector General of Police at the Sierra Leone Police headquarters in Freetown. The current Inspector General of Police is Brima Acha Kamara who was appointed to the position by former president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah.

Transportation

There are a number of systems of transport in Sierra Leone, which has a road, air and water infrastructure, including a network of highways and several airports. There are 11,300 kilometres^[103] of highways in Sierra Leone, of which 904 km (562 mi)^[103] are paved (about 8% of the roads). Sierra Leone highways are linked to Conakry, Guinea, and Monrovia, Liberia. Sierra Leone has the largest natural harbour on the African continent, allowing international shipping through the Queen Elizabeth II Quay in the Cline Town area of eastern Freetown or through Government Wharf in central Freetown. There are 800 km (497 mi) of waterways in Sierra Leone, of which 600 km (373 mi) are navigable year-round. Major port cities are Bonthe, Freetown, Sherbro Island and Pepel.

There are ten regional airports in Sierra Leone, and one international airport. The Lungi International Airport located in the coastal town of Lungi in Northern Sierra Leone is the primary airport for domestic and international travel to or from Sierra Leone. Passengers cross the river to Aberdeen Heliports in Freetown by hovercraft, ferry or a helicopter. Helicopters are also available from the airport to other major cities in the country. The airport has paved runways longer than 3,047m. The other airports have unpaved runways, and seven have runways 914 to 1,523 metres long; the remaining two have shorter runways. This country appears on the E.U. list of prohibited countries with regard to the certification of airlines. This means that no airline which is Sierra Leone registered may operate services of any kind within the European Union. This is due to substandard safety standards.^[104]

Drinking water supply

Water supply in Sierra Leone is characterized by limited access to safe drinking water. Despite efforts by the government and numerous non-governmental organizations, access has not much improved since the end of the Sierra Leone Civil War in 2002, stagnating at about 50% and even declining in rural areas.^[105] In the capital Freetown, taps often run dry. It is hoped that a new dam in Orugu, for which China committed financing in 2009, will alleviate water scarcity.^[106]

According to a national survey (Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey) carried out in 2006, 84% of the urban population and 32% of the rural population had access to an improved water source. Those with access in rural areas were served almost exclusively by protected wells. The 68% of the rural population without access to an improved water source relied on surface water (50%), unprotected wells (9%) and unprotected springs (9%). Only 20% of the urban population and 1% of the rural population had access to piped drinking water in their home. Compared to the 2000 survey access has increased in urban areas, but has declined in rural areas, possibly because facilities have broken down because of a lack of maintenance.^[105]^[107]

With a new decentralization policy, embodied in the Local Government Act of 2004, responsibility for water supply in areas outside the capital was passed from the central government to local councils. In Freetown the Guma Valley Water Company remains in charge of water supply.

Food and food customs

Rice is the staple food of Sierra Leone and is consumed at virtually every meal daily. The rice is prepared numerous ways, and topped with a variety of sauces made from some of Sierra Leone's favorite toppings, including potato leaves, cassava leaves, Craincrain, hot peppers, peanuts, beans, okra soup, fish, beef, chicken, eggplant, onions, and tomatoes and chicken bones, which are a delicacy, because their brittle nature makes the sweet marrow inside easily accessible.

Along the street one can find snacks such as fresh mangoes, oranges, pineapple, or papaya, fried plantains, potato or cassava chunks with pepper sauce, small bags of popcorn or peanuts, bread, roasted corn, or skewers of grilled meat or shrimp. Local bars in some towns and villages will also sell poyo the sweet, lightly fermented palm wine tapped from the high tops of palm trees. Poyo bars can be areas of lively informal debate and conversation among men.

Ceremonial occasions such as weddings, funerals, initiations, and memorial services demand the preparation of large platters of rice, distributed to guests. Depending on the occasion, a portion may also be offered to the ancestors, to honor their memory. Another common practice in this sense is to pour liquor in the ancestors' honor in the corners of a house. Other food traditions vary with region or religion: Mende Muslims, for instance, will mark a burial ceremony with lehweh, a ball of rice flour mixed with water and sugar, served with a kola nut on top.

