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Left to right, from top: Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Czech Technical University, in Prague, Czech Republic; School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktia Province, Afghanistan; Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.; Early childhood education through USAID in Ziway, Ethiopia

Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty. Various researchers emphasize the role of critical thinking in order to distinguish education from indoctrination. Some theorists require that education results in an improvement of the student while others prefer a value-neutral definition of the term. In a slightly different sense, education may also refer, not to the process, but to the product of this process: the mental states and dispositions possessed by educated people. Education originated as the transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to the next. Today, educational goals increasingly encompass new ideas such as the liberation of learners, skills needed for modern society, empathy, and complex vocational skills.

Types of education are commonly divided into formal, non-formal, and informal education. Formal education takes place in education and training institutions, is usually structured by curricular aims and objectives, and learning is typically guided by a teacher. In most regions, formal education is compulsory up to a certain age and commonly divided into educational stages such as kindergarten, primary school and secondary school. Nonformal education occurs as addition or alternative to formal education.^[1] It may be structured according to educational arrangements, but in a more flexible manner, and usually takes place in community-based, workplace-based or civil society-based settings. Lastly, informal education occurs in daily life, in the family, any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational, whether unintentional or intentional. In practice there is a continuum from the highly formalized to the highly informalized, and informal learning can occur in all three settings.^[2] For instance, homeschooling can be classified as nonformal or informal, depending upon the structure.

Regardless of setting, educational methods include teaching, training, storytelling, discussion, and directed research. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy. Education is supported by a variety of different philosophies, theories and empirical research agendas.

There are movements for education reforms, such as for improving quality and efficiency of education towards relevance in students' lives and efficient problem solving in modern or future society at large, or for evidence-based education methodologies. A right to education has been recognized by some governments and the United Nations.^[a] For example, 24 January is the International Day of Education.^[3] At UN - level, several observance years and decades have been dedicated to education,^[4] such as 1970 International Education Year.^[5] Education is also one of the 17 Global Goals, where global initiatives aim at achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4, which promotes quality education for all.

Definitions

Numerous definitions of education have been suggested by theorists belonging to diverse fields.^[6]^[7]^[8] Many agree that education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, especially the transmission of knowledge.^[9] But they often include other aims as well, such as fostering skills and character traits.^[9]^[6]^[10] However, there are deep disagreements about the exact nature of education besides these general characteristics. According to some conceptions, it is primarily a process that occurs during events like schooling, teaching, and learning.^[11]^[12]^[7] Others understand it not as a process but as the achievement or product brought about by this process. On this view, education is what educated persons have, i.e. the mental states and dispositions that are characteristic of them.^[11]^[12]^[7] However, the term may also refer to the academic study of the methods and processes taking place during teaching and learning, as well as the social institutions involved in these processes.^[12] Etymologically, the word "education" is derived from the Latin word ēducātiō ("A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing") from ēducō ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym ēdūcō ("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from ē- ("from, out of") and dūcō ("I lead, I conduct").^[13]

Some researchers, like R. S. Peters, have proposed precise definitions by spelling out the necessary and sufficient conditions of education, for example: (1) it is concerned with the transmission of knowledge and understanding; (2) this transmission is worthwhile and (3) done in a morally appropriate manner in tune with the student's interests.^[14]^[15]^[6] This and similar attempts are often successful at characterizing the most paradigmatic forms of education but have received numerous criticisms nonetheless, usually in the form of specific counterexamples for which the proposed criteria fail.^[15]^[16]^[7] These difficulties have led various theorists to develop less precise conceptions based on family resemblance. This means that all the different forms of education are similar to each other even though they need not share an essential set of features characteristic of all of them.^[6]^[17]^[18] This view can also be combined with the idea that the meaning of the term "education" is context-dependent and may thus vary depending on the situation in which it is used.^[7] Having a clear idea of what the term means is important for various issues: it is needed to identify and coherently talk about it as well as to determine how to achieve and measure it.^[19]^[20]^[21]

There is disagreement in the academic literature on whether education is an evaluative concept. So-called thick definitions affirm this, for example, by holding that an improvement of the learner is a necessary requirement of education. However, different thick definitions may still disagree among themselves on what constitutes such an improvement. Thin definitions, on the other hand, try to give a value-neutral account of education.^[20]^[22] A closely related distinction is that between descriptive and prescriptive conceptions. Descriptive conceptions aim to describe how the term is actually used by regular speakers while prescriptive conceptions try to express what good education is or how it should be done.^[9]^[23]

Many thick and prescriptive conceptions base their account on the aims of education, i.e. regarding the goals that the activity of education tries to achieve.^[24]^[25]^[26] These aims are sometimes categorized into epistemic goods, like knowledge and understanding, skills, like rationality and critical thinking, and character traits, like kindness and honesty.^[20] Some theorists focus on one overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end.^[27]^[25] This can take the form of socialization, in which accumulated knowledge is transmitted from one generation to the next with the goal of helping the student function as a regular citizen in society.^[9]^[28]^[7] More person-centered definitions focus on the well-being of the student instead: education is to help them lead a good life or the life they wish to lead.^[9]^[27]^[7] Various researchers emphasize critical thinking as an aim in order to distinguish education from indoctrination.^[25]^[26]^[29] This is motivated by the idea that mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student without concern for their evidential status.^[25]^[24] Education, on the other hand, should also foster the rational ability to critically reflect on those beliefs and question them.^[30] However, some theorists contend that certain forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education until the child's mind is sufficiently developed.^[25]

Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the student's perspective. Teacher-centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher, for example, in the form of transmitting knowledge and skills while doing so in a morally appropriate manner.^[31]^[7]^[14] Student-centered definitions, on the other hand, outline education based on the student's experience in the learning process, for example, based on how education transforms and enriches their subsequent experience.^[32]^[15]^[33] However, conceptualizations taking both perspectives into account are also possible. This can take the form of describing the process as the shared experience of a common world that involves discovery as well as posing and solving problems.^[15]^[31]^[34]

Types

Education is commonly subdivided into different types. The most common subdivision is between formal, non-formal, and informal education.^[35]^[36]^[7]^[37] However, some theorists only distinguish between formal and informal education.^[38] A process of teaching constitutes formal education if it happens in a complex institutionalized framework. Such frameworks are usually chronologically and hierarchically organized as in modern schooling systems, which have different classes based on the student's age and progress, all the way from primary school to university. Because of its scale, formal education is usually controlled and guided by a governmental entity and is normally compulsory up to a certain age.^[35]^[39] Non-formal and informal education differ from formal education due to their lack of such a governmental institutionalized framework. Non-formal education constitutes a middle ground in the sense that it is also organized, systematic, and carried out with a clear purpose in mind, such as tutoring, fitness classes, or the scouting movement.^[35]^[39]^[7] Informal education, on the other hand, happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching.^[36] Informal education is present in many different settings and happens throughout one's life, mostly in a spontaneous manner. This is how children usually learn their mother tongue from their parents or when learning how to prepare a certain dish by cooking together.^[35]^[39]^[7] Some accounts tie the difference between the three types mainly to the location where the learning takes place: in school for formal education, in places of the individual's day-to-day routine for informal education, and in other places occasionally visited for non-formal education.^[36] It has been argued that the motivation responsible for formal education is predominantly extrinsic, whereas it tends to be mainly intrinsic for non-formal and informal education.^[36] The distinction between the three types is normally clear for the paradigmatic cases but there are various intermediate forms of education that do not easily fall into one category.^[35]^[36]

