Jump to content

Fossil fuel phase-out: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
m clean up using AWB
Line 66: Line 66:


=== Switch to Natural Gas ===
=== Switch to Natural Gas ===
Some [[Thermal power station|coal power plants]] such as the 1200 MW [[Hearn Generating Station]] have stopped burning coal by switching the plant to natural gas. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, 27 gigawatts of capacity from coal-fired generators is to be retired from 175 US coal-fired power plants between 2012 and 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gerhardt|first=Tina|date=1 November 2012|title=Record Number of Coal Power Plants Retire|url=http://www.emagazine.com/magazine/by-the-numbers-record-number-of-coal-power-plants-retire|work=[[E-Magazine]]|archivedate=1 November 2012}}</ref> Natural gas showed a corresponding jump, increasing by a third over 2011.<ref name="epm_312">Electric Power Monthly, March 2011 (released May 2012), U.S. Energy Information Administration</ref> Coal's share of electricity generation dropped to just over 36%.<ref name="epm_312" /> Natural gas accounted for 81% of new power generation in the US between 2000 and 2010.<ref>http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=2070</ref> Coal-fired generation puts out about twice the amount of carbon dioxide - around 2,000 pounds for every megawatt hour generated - than electricity generated by burning natural gas at 1,100 pounds of [[greenhouse gas]] per megawatt hour. As the fuel mix in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen. Those measured in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the first quarter of any year since 1992.<ref>cite web |first=Rachel |last=Nuwer |title=A 20-Year Low in U.S. Carbon Emissions |url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/17/a-20-year-low-in-u-s-carbon-emissions/ |date=August 17, 2012</ref> Natural gas production and distribution leak [[methane]] into the atmosphere which may be 25 times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
Some [[Thermal power station|coal power plants]] such as the 1200 MW [[Hearn Generating Station]] have stopped burning coal by switching the plant to natural gas. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, 27 gigawatts of capacity from coal-fired generators is to be retired from 175 US coal-fired power plants between 2012 and 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gerhardt|first=Tina|date=1 November 2012|title=Record Number of Coal Power Plants Retire|url=http://www.emagazine.com/magazine/by-the-numbers-record-number-of-coal-power-plants-retire|work=[[E-Magazine]]|archivedate=1 November 2012}}</ref> Natural gas showed a corresponding jump, increasing by a third over 2011.<ref name="epm_312">Electric Power Monthly, March 2011 (released May 2012), U.S. Energy Information Administration</ref> Coal's share of electricity generation dropped to just over 36%.<ref name="epm_312" /> Due to [[Shale_gas_in_the_United_States#Economic_impacts|emergence of shale gas]], [[Coal power in the United States|coal consumption]] declined from 2009.<ref>Liam Denning. "[https://www.energyvoice.com/opinion/110719/trump-cant-make-coal-fracking-great/ Trump can’t make both coal and fracking great again]" 2016-05-29. Quote: "The trend of gas taking market share from coal began in earnest in 2009 — which just happens to be when the cost of gas to produce electricity collapsed"</ref> Natural gas accounted for 81% of new power generation in the US between 2000 and 2010.<ref>http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=2070</ref> Coal-fired generation puts out about twice the amount of carbon dioxide - around 2,000 pounds for every megawatt hour generated - than electricity generated by burning natural gas at 1,100 pounds of [[greenhouse gas]] per megawatt hour. As the fuel mix in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen. Those measured in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the first quarter of any year since 1992.<ref>cite web |first=Rachel |last=Nuwer |title=A 20-Year Low in U.S. Carbon Emissions |url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/17/a-20-year-low-in-u-s-carbon-emissions/ |date=August 17, 2012</ref> Natural gas production and distribution leak [[methane]] into the atmosphere which may be 25 times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.