Culture

Arts

The arts in Sierra Leone are a mixture of tradition and hybrid African and western styles.^[108]^[109]^[110]

Sports

Sierra Leonean football star Sheriff Suma just after a Leone Stars training session on 4 Sept. 2008 at the National Stadium in Freetown.

Football is by far the most popular sport in Sierra Leone. The Sierra Leone national football team, popularly known as the Leone Stars, represents the country in international competitions. It has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup but participated in the 1994 and 1996 African Cup of Nations. When the national football team, the Leone Stars have a match, Sierra Leoneans across the country come together united in support of the national team; and street across the country are virtually empty as people rush to their local radio and television stations to follow the live match. The country's national television network, The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) broadcasts the national football team live match, along with many radio stations throughout the country. Some well known Sierra Leonean footballers include Mohamed Kallon, Mohamed Bangura, Rodney Strasser, Ibrahim Teteh Bangura, Kewullay Conteh, national team captain Ibrahim Kargbo, Alhassan Bangura, Sheriff Suma, Mohamed Kamara, Umaru Bangura, Albert Jarrett, and Kei Kamara.

The Sierra Leone National Premier League is the top professional football league in Sierra Leone and is controlled by the Sierra Leone Football Association. Clubs from across the country compete in the league. The two biggest and most successful football clubs are East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool, but Kallon F.C. has enjoyed contemporary success. Kallon F.C. won the Premier League and the Sierra Leonean FA Cup in 2006, and eliminated 2006 Nigerian Premier League Champions Ocean Boys FC in the 2007 CAF Champions League first qualifying round, but later lost to ASEC Mimosas of Ivory Coast in the second qualifying round for the group stage.

The Sierra Leone U-17 football team, nicknamed the Sierra Stars, finished as runner-up at the 2003 African U-17 Championship in Swaziland, but came in last place in their group at the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship in Finland.

The Sierra Leone cricket team represents Sierra Leone in international cricket competitions, and is among the best in West Africa. It became an affiliate member of the International Cricket Council in 2002. It made its international debut at the 2004 African Affiliates Championship, where it finished last of eight teams. But at the equivalent tournament in 2006, Division Three of the African region of the World Cricket League, it finished as runner-up to Mozambique, and just missed a promotion to Division Two.

In 2009 the Sierra Leone Under-19 team finished second in the African Under-19 Championship in Zambia, thus qualifying for the Under-19 World Cup qualifying tournament with nine other teams.^[111] However, the team was unable to obtain Canadian visas to play in the tournament, which was held in Toronto.^[112]

The Sierra Leone national basketball team represents Sierra Leone in international men's basketball competitions and is controlled by the Sierra Leone Basketball Federation. The squad is mostly home-based, with a few foreign players.

Media

Media in Sierra Leone began with the introduction of the first printing press in Africa at the start of the nineteenth century. A strong journalistic tradition developed with the creation of a number of newspapers. In the 1860s, the country became a journalist hub for Africa, with professionals travelling to the country from across the continent. At the end of the nineteenth century, the industry went into decline, and when radio was introduced in the 1930s, it became the primary communication media in the country. The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) was created by the government in 1934 making it the earliest English language radio broadcaster service in West Africa. The service began broadcasting television in 1963, with coverage extended to all the districts in the country in 1978.