Formal education plays a central role in modern civilization. But in primitive cultures, most of the education happens not on the formal but on the informal level.^[28]^[40]^[41] This usually means that there is no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities. Instead, the whole environment may be seen as a form of school and many or all adults may act as teachers. An important reason for moving to formal forms of education is due to the sheer quantity of knowledge to be passed on, which requires both a formal setting and well-trained teachers to be transmitted effectively. A side effect of the process of formalization is that the educational experience becomes more abstract and more removed from daily life. In this regard, more emphasis is put on grasping general patterns instead of observing and imitating particular behavior.^[28]^[40]

Closely related to the distinction between formal and informal education is that between conscious education, which is done with a clear purpose in mind, and unconscious education, which occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided.^[42] This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults by having indirect effects on the development of the student's personality.^[43] Another categorization depends on the age group of the learners and includes childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education.^[44]^[45]^[46] The distinction can also be based on the subject, encompassing fields like science education, language education, art education, religious education, and physical education.^[47] The educational methodology may be used as well for classifications, such as the difference between the traditional teacher-centered education, in which the teacher takes the center stage in providing students with information, in contrast to student-centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping the classroom activities.^[48] The term "alternative education" is sometimes used for a wide range of educational methods and approaches outside mainstream pedagogy, for example, like the emphasis on narration and storytelling found in indigenous education or autodidacticism.^[49]^[50]^[51] Forms of education can also be categorized by the medium used, for example, as distance education, like online education, e-learning, or m-learning, in contrast to regular classroom or onsite education.^[52]^[7]^[28] Various types of online education take the form of open education, where the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers.^[53] Another classification is based on the social institution responsible for education and may include categories for institutions like family, school, civil society, state, and church.^[54]^[55] When the term education is used in the sense of an achievement or a product, expressions like type or level of education refer to the person's academic or professional qualification, such as high school completion, bachelor's degree, master's degree, doctor's degree, or degrees in vocational training.^[56]

Formal

Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject.^[57]^[58] It can be subdivided into various categories or levels. The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) was created by UNESCO as a statistical base to compare education systems.^[59] In 1997, it defined seven levels of education and 25 fields, though the fields were later separated out to form a different project. The current version ISCED 2011 has nine rather than seven levels, created by dividing the tertiary pre-doctorate level into three levels. It also extended the lowest level (ISCED 0) to cover a new sub-category of early childhood educational development programs, which target children below the age of three years.^[60]

Early childhood

Education designed to support early development in preparation for participation in school and society. The programmes are designed for children below the age of three. This is ISCED level 01.^[59] Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country when children enter primary education. The children now readily interact with their peers and the educator.^[59] These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where the term kindergarten refers to the earliest levels of primary education.^[61] Kindergarten "provides a child-centred, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."^[62] This is ISCED level 02.^[59]

Primary

This is ISCED level 1.^[59] Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first four to seven years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six to eight years of schooling starting at the age of five to seven, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, in 2008, around 89% of children aged six to twelve were enrolled in primary education, and this proportion was rising.^[63]^{[full citation needed]} Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory. The division between primary and secondary education is quite arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fifteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools or elementary schools. Primary schools are often subdivided into infant schools and junior schools.

In India, for example, compulsory education spans over twelve years, with eight years of elementary education, five years of primary schooling and three years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training.

Secondary

This covers the two ISCED levels, ISCED 2: Lower Secondary Education and ISCED 3: Upper Secondary Education.^[59]

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. In the United States, Canada, and Australia, primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to ensure literacy, to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession.^[64]

Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until 1910, with the rise of large corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for the employer, while skilled employees received higher wages.^{[citation needed]}

Secondary education has a longer history in Europe, where grammar schools or academies date from as early as the sixth century, ^[b] in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves date even further back.^[65]

It spans the period between the typically universal compulsory primary education to the optional, selective tertiary, "postsecondary", or "higher" education of ISCED 5 and 6 (e.g. university), and the ISCED 4 Further education or vocational school.^[59]

Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling.^{[citation needed]}

Lower

Programs at ISCED level 2, lower secondary education are usually organized around a more subject-oriented curriculum; differing from primary education. Teachers typically have pedagogical training in the specific subjects and, more often than at ISCED level 1, a class of students will have several teachers, each with specialized knowledge of the subjects they teach. Programmes at ISCED level 2, aim to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and human development upon introducing theoretical concepts across a broad range of subjects which can be developed in future stages. Some education systems may offer vocational education programs during ISCED level 2 providing skills relevant to employment.^[59]

Upper

Programs at ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, are typically designed to complete the secondary education process. They lead to skills relevant to employment and the skill necessary to engage in tertiary courses. They offer students more varied, specialized and in-depth instruction. They are more differentiated, with range of options and learning streams.^[59]

Community colleges offer another option at this transitional stage of education. They provide nonresidential junior college courses to people living in a particular area.

Tertiary

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities mainly provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Individuals who complete tertiary education generally receive certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

The ISCED distinguishes four levels of tertiary education. ISCED 6 is equivalent to a first degree, ISCED 7 is equivalent to a masters or an advanced professional qualification and ISCED 8 is an advanced research qualification, usually concluding with the submission and defence of a substantive dissertation of publishable quality based on original research.^[66] The category ISCED 5 is reserved for short-cycle courses of requiring degree level study.^[66]

Higher education typically involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries, a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.

University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Some universities are composed of several colleges.

One type of university education is a liberal arts education, which can be defined as a "college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum."^[67] Although what is known today as liberal arts education began in Europe,^[68] the term "liberal arts college" is more commonly associated with institutions in the United States such as Williams College or Barnard College.^[69]

Vocational

Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts.^{[citation needed]} Post 16 education, adult education and further education involve continued study, but a level no different from that found at upper secondary, and are grouped together as ISCED 4, post-secondary non-tertiary education.^[66]

Special

In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were repeatedly denied an education by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.^[70]

Unconventional forms

Alternative

After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling, and unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, Walden's Path, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools.

Charter schools are another example of alternative education, which have in the recent years grown in numbers in the US and gained greater importance in its public education system.^[71]^[72]

In time, some ideas from these experiments and paradigm challenges may be adopted as the norm in education, just as Friedrich Fröbel's approach to early childhood education in 19th-century Germany has been incorporated into contemporary kindergarten classrooms. Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison, and Ivan Illich.^{[citation needed]}

Indigenous

Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."^[73]

Informal learning

Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners, this includes language acquisition, cultural norms, and manners.

In informal learning, there is often a reference person, a peer or expert, to guide the learner. If learners have a personal interest in what they are informally being taught, learners tend to expand their existing knowledge and conceive new ideas about the topic being learned.^[74] For example, a museum is traditionally considered an informal learning environment, as there is room for free choice, a diverse and potentially non-standardized range of topics, flexible structures, socially rich interaction, and no externally imposed assessments.^[75]

While informal learning often takes place outside educational establishments and does not follow a specified curriculum, it can also occur within educational settings and even during formal learning situations. Educators can structure their lessons to directly use their students informal learning skills within the education setting.^[74]

In the late 19th century, education through play began to be recognized as making an important contribution to child development.^[76] In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities.^[77] L.P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation: "A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour, and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself, he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well."^[78] Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities.^[79] The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.^[79]

Self-directed learning

Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-directed learning. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician).^{[citation needed]}

Evidence-based

Evidence-based education is the use of well designed scientific studies to determine which education methods work best. It consists of evidence-based teaching and evidence-based learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase rate of learning.^[80] The evidence-based education movement has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-based-practices.^{[citation needed]}

Open learning and electronic technology

Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses, through open education, such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other universities offering open education are prestigious private universities such as Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, the University of Pennsylvania, and Caltech, as well as notable public universities including Tsinghua, Peking, Edinburgh, University of Michigan, and University of Virginia.