== Legislation and initiatives to phase out coal ==
== Legislation and initiatives to phase out coal ==

Revision as of 07:39, 31 May 2016

Protest at the Legislative Building in Olympia, Washington. Ted Nation, activist for several decades, beside sign reading "Save our planet. Phase out Fossil Fuels
The Farmington coal mine disaster kills 78. West Virginia, US, 1968.
Deepwater Horizon oil spill discharges 4.9 million barrels. (2010)
Part of a series on
Sustainable energy
A car drives past 4 wind turbines in a field, with more on the horizon
Energy conservation
Renewable energy
Sustainable transport

Fossil fuel phase out is the proposed energy transition beyond fossil fuels through multiple means, including transport electrification, decommissioning of operating fossil fuel-fired power plants and prevention of the construction of new fossil-fuel-fired power stations. Its purpose is to reduce air pollution, mining tragedies, and greenhouse gas emissions which cause climate change.[1] A move to the many forms of renewable energy or nuclear energy is involved in shifting away from fossil fuels.

Problems of fossil fuels

Using computer modeling he developed over 20 years, Mark Z. Jacobson has found that carbonaceous fuel soot emissions (which lead to respiratory illness, heart disease, and asthma) have resulted in 1.5 million premature deaths each year, mostly in the developing world where the non-fossil fuels wood and animal dung are used for cooking. Jacobson has also said that soot from diesel engines, coal-fired power plants, and burning wood is a "bigger cause of global warming than previously thought, and is the major cause of the rapid melting of the Arctic's sea ice".[2]

In 2011, new evidence has emerged that there are considerable risks associated with traditional energy sources, and that major changes to the mix of energy technologies are needed:

Several mining tragedies globally have underscored the human toll of the coal supply chain. New EPA initiatives targeting air toxics, coal ash, and effluent releases highlight the environmental impacts of coal and the cost of addressing them with control technologies. The use of fracking in natural gas exploration is coming under scrutiny, with evidence of groundwater contamination and greenhouse gas emissions. Concerns are increasing about the vast amounts of water used at coal-fired and nuclear power plants, particularly in regions of the country facing water shortages. Events at the Fukushima nuclear plant have renewed doubts about the ability to operate large numbers of nuclear plants safely over the long term. Further, cost estimates for “next generation” nuclear units continue to climb, and lenders are unwilling to finance these plants without taxpayer guarantees.[3]

Studies about fossil fuel phase-out

In 2008, James E. Hansen and eight other scientists published the 38-page journal article "Target Atmospheric CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim?" which called for phasing out coal power completely by the year 2030.[4]

More recently Dr Hansen, considered the father of climate change [5] has stated that continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity's ability to avoid dangerous climate change.[6] The letter, co-authored with other climate change experts declared "If we stay on the current path," he said, "those are the consequences we'll be leaving to our children. The best candidate to avoid that is nuclear power. It's ready now. We need to take advantage of it." and "Continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity's ability to avoid dangerous climate change."

Also in 2008, Pushker Kharecha and James E. Hansen published a peer-reviewed scientific study analyzing the effect of a coal phase-out on atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.[7] Their baseline mitigation scenario was a phaseout of global coal emissions by 2050. The authors describe the scenario as follows:

The second scenario, labeled Coal Phase-out, is meant to approximate a situation in which developed countries freeze their CO2 emissions from coal by 2012 and a decade later developing countries similarly halt increases in coal emissions. Between 2025 and 2050 it is assumed that both developed and developing countries will linearly phase out emissions of CO2 from coal usage. Thus in Coal Phase-out we have global CO2 emissions from coal increasing 2% per year until 2012, 1% per year growth of coal emissions between 2013 and 2022, flat coal emissions for 2023–2025, and finally a linear decrease to zero CO2 emissions from coal in 2050. These rates refer to emissions to the atmosphere and do not constrain consumption of coal, provided the CO2 is captured and sequestered. Oil and gas emissions are assumed to be the same as in the BAU [Business as Usual] scenario.

Kharecha and Hansen also consider three other mitigation scenarios, all with the same coal phase-out schedule but each making different assumptions about the size of oil and gas reserves and the speed at which they are depleted. Under the Business as Usual scenario, atmospheric CO2 peaks at 563 parts per million (ppm) in the year 2100. Under the four coal phase-out scenarios, atmospheric CO2 peaks at 422-446 ppm between 2045 and 2060 and declines thereafter. The key implications of the study are as follows: a phase-out of coal emissions is the most important remedy for mitigating human-induced global warming; actions should be taken toward limiting or stretching out the use of conventional oil and gas; and strict emissions-based constraints are needed for future use of unconventional fossil fuels such as methane hydrates and tar sands.