Print media is not widely read in Sierra Leone, especially outside Freetown, partially due to the low levels of literacy in the country.^[113] In 2007 there were 15 daily newspapers in the country, as well as those published weekly.^[114] Among newspaper readership, young people are likely to read newspapers weekly and older people daily. The majority of newspapers are privately run and are often critical of the government. The standard of print journalism tends to be low due to lack of training, and people trust the information published in newspapers less than that found on the radio.^[113]

Radio is the most-popular and most-trusted media in Sierra Leone, with 85% of people having access to a radio and 72% of people in the country listening to the radio daily.^[113] These levels do vary between areas of the country, with the Western Area having the highest levels and Kailahun the lowest. Stations mainly consist of local commercial stations with a limited broadcast range, combined with a few stations with national coverage. The United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) runs one of the most popular stations in the country, broadcasting programs in a range of languages. Content includes news of UN activities and human rights information, as well as music and news. The UN missions will withdraw in 2008 and the UN Radio's future is uncertain. There is also a government station run by the SLBS that transmits on FM and short-wave. FM relays of BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale and Voice of America are also broadcast.

Outside the capital Freetown television is not watched by a great many people. There are two national, free terrestrial television stations in Sierra Leone, one run by the government SLBS and the other a private station, ABC Television-Africa (ABC). In 2007, a pay-per-view service was also introduced by GTV as part of a pan-African television service in addition to the nine year old sub-Saharan Digital satellite television service (DStv) originating from Multichoice Africa in South Africa. Internet access in Sierra Leone has been sparse but is on the increase, especially since the introduction of wireless services across the country. There are nine internet service providers (ISPs) operating in the country. Freetown has a city wide wireless network and internet cafes and other businesses offering internet access. Problems experienced with access to the Internet include an intermittent electricity supply and a slow connection speed in the country outside Freetown.

The Sierra Leone constitution guarantees freedom of speech, and freedom of the press; however, the government maintains strong control of media, and at times restricts these rights in practice. Some subjects are seen as taboo by society and members of the political elite; imprisonment and violence have been used by the political establishment against journalists.^[115]^[116] Under legislation enacted in 1980, all newspapers must register with the Ministry of Information and pay sizeable registration fees. The Criminal Libel Law, including Seditious Libel Law of 1965, is used to control what is published in the media.^[116] In 2006, President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah committed to reforming the laws governing the press and media to create a freer system for journalists to work in.^[116] As of 2012, Sierra Leone is ranked 63rd on Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index.^[117]