Open education has been called the biggest change in the way people learn since the printing press.^[81] Despite favourable studies on effectiveness, many people may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons.^[82]

Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials.^[83]

The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate.

Out of 182 colleges surveyed in 2009 nearly half said tuition for online courses was higher than for campus-based ones.^[84]

A 2010 meta-analysis found that online and blended educational approaches had better outcomes than methods that used solely face-to-face interaction.^[85]

Role in society

Education plays various roles in society, including in social, economic, and personal fields. On a social level, education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stable society. It helps individuals acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their basic needs and desires. In modern society, this involves a wide range of fundamental skills like being able to speak, read, and write as well as to solve problems and to perform basic arithmetic tasks. It also includes the ability to handle information and communications technology. Children are socialized into society by acquiring these skills. Another key part of socialization is to learn how to live in social groups and interact with others by coming to understand the social and cultural norms and expectations. This requires an understanding of what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts. This way, new members are introduced to the culture, norms, and values that are dominant in their society. Socialization happens throughout life but is of particular relevance to early childhood education. It enables a form of social cohesion, stability, and peace needed for people to productively engage in their daily business. Education plays a key role particularly for democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and organizing and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all.^[86]

A further issue is to enable people to become productive members of society by learning how to contribute to it. Through education, individuals acquire the technical and analytical skills needed to pursue their profession, produce goods, and provide services to others. In early societies, there was little specialization and each child would generally learn most of the tasks relevant to help their group. Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few individuals who receive specialized training in addition to general education. Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with each other and their value depends on the context of their usage. For example, fostering a questioning mind is necessary to develop the ability of critical thinking but in some cases, obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability.^[87]^[88]^[89]

By helping people become productive members of society, education can stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty. It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality of the produced goods and services, which in turn leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness.^[90] In this regard, public education is often understood as a long-term investment to benefit society as a whole. The rate of return is especially high for investments in primary education.^[91]^[88] Besides increasing economic prosperity, it can also lead to technological and scientific developments as well as decrease unemployment while promoting social equity.^[92]

Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges. For example, it can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution of contemporary global problems, like climate change and sustainability as well as the widening inequalities between the rich and the poor.^[93] By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others, it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair world.^[94] This way, education serves not just the purpose of reproducing society as it is but can also be an instrument of development by realizing social transformation to improve society.^[95] This applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector. For example, due to technological advances and increased automation, many jobs may be lost in the coming decades.^[96] This may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting the importance to other areas. Education can be used to prepare individuals for such changes by giving more priority to subjects involving digital literacy and skills in handling new technologies,^[97]^[98]^[99] for example, by including online education in the form of massive open online courses.^[100]

On a more individual level, education promotes personal development. This can include factors such as learning new skills, developing talents, fostering creativity, and increasing self-knowledge as well as improving problem-solving and decision-making abilities.^[101]^[102]^[103] It further has positive effects on health and well-being.^[104] The benefits are not restricted to learners but are present for teaching as well.^[105] While education is of particular relevance in childhood, it does not end with adulthood and continues throughout life. This phenomenon is known as lifelong learning and is of specific significance in contemporary society due to the rapid changes on many different levels and the need for people to adjust to them.^[106]^[107]^[108]

Role of institutions

Beijing Normal University, which is governed directly by the Chinese Ministry of Education, is an example of collaboration between different entities in the education sector.

Organized institutions play a key role for various aspects of education. The education sector or education system is a group of institutions (ministries of education, local educational authorities, teacher training institutions, schools, universities, etc.) whose primary purpose is to provide education to children and young people in educational settings. It involves a wide range of people (curriculum developers, inspectors, school principals, teachers, school nurses, students, etc.). The education sector is fully integrated into society, through interactions with numerous stakeholders and other sectors. These include parents, local communities, religious leaders, and NGOs as well as stakeholders involved in health, child protection, justice, law enforcement, media, and political leadership.^[109]^[110]

Many aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. They determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, like infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact requirements for teachers and how they are trained. An important aspect of educational policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a planned sequence of instructions or a program of learning that intends to guide the experience of learners to achieve educational aims. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. For example, the goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education while vocational trainings focus more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students.^[111]

International organizations also play a key role in education. For example, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education in many different ways. One of its activities is to advocate educational policies, like the treaty UNCRC, which states that education is a human right of all children and young people, and the Education for All initiative, which aimed to offer basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by the year 2015 and was later replaced by the initiative Sustainable Development Goals as goal 4.^[112] Related policies include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative.^[113]^[114]

Besides intergovernmental organizations, there are also non-governmental international organizations involved, like the International Association of Universities, which promotes the exchange of colleges and universities around the world, and the International Baccalaureate, which offers international diploma programs.^[115]^[116]^[117] Various institutions, like the Erasmus Programme, facilitate student exchanges between different countries.^[118]

Factors of educational success

Many factors influence educational achievement. They include psychological factors, which concern the student as an individual, and sociological factors, which pertain to the student's social environment. Further factors include access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and influence each other.^[119]

Psychological

On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality.^[120] Motivation is the internal force propelling individuals to engage in learning.^[121]^[122]^[123] Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, which often results in a deeper understanding of the subject. It can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself while extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards, for example, in the form of good grades and recognition by their peers. It is often claimed that intrinsic motivation is more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well as long-term commitment.^[124] Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation, for example, by encouraging a certain level of competition among students or by balancing positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism.^[121]^[125]

Intelligence is another important factor in how individuals respond to education. It is a mental quality associated with the ability to learn from experience, to understand, and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems. Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education.^[126] Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so-called IQ, a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence. However, it has been argued that there different types of intelligences pertaining to different areas. According to Howard Gardner, they include linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existentialist intelligence. These different forms are largely independent of each other, meaning that an individual may excel at one type while scoring low on another.^[127]^[128] A closely related factor concerns different learning styles. A learning style is a preferred form of acquiring knowledge and skills. For example, students with an auditory learning style find it easy to follow spoken lectures and discussions while visual learners benefit if information is presented visually in diagrams and videos. For efficient learning, it is often beneficial to include a wide variety of learning modalities.^[129]^[130]^[131] The learner's personality may also affect educational achievement. For example, the features of conscientiousness and openness to experience from the Big Five personality traits are associated with academic success.^[132] Further psychological factors include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.^[120]^[133]

Sociological

Unlike psychological factors, sociological factors focus not on the mental attributes of learners but on their social status and environment. They include socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and cultural background as well as gender. They are of particular interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality and discrimination. For this reason, they play a key role in policy-making in attempts to mitigate their effects.^[134]