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Sierra Leone". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
^ Encarta Encyclopedia. Sierra Leone. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
^ "Country Profile:Sierra Leone". "Foreign & Common Wealth Office, UK". Retrieved 19 September 2011.
^ "Rebuild Sierra-leone". Retrieved 19 September 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Sierra Leone". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 15 Sept 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) Cite error: The named reference "CIA" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ The World Guide. "Sierra Leone Geography". Retrieved 19 February 2008.
^ John Momoh (29 November 2010). "Sierra Leone: Changing Trends in Local Politics". AllAfrica.com. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
^ Amara Lavahun (31 July 2010). "The Rebirth of the SLPP in Sierra Leone Politics" (pdf). exclusivepress.net. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
^ http://www.indexmundi.com/sierra_leone/population_below_poverty_line.html
^ ^a ^b "Sierra Leone Rated High for Religious Tolerance". AllAfrica.com. 29 September 2004. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
^ "Massive foreign investment – As President Koroma Creates a Climate of Security and Stability". The Sierra Leone Daily Mail. 14 September 2010. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
^ "Celebrating Sierra Leone's 50th independence anniversary". ArabNews.com. 27 April 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
^ ^a ^b Oyètádé, B. Akíntúndé; Fashole-Luke, Victor, "Sierra Leone: Krio and the Quest for National Integration", Language and National Identity in Africa, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 122–140
^ http://www.care.org/newsroom/specialreports/sierra_leone/sl_relief.asp
^ http://www.the-monitor.org/custom/index.php/region_profiles/print_profile/364
^ http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5475.htm
^ Kup (1961), p. 116
^ ^a ^b Classic Encyclopedia. "Sierra Leone". Retrieved 19 February 2008.
^ Room (1995), p. 346-7
^ ^a ^b Kingfisher Geography encyclopedia. ISBN 1-85613-582-9. Page 180
^ History World. "History of Sierra Leone". Retrieved 19 February 2008.
^ Countries and Their Cultures. "Culture of Sierra Leone". Retrieved 22 February 2008.
^ Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Sierra Leone History". Retrieved 19 February 2008.
^ Encyclopedia of the Nations. "Sierra Leone – History". Retrieved 22 February 2008.
^ Utting (1931), p. 33
^ Utting (1931), p. 8
^ LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). p. 22. ISBN 9780761423348.
^ Sibthorpe, A. B. C. (1970). The History of Sierra Leone. Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 9780714617695.
^ National Maritime Museum. "Sir John Hawkins". Retrieved 9 December 2008.
^ Pham (2005). Child soldiers, adult interests: the global dimensions of the Sierra Leonean tragedy. Nova Publishers. pp. 4–8. ISBN 9781594546716.
^ ^a ^b "Sierra Leone's struggle for progress". The Economist. 11 December 2008. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^ Harris, Sheldon H. Paul Cuffe: Black America and the African Return (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972) pp. 32–33, and especially note 15 on p. 140
^ Sierra-leone.org. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
^ Martin Killson, Political Change in a West African State: A Study of the Modernization Process in Sierra Leone, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 1966, p 60. Also pp 106, 107, 110, 111, 186–188 on other riots and strikes.
^ ^a ^b ^c Advocate Nations of Africa: Sierra Leone^{[dead link]}
^ "Sierra Leone's Leader; Milton Augustus Strieby Margai, New York Times, April 28, 1961". Select.nytimes.com. 28 April 1961. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^ Pham, John-Peter (2005). Child soldiers, adult interests: the global dimensions of the Sierra Leonean tragedy. Nova Publishers. pp. 33–35. ISBN 9781594546716.
^ Gberie, Lansana (2005). A dirty war in West Africa: the RUF and the destruction of Sierra Leone. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 26–27. ISBN 9781850657422.
^ Rotberg, Robert I. (2003). State failure and state weakness in a time of terror. Brookings Institution Press. p. 80. ISBN 9780815775744.
^ Gberie, Lansana (1998). War and state collapse: The case of Sierra Leone (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University
^ ^a ^b ^c "Sierra Leone". 2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2002). Cite error: The named reference "ilab" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ Bah, M. (1998). The Worlds Most Resilient People. London: Alpha.
^ ^a ^b LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). p. 7. ISBN 9780761423348.
^ Blinker, Linda (2006). "Country Environment Profile (CEP) Sierra Leone" (PDF). Freetown, Sierra Leone: Consortium Parsons Brinckerhoff: 12. Retrieved 25 September 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). pp. 8–9. ISBN 9780761423348.
^ UNCCD (2004). "National Report on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Sierra Leone" (PDF). p. 39. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
^ UNCCD (2004). "National Report on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Sierra Leone" (PDF). p. 39. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
^ ^a ^b Angelsen, Arild; et al. (2009). "Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): An Options Assessment Report" (PDF). Meridian Institute for the Government of Norway. pp. 75–77. Retrieved 24 November 2011. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
^ C. Michael Hogan. 2009. Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg
^ ^a ^b Rhett Butler. 2005. Sierra Leone: Environmental Profile, mongabay.com
^ Environmental Justice Foundation "Sierra Leone", 17 September 2009
^ BBC News, Sierra Leone sets up forest park, 10 December 2007
^ ^a ^b Nyulawglobal.org
^ "Country profile: Sierra Leone". BBC News. 18 June 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
^ "Sierra Leone National Election Commission Bulletin". September–December 2011. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
^ News.sl
^ "Background Note: Sierra Leone". U.S. Department of State. October 2008. Retrieved 7 October 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Welcome to the Mano River Union Website". Mano River Union. 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Relations". Sierra Leone Encyclopedia. 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ http://www.ssrnetwork.net/documents/Publications/SierraLeoneWPs/working%20paper%209.pdf
^ ^a ^b Renner-Thomas, Ade (2010). Land Tenure in Sierra Leone: The Law, Dualism and the Making of a Land Policy. AuthorHouse. pp. 6–7. ISBN 9781449058661.
^ "ActionAid launches Perception survey as new local councils struggle to survive". ActionAid. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
^ "Final Results 2004 population and housing census" (PDF). Statistics Sierra Leone. p. 3. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
^ World Gazetteer: Bombali – profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
^ World-gazetteer.com
^ World Gazetteer: Tonkolili – profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
^ World Gazetteer: Kambia – profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
^ World Gazetteer: Kenema – profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
^ World Gazetteer: Kailahun – profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
^ "Bo District". Sierra Leone Encyclopedia (UN and Government of Sierra Leone). July 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2008.
^ World Gazetteer: Bo – profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
^ World-gazetteer.com
^ World Gazetteer: Pujehun – profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
^ "UN targets 'blood diamonds' trade". BBC News. 1 August 2003. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
^ African Development Bank, OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2009). African Economic Outlook 2009: Country Notes: Volumes 1 and 2. OECD Publishing. p. 562. ISBN 9789264076181.
^ ^a ^b Renner-Thomas, Ade (2010). Land Tenure in Sierra Leone: The Law, Dualism and the Making of a Land Policy. AuthorHouse. p. 5. ISBN 9781449058661.
^ "Sierra Leone Overview". United Nations Development Programme Sierra Leone. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
^ Krio Translation Services
^ "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 19 June 2008.
^ "Population Of Magburaka". Population-of.com. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^ "Exaf". Exaf.eu. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^ ^a ^b UNHCR.org
^ US Department of State estimate
^ Pewforum.org
^ "About Sierra Leone". Sierra Leone Encyclopedia. 2007. Retrieved 27 July 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Sierra Leone (02/08)". "U.S. Department of State". Retrieved 17 February 2008.
^ Wang, Lianqin (2007). Education in Sierra Leone: Present Challenges, Future Opportunities. World Bank Publications. p. 2. ISBN 0821368680.
^ "Human Development Report 2009 – Proportion of international migrant stocks residing in countries with very high levels of human development (%)". Hdrstats.undp.org. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^ Wang, Lianqin (2007). Education in Sierra Leone: Present Challenges, Future Opportunities. World Bank Publications. p. 1 and 3. ISBN 0821368680.
^ Jones-Parry (Ed.), Rupert (2006). Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2007. Nexus Strategic Partnerships Ltd. ISBN 0954962915. {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
^ "Njala University College (Nuc)". Sierra Leone: Sierra Leone Encyclopedia. July. Retrieved 25 June 2008. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Sierra Leone". The Kambia Appeal. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
^ CIA World Factbook: Life Expectancy ranks
^ CIA World Factbook: Infant Mortality ranks
^ "The Primary Health Care Hand Book Policing" (doc). Ministry of Health & Sanitation. 25 May 2007. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
^ "2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic" (PDF). UNAIDS. 2006. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
^ [1] Channel4, Unreported World 2009 series, ep.4: Sierra Leone: Insanity of War
^ Armed forces (Sierra Leone) Jane's Sentinel Security Assessments, June 2008
^ "Summary (Sierra Leone) – Jane's World Air Forces". Janes.com. 30 July 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^ News.sl
^ New Vision, Freetown, 15 September 2008
^ Partners: Sierra Leone Armed Forces
^ ^a ^b CIA – The World Factbook
^ List of banned E.U. air carriers^{[dead link]}
^ ^a ^b WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation:Estimates for the use of Improved Drinking-Water Sources, Sierra Leone, updated March 2010
^ OOSKA News: China Lends $28.8 Million USD to Sierra Leone for Orugu Dam, 15 June 2009
^ Nataliya Pushak (June 2011). "Sierra Leone's Infrastructure. A Continental Perspective" (PDF). Policy Research Working Paper 571. World Bank. pp. 31–35. Retrieved 6 August 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
^ Banham, Martin (2004). A history of theatre in Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 9780521808132.
^ Conteh, Prince Sorie (2009). Traditionalists, Muslims, and Christians in Africa: interreligious encounters and dialogue. Cambria Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 9781604975963.
^ Manson, Katrina (2009). Sierra Leone. Bradt Travel Guides. pp. 42–45. ISBN 9781841622224. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Cricinfo article Uganda and Sierra Leone Win Through
^ Cricinfo article: Visa Issues End Sierra Leone's World Cup Dream
^ ^a ^b ^c "Media use, and attitudes towards media in Sierra Leone:A comprehensive baseline study" (PDF). BBC World Service Trust and Search for Common Ground. June 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Jalloh, Tanu (28 December 2007). "Sierra Leone: Newspaper Development". Freetown, Sierra Leone: Concord Times. Retrieved 19 April 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Wilson, Harry (2005). "Press Freedoms and Human Rights:2005 Year End Press Freedom Brief". Commonwealth Press Union. Archived from the original on 24 November 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c "Sierra Leone – Annual report 2006". Reporters without Borders:For Press Freedom. 2006. Retrieved 20 April 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Press Freedom Index 2011-2012". Reporters without Borders:For Press Freedom. 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