Socioeconomic status is primarily associated with income but includes other factors as well, such as financial security, social status, and social class as well as quality of life attributes. Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in various ways. It is associated with slower cognitive developments in language and memory and higher drop-out rates. Poor families may not have enough money to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys, books, and computers. Additionally, they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in poorer areas. Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching, for example, because of teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities, like libraries. Poor parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children lack behind. Students from a low socioeconomic status often have less access to information on higher education and may face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans. Low socioeconomic status has also various indirect negative effects by being associated with lower physical and mental health. Due to these factors, social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children.^[135]^[136]^[137]

Ethnic background is often associated with cultural differences and language barriers, which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes. Additional factors are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities, which may affect the students' self-esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities. For example, teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist, which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child's ethnicity.^[138]

Historically, gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of males and females were defined differently in many societies. Education tended to strongly favor males, who were expected to provide for the family. Females, on the other hand, were expected to manage the household and rear children, which severely hampered the educational opportunities available to them. And while these inequalities have improved in most modern societies, there are still gender differences in education. Among other things, this concerns biases and stereotypes associated with the role of gender in education, like seeing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics as male-oriented fields and discouraging female students to follow them.^[139]^[140]^[141]

One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes. They work both on an external level, based on how people react to a person belonging to a certain group, and on an internal level, based on how the person internalizes them and acts accordingly. In this sense, the expectations may turn into self-fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate. This can happen both for positive and for negative stereotypes.^[142]^[143]

Technology and others

Technology plays another significant role in educational success. Educational technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices, like computers. But understood in the broadest sense, it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning, including basic aids that do not involve the use of machines, like regular books and worksheets.^[144]^[145]

Educational technology can benefit learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often takes the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom. This means that the teacher can focus their time and energy on other tasks, like planning the lesson and guiding students as well as assessing educational performance.^[144] It can also make information easier to understand, for example, by presenting it using graphics and videos rather than through mere text. In this regard, interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging, for example, in the form of educational games. Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to many people, like when using online resources. It additionally facilitates collaboration between students and communication with teachers.^[146]^[147]^[148] Lack of educational technology is an issue specifically in various developing countries and many efforts are made to address it, like the One Laptop per Child initiative.^[149]^[150]^[151]

A closely related issue concerns the effects of school infrastructure. It includes various physical aspects of the school, like its location and size as well as the available school facilities and equipment. For example, a healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, and suitable classroom furniture as well as the availability of a library and a canteen tend to contribute to educational success.^[152]^[153]

The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on educational success. For example, skilled teachers are able to motivate and inspire students and are able to adjust their instructions to the students' abilities and needs. Important in this regard are the teacher's own education and training as well as their past teaching experience.^[154]

An additional factor to boost educational achievement is parental involvement. It can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts. This tends to lead to increased self-esteem, better attendance rates, and more constructive behavior at school. Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff, for example, to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved.^[155]^[156]^[157] Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.^[158]^[159]

History

The history of education studies the processes, methods, and institutions involved in teaching and learning. It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day.^[160]^[161] Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. For the most part, there were no specialized teachers and most adults taught the youth, usually informally during everyday activities. Education was achieved through oral communication and imitation. It could take the form of storytelling and singing to pass knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next.^[162]^[163]

The earliest ancient civilizations developed in the period from 3000 to 1500 BCE in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China. Ancient education was characterized by the invention of writing and the development of formal education.^[164]^[165] The invention of writing had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole. Through writing, it was possible to store and preserve information and make it accessible to more people. This enabled various subsequent developments, for example, the creation of educational tools, like textbooks, and institutions, like schools.^[166]

Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all knowledge from one generation to the next. Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life. Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites. It happened in the form of training scribes and priests and covered various subjects besides reading and writing, including the humanities, science, medicine, mathematics, law, and astrology.^[164]^[144] Often-discussed achievements of ancient education include the founding of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, which is frequently described as the first institute of higher education,^[167]^[168]^[169] and the establishment of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt, which many see as the most prestigious library of the ancient world.^[170]

In the medieval period, religious authorities had a lot of influence over formal education. This applied specifically to the role of the Catholic Church in Europe but is also seen in the Muslim world, where education focused on the study of the Quran and its interpretations but also included knowledge of the sciences and the arts. Additionally, this period saw the establishment of the first universities as concentrated centers of higher education and research, such as the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and Oxford University.^[171] Another key development was the creation of guilds. Guilds were associations of skilled craftsmen and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades. They were responsible for vocational education and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood.^[172]^[173]

The invention and popularization of the printing press in the middle of the 15th century by Johann Gutenberg had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a significant influence on the general literacy of the population.^[174]

These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries. This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all. This contrasts with earlier periods, where formal education was primarily provided by private institutions, religious institutions, and individual tutors.^[175] Aztec civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century.^[176]^[177]^[178] Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.^[179]^[180]^[181] Initiatives to promote public education and universal access to education made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN. Examples include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.^[182]^[183]^[184] These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular. For example, in 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide did not attend school while by 2015, this number dropped to 9%.^[185]

A side effect of the establishment of public education was the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the students' progress. It also affected teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training, for example, by establishing certification standards for teaching at public schools.^[186]^[187]^[188]

A further influence on contemporary education was the emergence of new educational technologies. For example, the widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible, such as online education. This was of particular relevance during the COVID-19 pandemic, when schools all around the world had to close for extended periods and many offered remote learning through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to continue instruction.^[189] A further contemporary factor is the increased globalization and internationalization of education.^[117]^[190]

Education studies

A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for three or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation rates of students from low-income families.^[191]

The main discipline investigating education is called education studies, also referred to as education sciences. It tries to determine how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and forms of education. It is interested in its aims, effects, and value as well as the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts that shape education.^[192] Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations. Because of these influences, some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline like physics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined.^[193]^[194] Education studies differs from regular training programs, such as teacher training, since its focus on academic analysis and critical reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher. It is not restricted to the topic of formal education but investigates all forms and aspects of education.^[195]^[196]^[197]

Various research methods are used to study educational phenomena. They can roughly be divided into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research emulates the methods found in the natural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from many observations and employs statistical tools to analyze it. It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal understanding. Qualitative research usually has a much smaller sample size and tries to get an in-depth insight into more subjective and personal factors, like how different actors experience educational processes. Mixed-methods research aims to combine data gathered from both approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding. Data can be gathered in various ways, like using direct observation or test scores as well as interviews and questionnaires.^[198]^[199] Research can be employed to study fundamental factors affecting all forms of education, investigate specific applications, look for solutions to concrete problems, and evaluate the effectiveness of projects.^[200]

Subfields

John Locke's work *Some Thoughts Concerning Education* was written in 1693 and still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western world.

Education studies encompasses various subfields like philosophy of education, pedagogy, psychology of education, sociology of education, economics of education, comparative education, and history of education.^[201]^[202] The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many of the fundamental assumptions underlying educational theory and practice. It investigates education both as a process and as a discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and how it differs from other phenomena. It further studies the purpose of education and its different types as well as how to conceptualize teachers, students, and their relationship.^[203] It includes educational ethics, which examines various moral issues in relation to education, for example, what ethical principles underlie it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases. The philosophy of education has a long history and was already discussed in ancient Greek philosophy.^[204]^[205]^[206]

The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used as a synonym for education studies but when understood in a more restricted sense, it refers to the subfield interested in teaching methods.^[207] It investigates how the aims of education, like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits, can be realized.^[208]^[209]^[210] It is particularly interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools and some researchers restrict it to this domain. But in a wider sense, it covers all types of education, including forms of teaching outside schools.^[211] In this general sense, it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place.^[208]^[209]

The psychology of education studies how education happens on the mental level, specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as well as how personal growth takes place. It investigates the factors responsible for successful education and how these factors may differ from individual to individual. Important factors include intelligence, motivation, and personality. A central topic in this field is the interplay between nature and nurture and how it affects educational success. Influential psychological theories of education are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.^[212]^[125]^[213] Closely related fields are the neurology of education and educational neuroscience, which are interested in the neuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning.^[214]

The sociology of education is concerned with how social factors influence education and how it leads to socialization. Social factors differ from mental factors studied by psychology and include aspects like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender. The sociology of education studies how these factors, together with the dominant ideology in society, affect what kind of education is available to a person and how successful they are. Closely related questions include how education affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can form someone's personal identity. The sociology of education is particularly interested in aspects that result in inequalities and is relevant to education policy, for example, when trying to identify what causes inequality and how to reduce it.^[215]^[216] Two influential schools of thought are consensus theory and conflict theory. Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by preparing individuals for their roles. Conflict theories have a more negative outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used by the ruling class to promote their own agenda.^[217]^[218]

The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how education is produced, distributed, and consumed. It tries to determine how resources should be used to improve education. Examples are questions like to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising their salary, how smaller class sizes affect educational success, and how to invest in new educational technologies. In this regard, it helps policy-makers decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to benefit society as a whole. It also tries to understand what long-term role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness. A closely related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of different educational systems.^[219]^[220]^[221]

Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts educational systems. Comparisons can happen from a general perspective or focus on specific factors, like sociological, political, or economic aspects. It is often applied to different countries to assess the similarities and differences of their educational institutions and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct approaches. It can be used to learn from other countries which educational policies work and how one's own educational system may be improved.^[222]^[223]^[224] This practice is known as policy borrowing and is associated with various difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree on the social and cultural context of students and teachers. A closely related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed countries.^[225]^[226]^[227] Other key topics are the internationalization of education and the role of education in transmitting from an authoritarian regime to a democracy.^[226]^[228]

The history of education examines the evolution of educational practices, systems, and institutions. It discusses various key processes, their possible causes and effects, and their relations to each other.^[229]

Aims and ideologies

A central topic in education studies concerns questions like why people should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Many different aims of education have been suggested. On a fundamental level, education is about the acquisition of knowledge and skills but may also include personal development and fostering of certain character traits. Common suggestions encompass features like curiosity, creativity, rationality, and critical thinking as well as the tendency to think, feel, and act morally. Certain scholars focus on liberal values associated with freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness. But others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith. An important discussion in this regard concerns the role of critical thinking and to what extent indoctrination forms part of education. On a social level, it is often emphasized that education should socialize individuals and turn them into productive members of society while promoting good citizenship and preserving cultural values.^[230] A controversial issue in this regard concerns who primarily benefits from education: the educated individual, society as a whole, or dominant groups within society.^[231]^[232]^[233]

Educational ideologies are systems of fundamental philosophical assumptions and principles. They cover various additional issues besides the aims of education, like what topics are learned, how the learning activity is structured, what the role of the teacher is, and how the results are to be assessed. They also include claims on how to structure the institutional framework and policies. There are many different ideologies and they often overlap in various ways. For example, teacher-centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the teacher's role in transmitting knowledge to students while student-centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in the process. Product-based ideologies discuss education from the perspective of the result to be achieved. They contrast with process-based ideologies, which focus on the processes of teaching and learning themselves. Other frequently discussed ideological classifications include traditionalism, progressivism, conservatism, humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, and pragmatism as well as authoritarian and democratic ideologies.^[234]^[235]^[236]

Learning theories and teaching

Learning theories are theoretical frameworks that explain how learning happens. Influential theories are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism understands learning as a change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This happens by presenting the learner with a stimulus, associating this stimulus with the desired response, and solidifying this stimulus-response pair. Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and focuses on the mental processes involved in storing, retrieving, and processing information. According to constructivism, learning is based on the personal experience of each individual. It puts more emphasis on social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner. These theories have important implications for how to teach. For example, behaviorists tend to focus on drills while cognitivists may advocate the use of mnemonics and constructivists tend to employ collaborative learning strategies.^[237]

An influential developmental theory of learning is due to Jean Piaget, who outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on their way to adulthood: the sensorimotor, the pre-operational, the concrete operational, and the formal operational stage. They correspond to different levels of abstraction: early stages focus more on simple sensory and motor activities while later stages include more complex internal representations and information processing in the form of logical reasoning.^[238]^[120] Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it is based on personal experience and when it aims at a deeper understanding by connecting new to pre-existing knowledge rather than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts.^[239]^[240]

The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the teacher, for example, whether group work is used instead of a focus on individual learning. There are many specific teaching methods available. Which one is most efficient in a particular case depends on various factors, like the subject matter as well as the learner's age and competence level.^[241]^[208]^[209] This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age, competence, specialization, and native language into different classes to ensure a productive learning process. Different subjects frequently use very different approaches: for example, methods focusing on verbal learning are common in language education while mathematical education is about abstract and symbolic thinking together with deductive reasoning.^[208]^[209] One central requirement for teaching methodologies is to make certain that the learner remains motivated, for example, because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards.^[208]^[242]

Further aspects of teaching methods include the instructional media used, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress. An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is that each particular lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by a syllabus, often covering several months or years.^[208]^[243] According to Herbartianism, teaching is divided into different phases. The initial phase consists of preparing the student's mind for new information. Next, new ideas are first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which the learner is already familiar. In later phases, the understanding shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances and the ideas are then put into concrete practice.^[244]^[245]

References

Notes

^ Article 13 of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognizes a universal right to education. ICESCR, Article 13.1.
^ King's School Canterbury has been in continuous existence from 597 AD

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Attribution

This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Out in the Open: Education sector responses to violence based on sexual orientation and gender identity/expression, 54, UNESCO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. (license statement/permission). Text taken from Cracking the code: girls' and women's education in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), UNESCO.