Book references

Primary sources

Keen, David (2005). Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone. Oxford: James Currey. ISBN 0-85255-883-X. ISBN 9780852558836.
Kup, Alexander Peter (1961). A History of Sierra Leone, 1400–1787. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0786418141.
Sillinger, Brett (2003). Sierra Leone: Current Issues and Background. New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 1590336623.
Utting, Francis A (1931). The Story of Sierra Leone. Ayer Company Publishers. ISBN 0836967046.
Beah, Ishmael. A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier (2007). Sarah Crichton Books: New York. Link: A Long Way Gone

Secondary sources

Room, Adrian (1995). Placenames of the World. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 0786418141.
Levinson, Robby (1998). Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook. Phoenix: Oryx Press. ISBN 1573560197.

External links

Government

The Republic of Sierra Leone official government site
Chief of State and Cabinet Members
Ministry of Mineral Resources official government minerals site

General information

Country Profile from BBC News
"Sierra Leone". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
Sierra Leone from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Template:Dmoz
Wikimedia Atlas of Sierra Leone
Development Assistance Coordination Office: Sierra Leone Encyclopedia 2008
Key Development Forecasts for Sierra Leone from International Futures

News media

Awareness Times Newspaper
The New People The New People Newspaper
Sierra Eye Sierra Leone News Portal
News headline links from AllAfrica.com
Sierra Leone News & Blog Current Sierra Leone News & Blog
Sierra Leone world News headline, information and analysis

Tourism

National Tourist Board of Sierra Leone official site
Template:Wikitravel

Telecommunication

Sierra Leone telecom

Other

Friends of Sierra Leone
Masanga Grace's Fund for Masanga Hospital
Schools for Salone non-profit dedicated to rebuilding schools
ENCISS civil society and governance
Aisha's Eye on Sierra Leone a photo documentary
The Auradicals Club Student Club in Fourah Bay College
Sierra Leone Web
Sweet Salone 2008 film on new music in Sierra Leone
War Crimes Trials in Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone Photo Gallery
Hurrarc – Human Rights Respect Awareness Raising Campaigners – Sierra Leone Ngo
Environmental Justice Foundation's report on pirate fishing in Sierra Leone

Template:Link GA ak:Sierra Leone

[imf2-1] "Sierra Leone". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 21 April 2012.

[Sierra_Leone-2] Encarta Encyclopedia. Sierra Leone. Retrieved 19 February 2008.