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@@ Line 214: / Line 214: @@
 An additional factor to boost educational achievement is parental involvement. It can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts. This tends to lead to increased self-esteem, better attendance rates, and more constructive behavior at school. Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff, for example, to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Karadağ |first1=Engin |title=The Factors Effecting Student Achievement: Meta-Analysis of Empirical Studies |date=14 May 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-56083-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ifiDgAAQBAJ |language=en |pages=271-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmid |first1=Evi |last2=Garrels |first2=Veerle |title=Parental involvement and educational success among vulnerable students in vocational education and training |journal=Educational Research |date=2 October 2021 |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=456–8 |doi=10.1080/00131881.2021.1988672}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shute |first1=Valerie J. |last2=Hansen |first2=Eric G. |last3=Underwood |first3=Jody S. |last4=Razzouk |first4=Rim |title=A Review of the Relationship between Parental Involvement and Secondary School Students' Academic Achievement |journal=Education Research International |date=2011 |volume=2011 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1155/2011/915326}}</ref> Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.{{sfn|Warren|2009|p=90}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Horwitz |first1=Ilana M. |title=Religion and Academic Achievement: A Research Review Spanning Secondary School and Higher Education |journal=Review of Religious Research |date=March 2021 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=107–9 |doi=10.1007/s13644-020-00433-y}}</ref>
-==History==
+== History ==
 {{Main|History of education}}
+The history of education studies the processes, methods, and institutions involved in teaching and learning. It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Provenzo |first1=Eugene F. |title=Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education |date=29 October 2008 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6597-1 |pages=283-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv9yAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT321 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Schem |first1=Alexander Jacob |title=Cyclopaedia of Education: A Dictionary of Information for the Use of Teachers, School Officers, Parents and Others |date=1877 |publisher=Steiger |pages=244-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQHq4VQgzB4C&pg=PA244 |language=en}}</ref> Education began in [[prehistory]], as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. For the most part, there were no specialized teachers and most adults taught the youth, usually informally during everyday activities. Education was achieved through [[oral communication]] and [[imitation]]. It could take the form of [[storytelling]] and singing to pass knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next.{{sfn|Bowen|Gelpi|Anweiler|2023|loc=Introduction, Prehistoric and primitive cultures}}{{sfn|Bartlett|Burton|2007|p=15}}
+The earliest [[ancient civilizations]] developed in the period from 3000 to 1500 BCE in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], and [[North China]]. Ancient education was characterized by the [[invention of writing]] and the development of formal education.{{sfn|Bowen|Gelpi|Anweiler|2023|loc=Introduction, Education in the earliest civilizations}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Mark S. |last2=Stearns |first2=Peter N. |title=Education in World History |date=1 September 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-81337-8 |pages=23-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnN4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT23 |language=en}}</ref> The invention of writing had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole. Through writing, it was possible to store and preserve information and make it accessible to more people. This enabled various subsequent developments, for example, the creation of educational tools, like textbooks, and institutions, like schools.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{cite book |last1=Hoskin |first1=Keith |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Bill |title=The Insistence of the Letter |date=9 July 2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-84402-7 |pages=27-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UU3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA13-PA27 |language=en |chapter=Technologies of Learning and Alphabetic Culture: The History of Writing as the History of Education}} |2={{cite book |last1=Friesen |first1=Norm |title=The Textbook and the Lecture: Education in the Age of New Media |date=15 December 2017 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-2434-7 |pages=17-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ks-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |language=en}} |3={{cite book |editor-last1=Ciastellardi |editor-first1=Matteo |title=International Journal of McLuhan Studies 2012-13: Education Overload. From Total Surround to Pattern Recognition |date=1 September 2014 |publisher=Universidad Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona |isbn=978-84-939995-9-9 |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDaCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 |language=es}} |4={{cite book |last1=Sampath |first1=K. |title=Introduction To Educational Technology |date=1981 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-3139-4 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 |language=en}} }}</ref>
-[[File:Medrese(school-mosque)-Old City Baku Azerbaijan 1646.jpg|thumb|Historical [[Madrasah]] in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]]]
-[[File:Nalanda.jpg|thumb| [[Nalanda]], ancient centre for higher learning]]
-[[File:Plato's Academy mosaic from Pompeii.jpg|thumb|[[Plato]]'s academy, [[mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]]]]
+[[File:Plato's Academy mosaic from Pompeii.jpg|thumb|alt=Mosaic from Pompeii depicting Plato's Academy|Plato's Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning. ([[Mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]]).]]
-Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In pre-[[Literacy|literate]] societies, this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their [[knowledge]] beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]].{{sfn|Assmann|2003|p=127}} [[File:Ricci Guangqi 2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Matteo Ricci]] (left) and [[Xu Guangqi]] (right) in the Chinese edition of ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' published in 1607]]
+Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all knowledge from one generation to the next. Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life. Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites. It happened in the form of training [[scribe]]s and [[priest]]s and covered various subjects besides reading and writing, including the humanities, science, medicine, mathematics, law, and astrology.{{sfn|Bowen|Gelpi|Anweiler|2023|loc=Introduction, Education in the earliest civilizations}}<ref name="Sampath1981">{{cite book |last1=Sampath |first1=K. |title=Introduction To Educational Technology |date=1981 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-3139-4 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 |language=en}}</ref> Often-discussed achievements of ancient education include the founding of [[Plato's Academy]] in [[Ancient Greece]], which is frequently described as the first institute of higher education,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=Claretha |last2=Gosney |first2=Matthew W. |title=The History of Human Resource Development: Understanding the Unexplored Philosophies, Theories, and Methodologies |date=26 January 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-52698-4 |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzR6CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Madonna M. |title=Plato's Philosophy of Education and the Common Core Debate |journal=Association for the Development of Philosophy Teaching - Spring Conference |date=25 April 2015 |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED559997 |language=en |page=4}}</ref>{{sfn|Lynch|1972|p=47}} and the establishment of the [[Great Library of Alexandria]] in Ancient Egypt, which many see as the most prestigious library of the ancient world.<ref>{{cite web |last1=El-Abbadi |first1=Mostafa |title=Library of Alexandria |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Library-of-Alexandria |website=www.britannica.com |location=Introducation |language=en}}</ref>
+In the medieval period, religious authorities had a lot of influence over formal education. This applied specifically to the role of the [[Catholic Church]] in Europe but is also seen in the Muslim world, where education focused on the study of the [[Quran]] and [[Hadith|its interpretations]] but also included knowledge of the sciences and the arts. Additionally, this period saw the establishment of the first universities as concentrated centers of higher education and research, such as the [[University of Bologna]], the [[University of Paris]], and [[Oxford University]].<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{cite book |last1=Rury |first1=John L. |last2=Tamura |first2=Eileen H. |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-934003-3 |pages=109-11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |language=en}} |2={{harvnb|Bowen|Gelpi|Anweiler|2023|loc=Aims and purposes of Muslim education, Europe in the Middle Ages}} |3={{cite book |last1=Kemmis |first1=Stephen |last2=Edwards-Groves |first2=Christine |title=Understanding Education: History, Politics and Practice |date=24 October 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-10-6433-3 |pages=50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFM7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |language=en}} |4={{Cite web|last=Hannam|first=Janes|date=18 May 2011|title=Science owes much to both Christianity and the Middle Ages: Soapbox Science|url=http://blogs.nature.com/soapboxscience/2011/05/18/science-owes-much-to-both-christianity-and-the-middle-ages|access-date=2018-10-06|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|archive-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021013557/http://blogs.nature.com/soapboxscience/2011/05/18/science-owes-much-to-both-christianity-and-the-middle-ages|url-status=live}} |5={{harvnb|Sanz|Bergan|2006|p=136}} }}</ref> Another key development was the creation of [[guild]]s. Guilds were associations of skilled [[Master craftsman|craftsmen]] and [[merchant]]s who controlled the practice of their trades. They were responsible for vocational education and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Power |first1=Edward J. |title=Main Currents in the History of Education |date=1970 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-050581-0 |pages=243-4 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b201970&view=1up&seq=273 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicholas |first1=David M. |title=The Growth of the Medieval City: From Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century |date=17 June 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-88550-4 |page=129 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=92zXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 |language=en}}</ref>