[fco-3] "Country Profile:Sierra Leone". "Foreign & Common Wealth Office, UK". Retrieved 19 September 2011.

[rbsl-4] "Rebuild Sierra-leone". Retrieved 19 September 2011.

[CIA-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g "Sierra Leone". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 15 Sept 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) Cite error: The named reference "CIA" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[Sierra_Leone_Geography-6] The World Guide. "Sierra Leone Geography". Retrieved 19 February 2008.

[7] John Momoh (29 November 2010). "Sierra Leone: Changing Trends in Local Politics". AllAfrica.com. Retrieved 30 October 2010.

[8] Amara Lavahun (31 July 2010). "The Rebirth of the SLPP in Sierra Leone Politics" (pdf). exclusivepress.net. Retrieved 30 October 2010.

[9] ttp://www.indexmundi.com/sierra_leone/population_below_poverty_line.html

[aa_ratedforreligoustol-10] "Sierra Leone Rated High for Religious Tolerance". AllAfrica.com. 29 September 2004. Retrieved 30 October 2010.

[11] "Massive foreign investment – As President Koroma Creates a Climate of Security and Stability". The Sierra Leone Daily Mail. 14 September 2010. Retrieved 30 October 2010.

[12] "Celebrating Sierra Leone's 50th independence anniversary". ArabNews.com. 27 April 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2010.

[https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/181-13] Oyètádé, B. Akíntúndé; Fashole-Luke, Victor, "Sierra Leone: Krio and the Quest for National Integration", Language and National Identity in Africa, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 122–140

[14] ttp://www.care.org/newsroom/specialreports/sierra_leone/sl_relief.asp

[15] ttp://www.the-monitor.org/custom/index.php/region_profiles/print_profile/364

[16] ttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5475.htm

[Pre-colonial_tribes-17] Kup (1961), p. 116

[Sierra_Leone2-18] Classic Encyclopedia. "Sierra Leone". Retrieved 19 February 2008.

[Placenames_of_the_World-19] Room (1995), p. 346-7

[ReferenceA-20] Kingfisher Geography encyclopedia. ISBN 1-85613-582-9. Page 180

[History_of_Sierra_Leone-21] History World. "History of Sierra Leone". Retrieved 19 February 2008.

[Culture_of_Sierra_Leone-22] Countries and Their Cultures. "Culture of Sierra Leone". Retrieved 22 February 2008.

[Sierra_Leone_History-23] Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Sierra Leone History". Retrieved 19 February 2008.

[Sierra_Leone_-_History-24] Encyclopedia of the Nations. "Sierra Leone – History". Retrieved 22 February 2008.

[protected_from_influence-25] Utting (1931), p. 33

[rainforest-26] Utting (1931), p. 8

[LeVert-27] LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). p. 22. ISBN 9780761423348.

[Sibthorpe-28] Sibthorpe, A. B. C. (1970). The History of Sierra Leone. Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 9780714617695.

[Sir_John_Hawkins-29] National Maritime Museum. "Sir John Hawkins". Retrieved 9 December 2008.

[30] Pham (2005). Child soldiers, adult interests: the global dimensions of the Sierra Leonean tragedy. Nova Publishers. pp. 4–8. ISBN 9781594546716.

[economist-31] "Sierra Leone's struggle for progress". The Economist. 11 December 2008. Retrieved 22 August 2010.

[32] Harris, Sheldon H. Paul Cuffe: Black America and the African Return (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972) pp. 32–33, and especially note 15 on p. 140

[33] Sierra-leone.org. Retrieved 17 January 2007.

[34] Martin Killson, Political Change in a West African State: A Study of the Modernization Process in Sierra Leone, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 1966, p 60. Also pp 106, 107, 110, 111, 186–188 on other riots and strikes.

[advocate-35] Advocate Nations of Africa: Sierra Leone^{[dead link]}

[36] "Sierra Leone's Leader; Milton Augustus Strieby Margai, New York Times, April 28, 1961". Select.nytimes.com. 28 April 1961. Retrieved 22 August 2010.

[37] Pham, John-Peter (2005). Child soldiers, adult interests: the global dimensions of the Sierra Leonean tragedy. Nova Publishers. pp. 33–35. ISBN 9781594546716.

[38] Gberie, Lansana (2005). A dirty war in West Africa: the RUF and the destruction of Sierra Leone. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 26–27. ISBN 9781850657422.

[39] Rotberg, Robert I. (2003). State failure and state weakness in a time of terror. Brookings Institution Press. p. 80. ISBN 9780815775744.

[Gberie-40] Gberie, Lansana (1998). War and state collapse: The case of Sierra Leone (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University

[ilab-41] "Sierra Leone". 2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2002). Cite error: The named reference "ilab" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[42] Bah, M. (1998). The Worlds Most Resilient People. London: Alpha.

[LeVertP7-43] LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). p. 7. ISBN 9780761423348.

[44] Blinker, Linda (2006). "Country Environment Profile (CEP) Sierra Leone" (PDF). Freetown, Sierra Leone: Consortium Parsons Brinckerhoff: 12. Retrieved 25 September 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[45] LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). pp. 8–9. ISBN 9780761423348.

[46] UNCCD (2004). "National Report on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Sierra Leone" (PDF). p. 39. Retrieved 24 November 2011.

[47] UNCCD (2004). "National Report on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Sierra Leone" (PDF). p. 39. Retrieved 24 November 2011.

[Angelsen,_Arild_et_al_2009_75–77-48] Angelsen, Arild; et al. (2009). "Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): An Options Assessment Report" (PDF). Meridian Institute for the Government of Norway. pp. 75–77. Retrieved 24 November 2011. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

[49] C. Michael Hogan. 2009. Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg

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@@ Line 349: / Line 349: @@
 Annual production of Sierra Leone's diamond estimates range between $250–300&nbsp;million US$. Some of that is [[Smuggling|smuggled]], where it is possibly used for [[money laundering]] or financing illicit activities. Formal exports have dramatically improved since the civil war with efforts to improve the management of them having some success. In October 2000, a UN-approved certification system for exporting diamonds from the country was put in place and led to a dramatic increase in legal exports. In 2001, the government created a mining community development fund ([[Ministry of Mineral Resources (Sierra Leone)|DACDF]]), which returns a portion of diamond export taxes to diamond mining communities. The fund was created to raise local communities' stake in the legal diamond trade.
-Sierra Leone is also known for its [[blood diamond]]s that were mined and sold to diamond conglomerates during the [[civil war]], in order to buy the weapons that fuelled the atrocities of the civil war.<ref>{{cite news|title=UN targets 'blood diamonds' trade|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3117421.stm|work=BBC News|accessdate=28 April 2011|date=1 August 2003}}</ref>  In the 1970s and early 1980s, [[economic growth]] rate slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasing [[political corruption|corruption]] among government officials.
+Sierra Leone is also known for its [[blood diamond]]s that were mined and sold to diamond conglomerates during the [[civil war]], in order to buy the weapons that fuelled the atrocities of the civil war.<ref>{{cite news|title=UN targets 'blood diamonds' trade|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3117421.stm|work=BBC News|accessdate=28 April 2011|date=1 August 2003}}</ref>  In the 1970s and early 1980s, [[economic growth]] rate slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasing [[political corruption|corruption]] among government officials. Its largest website is www.tipsnass.tumblr.com
 {| class="wikitable infobox" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em;"

Rank	Sector	Percentage of GDP
1	Agriculture	58.5
2	Other Services	10.4
3	Trade and tourism	9.5
4	Wholesale and retail trade	9.0
5	Mining and quarrying	4.5
6	Government Services	4.0
7	Manufacturing and handicrafts	2.0
8	Construction	1.7
9	Electricity and water	0.4