-[[Plato]] founded the [[Platonic Academy|Academy]] in [[Ancient Athens|Athens]], the first institution of higher learning in Europe.{{sfn|Lynch|1972|p=47}} The city of [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of [[Ancient Greece]]. There, the great [[Library of Alexandria]] was built in the third century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of [[Rome]] in CE 476.{{sfn|Blainey|2004|p=?}}
+[[File:Printer in 1568-ce.png|thumb|alt=A woodcut from 1568 showing an old printing press|The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy.]]
-In China, [[Confucius]] (551–479 BCE), of the [[State of Lu]], was the country's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucius gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his [[Analects]] were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-03-25|title=Why Is Confucius Still Relevant Today? His Sound Bites Hold Up|work=nationalgeographic|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/03/150325-confucius-china-asia-philosophy-communist-party-ngbooktalk/|access-date=2018-10-06|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006235244/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/03/150325-confucius-china-asia-philosophy-communist-party-ngbooktalk/|url-status=live}}</ref>
+The invention and popularization of the [[printing press]] in the middle of the 15th century by [[Johann Gutenberg]] had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like [[newspaper]]s and [[pamphlet]]s. The increased availability of written media had a significant influence on the general [[literacy]] of the population.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{cite book |last1=Ornstein |first1=Allan C. |last2=Levine |first2=Daniel U. |last3=Gutek |first3=Gerry |last4=Vocke |first4=David E. |title=Foundations of Education |date=1 January 2016 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-305-85489-5 |pages=78 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nIcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |language=en}} |2={{cite book |last1=Danesi |first1=Marcel |title=Encyclopedia of Media and Communication |date=17 June 2013 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=9781442695535 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZOBAAAAQBAJ |language=en |pages=169-70}} |3={{cite book |last1=Poe |first1=Marshall |title=A history of communications: media and society from the evolution of speech to the Internet |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780511976919 |pages=104-5, 112}} |4={{cite book |last1=Sampath |first1=K. |title=Introduction To Educational Technology |date=1981 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-3139-4 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 |language=en}} }}</ref>
+These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries. This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all. This contrasts with earlier periods, where formal education was primarily provided by private institutions, religious institutions, and individual tutors.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=William |last2=Vare |first2=Paul |title=Learning, Environment and Sustainable Development: A History of Ideas |date=11 November 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-20802-3 |pages=54-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k1YAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 |language=en}} |2={{cite book |last1=Schuknecht |first1=Ludger |title=Public Spending and the Role of the State: History, Performance, Risk and Remedies |date=12 November 2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-49623-0 |pages=40-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvwAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |language=en}} |3={{harvnb|Bowen|Gelpi|Anweiler|2023|loc=Western education in the 19th century}} |4={{cite book |last1=Gross |first1=Robert N. |title=Public Vs. Private: The Early History of School Choice in America |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-064457-4 |pages=1-3, 9-11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uflADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en}} |5={{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=R. L. |title=Contributions to the History of Education: Volume 5, Secondary Education in the Nineteenth Century |date=12 September 2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-62232-6 |pages=326 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZxtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA326 |language=en}} }}</ref> [[Aztecs|Aztec]] civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century.{{sfn|Reagan|2005|p=108}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=John |title=Gods & Goddesses of the Inca, Maya, and Aztec Civilizations |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc |isbn=978-1-62275-396-3 |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aX9hDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ainsworth |first1=James |title=Sociology of Education: An A-to-Z Guide |date=11 April 2013 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-5063-5473-6 |page=63 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yub3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63 |language=en}}</ref> Closely related changes were to make [[Compulsory education|education compulsory]] and [[Free education|free of charge]] for all children up to a certain age.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rury |first1=John L. |last2=Tamura |first2=Eileen H. |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-934003-3 |pages=436-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA436 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beiter |first1=Klaus Dieter |title=The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law: Including a Systematic Analysis of Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights |date=1 November 2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-1754-5 |pages=609-10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nE-wCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA609 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beiter |first1=Klaus Dieter |title=The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law: Including a Systematic Analysis of Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights |date=1 November 2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-1754-5 |pages=95-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nE-wCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 |language=en}}</ref> Initiatives to promote public education and [[universal access to education]] made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN. Examples include the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]], the [[Education for All]] initiative, the [[Millennium Development Goals]], and the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Urata |first1=Shūjirō |last2=Kuroda |first2=Kazuo |last3=Tonegawa |first3=Yoshiko |title=Sustainable Development Disciplines for Humanity: Breaking Down the 5Ps--People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnerships |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-19-4859-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdSgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Warren|2009|pp=2, 42}}<ref>{{cite web |author= United Nations |title=Education For All |url=https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/education-all |website=United Nations website |access-date=1 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref> These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular. For example, in 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide did not attend school while by 2015, this number dropped to 9%.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Roser |first1=Max |last2=Ortiz-Ospina |first2=Esteban |title=Primary and Secondary Education |url=https://ourworldindata.org/primary-and-secondary-education |website=Our World in Data |access-date=2 May 2023 |date=17 July 2013}}</ref>
-The Aztecs had schools for the noble youths called [[Calmecac]] where they would receive rigorous religious and military training. The [[Aztecs]] also had a well-developed theory about education, which has an equivalent word in [[Nahuatl]] called ''tlacahuapahualiztli.'' It means "the art of raising or educating a person",{{sfn|Colin|2014|p=65}} or "the art of strengthening or bringing up men".{{sfn|León-Portilla|2012|pp=134–35}} This was a broad conceptualization of education, which prescribed that it begins at home, supported by formal schooling, and reinforced by community living. Historians cite that formal education was mandatory for everyone regardless of social class and gender.{{sfn|Reagan|2005|p=108}} There was also the word ''neixtlamachiliztli'', which is "the act of giving wisdom to the face."{{sfn|León-Portilla|2012|pp=134–35}} These concepts underscore a complex set of educational practices, which was oriented towards communicating to the next generation the experience and intellectual heritage of the past for the purpose of individual development and his integration into the community.{{sfn|León-Portilla|2012|pp=134–35}}
+A side effect of the establishment of public education was the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the students' progress. It also affected teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training, for example, by establishing certification standards for teaching at public schools.{{sfn|Bartlett|Burton|2007|p=74-7, 81-5}}{{sfn|Murphy|Mufti|Kassem|2009|p=7}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Neem |first1=Johann N. |title=Democracy's Schools: The Rise of Public Education in America |date=1 August 2017 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-2322-7 |pages=213 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZ47DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA213 |language=en}}</ref>
-After the [[Fall of Rome]], the [[Catholic Church]] became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hannam|first=Janes|date=18 May 2011|title=Science owes much to both Christianity and the Middle Ages: Soapbox Science|url=http://blogs.nature.com/soapboxscience/2011/05/18/science-owes-much-to-both-christianity-and-the-middle-ages|access-date=2018-10-06|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|archive-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021013557/http://blogs.nature.com/soapboxscience/2011/05/18/science-owes-much-to-both-christianity-and-the-middle-ages|url-status=live}}</ref> The church established [[cathedral schools]] in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into [[medieval universities]] and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities.{{sfn|Blainey|2004|p=?}} During the High Middle Ages, [[Chartres Cathedral]] operated the famous and influential [[School of Chartres|Chartres Cathedral School]]. The [[medieval universities]] of Western [[Christendom]] were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including [[Thomas Aquinas]] of the [[University of Naples]], [[Robert Grosseteste]] of the [[University of Oxford]], an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|date=1 June 1910|title=Robert Grosseteste|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07037a.htm|access-date=2011-07-16|publisher=Newadvent|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|archive-date=18 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018031300/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07037a.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> and Saint [[Albertus Magnus|Albert the Great]], a pioneer of biological field research.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01264a.htm |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia |title=St. Albertus Magnus |publisher=Newadvent.org |date=1 March 1907 |access-date=2011-07-16 |archive-date=4 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804234217/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01264a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Founded in 1088, the [[University of Bologne]] is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.{{sfn|Sanz|Bergan|2006|p=136}}
+A further influence on contemporary education was the emergence of new educational technologies. For example, the widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible, such as online education. This was of particular relevance during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], when schools all around the world had to close for extended periods and many offered [[remote learning]] through [[video conferencing]] or pre-recorded [[video lesson]]s to continue instruction.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{cite web |last1=St. George |first1=Donna |last2=Strauss |first2=Valerie |last3=Meckler |first3=Laura |last4=Heim |first4=Joe |last5=Natanson |first5=Hannah |title=How the pandemic is reshaping education |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/03/15/pandemic-school-year-changes/ |website=Washington Post |access-date=1 May 2023 |language=en}} |2={{cite journal |last1=Haleem |first1=Abid |last2=Javaid |first2=Mohd |last3=Qadri |first3=Mohd Asim |last4=Suman |first4=Rajiv |title=Understanding the role of digital technologies in education: A review |journal=Sustainable Operations and Computers |date=2022 |volume=3 |pages=275–7 |doi=10.1016/j.susoc.2022.05.004}} |3={{cite book |editor1-last=Guthrie |editor1-first=James W. |title=Encyclopedia of Education |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |isbn=978-0-02-865594-9 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/education/education-terms-and-concepts/educational-technology |language=en}} |4={{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf|title=Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond|publisher=United Nations|date=August 2020|access-date=11 December 2020|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730081221/https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf|url-status=live}} |5={{cite web|url=https://www.unlv.edu/news/release/covid-19-and-future-education|title=COVID-19 and the Future of Education|publisher=University of Nevada, Las Vegas|date=1 September 2020|last=Summers|first=Keyonna|access-date=11 December 2020|archive-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022044437/https://www.unlv.edu/news/release/covid-19-and-future-education|url-status=live}} |6={{cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/consequences|title=Adverse consequences of school closures|date=10 March 2020|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=11 December 2020|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401065452/https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-emergencies/coronavirus-school-closures/consequences|url-status=live}} |7={{cite book |last1=Sampath |first1=K. |title=Introduction To Educational Technology |date=1981 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-3139-4 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 |language=en}} }}</ref> A further contemporary factor is the increased globalization and internationalization of education.{{sfn|Bartlett|Burton|2003|p=239-41, 245-6}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ge (Rochelle) (葛贇) |first1=Yun |title=Internationalisation of higher education: new players in a changing scene |journal=Educational Research and Evaluation |date=19 May 2022 |volume=27 |issue=3-4 |pages=229–31 |doi=10.1080/13803611.2022.2041850}}</ref>
-Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, [[Islamic science]] and [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|mathematics]] flourished under the Islamic [[caliphate]] which was established across the Middle East, extending from the [[Iberian Peninsula]] in the west to the [[Indus]] in the east and to the [[Almoravid Dynasty]] and [[Mali Empire]] in the south.
-[[The Renaissance]] in Europe ushered in a [[Scientific revolution|new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry]] and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, [[Johannes Gutenberg]] developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilizations&nbsp;– as with the [[Jesuit China missions]] who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like [[Euclid's Elements]] for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of [[Confucius]] for European audiences. [[The Enlightenment]] saw the emergence of a more [[secular education]]al outlook in Europe. Much of modern traditional Western and Eastern education is based on the [[Prussian education system]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Thiem|first=Erwin|date=1969|title=The influence of Pestalozzi on Prussian elementary education in the early 19th century.|url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6969/1/Thien_4474_Archive.pdf|access-date=10 September 2021|website=etheses.dur.ac.uk|archive-date=17 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817161320/http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6969/1/Thien_4474_Archive.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
-In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or [[homeschooling|otherwise]], is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, [[UNESCO]] has calculated that in the next 30&nbsp;years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.<ref>{{Citation|last=Robinson|first=Sir Ken|title=Do schools kill creativity?|date=February 2006|url=https://www.ted.com/talks/sir_ken_robinson_do_schools_kill_creativity|publisher=www.ted.com|language=en|access-date=2021-08-03|archive-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927120046/http://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
-===COVID-19 pandemic===
-{{See also|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education}}
-Beginning in early 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] disrupted education systems throughout the world, affecting nearly 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries. Closures of schools and other learning spaces have impacted 94 percent of the world's student population, up to 99 percent in low and lower-middle income countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf|title=Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond|publisher=United Nations|date=August 2020|access-date=11 December 2020|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730081221/https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Many schools made alternative plans during the pandemic, leading to a variety of in-person, [[Blended learning|hybrid]], and online-only plans, which led to challenges for many students, teachers, and families including children with learning disabilities and those learning in a language that is not their native one.<ref name="unlv.edu">{{cite web|url=https://www.unlv.edu/news/release/covid-19-and-future-education|title=COVID-19 and the Future of Education|publisher=University of Nevada, Las Vegas|date=1 September 2020|last=Summers|first=Keyonna|access-date=11 December 2020|archive-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022044437/https://www.unlv.edu/news/release/covid-19-and-future-education|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 30 September 2020 there were 27 countries that had localized school closures. In the United States, an estimated 55.1 million students were forced to cease in-person instruction as of 10 April 2020. A switch to a [[virtual learning]] experience is particularly challenging for families that cannot afford the proper technology, such as [[laptops]], [[printer (computing)|printer]]s, or a reliable [[Internet connection]]. When schools close, parents are often asked to facilitate the learning of children at home and can struggle to perform this task. This is especially true for parents with limited education and resources. Students who require special education found it difficult to progress through the curriculum without tools and support that they require.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/consequences|title=Adverse consequences of school closures|date=10 March 2020|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=11 December 2020|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401065452/https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-emergencies/coronavirus-school-closures/consequences|url-status=live}}</ref> Polling suggests that schools that serve a majority of students of color are far less likely to have access to the technology needed for remote learning.<ref name="unlv.edu"/> Only 66% of Black households in the U.S. had home broadband service in 2019. Only 45% of Black Americans owned a [[desktop computer|desktop]] or laptop computer in 2015. Without access to the internet or a computer, Black parents are at a disadvantage in educating their children.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://diverseeducation.com/article/177796/|title=COVID-19 Will Intensify Education Inequities for Black Students|website=diverseeducation.com|date=20 May 2020|last=Slay|first=Bre-Ann|access-date=11 December 2020|archive-date=17 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117220700/https://diverseeducation.com/article/177796/|url-status=live}}</ref> The mental health of students has been greatly impacted due to the pandemic. It is estimated that three in ten participating in school at home have had their emotional and mental health negatively impacted. Similarly, the social lives of students have also been upended and this has been detrimental to the health of students worldwide which has also negatively impacted educational quality. This will be an issue for years to come. COVID-19 has shone a light on opportunity gaps and it will be up to educators and [[policymakers]] to direct the necessary resources to mitigating them in the coming years.<ref name="unlv.edu"/>
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