In the Greenpeace and EREC's Energy (R)evolution scenario,[8] the world would eliminate all fossil fuel use by 2090.[9][10][11]

Coal

Coal consumption trends 1980–2012 in the top five coal-consuming countries (US EIA)
Coal-fired power plants provide 45% of consumed electricity in the United States.[12] This is the Castle Gate Plant near Helper, Utah.

Coal is one of the largest sources of energy, supplying 27 percent of the world's primary energy in 2006.[13] Coal also accounts for up to one-third of global carbon emissions.[citation needed] To decrease carbon emissions and thus possibly stop extreme climate change, some have called for coal to be phased out.[14][15] Climatologist James E. Hansen said "We need a moratorium on coal now...with phase-out of existing plants over the next two decades."[16]

Some nations have decreased their coal consumption thus far in the 21st century, the greatest reductions being in the United States (coal consumption reduced by 176 million metric tons per year over the period 2000-2012), Canada (reduced by 21 million tons per year) and Spain (20 million tons per year). Other nations have increased their coal consumption in the same period, led by China (increased 2,263 million metric tons per year in the period 2000-2012), India (increased 367 million tons per year), and South Korea (59 million tons per year). Worldwide, coal consumption increased 60% during the period 2000-2012.[17] As of 2012, 1200 new coal power plants were reportedly being planned worldwide, most of them in China and India.[18]

In the 2011-2013 period, the OCED group of Western European countries has increased the use of coal, attributed largely to the low cost of coal and the high price of imported natural gas in Western Europe.[19]

According to Scientific American, the average coal plant emits more than 100 times as much radiation per year than does a comparatively sized nuclear power plant, in the form of fly ash.[20]

Some believe that coal should not be phased out, considering that longer-term global economic growth cannot be achieved without adequate and affordable energy supplies, which will require continuing significant contributions from fossil fuels including coal. In this viewpoint, clean coal technology could reduce greenhouse gas emissions compatible with a low-emissions future.[21] Some environmentalists and climatologists support a phase-out and criticise clean coal as not a solution to climate change.[22] Entrepreneurs promote improved regulations and modernised technology.[citation needed]

Switch to Natural Gas

Some coal power plants such as the 1200 MW Hearn Generating Station have stopped burning coal by switching the plant to natural gas. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, 27 gigawatts of capacity from coal-fired generators is to be retired from 175 US coal-fired power plants between 2012 and 2016.[23] Natural gas showed a corresponding jump, increasing by a third over 2011.[24] Coal's share of electricity generation dropped to just over 36%.[24] Due to emergence of shale gas, coal consumption declined from 2009.[25] Natural gas accounted for 81% of new power generation in the US between 2000 and 2010.[26] Coal-fired generation puts out about twice the amount of carbon dioxide - around 2,000 pounds for every megawatt hour generated - than electricity generated by burning natural gas at 1,100 pounds of greenhouse gas per megawatt hour. As the fuel mix in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen. Those measured in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the first quarter of any year since 1992.[27] Natural gas production and distribution leak methane into the atmosphere which may be 25 times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.

Legislation and initiatives to phase out coal

Major economies

The 20 leaders of the world's top industrialized nations, as well as key countries with developing economies, have agreed to phase out their subsidies for fossil fuels, including coal. In a concluding statement from the Group of 20 (G20) Summit—held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on September 24 and 25, 2009 —the nations' leaders agreed to "phase out and rationalize over the medium term inefficient fossil fuel subsidies." The G20 leaders also called for targeted support for poor people that would be impacted by higher prices for fossil fuels. The leaders noted that "inefficient" fossil-fuel subsidies "encourage wasteful consumption, reduce our energy security, impede investment in clean energy sources, and undermine efforts to deal with the threat of climate change." The agreement will ultimately phase out nearly $300 billion in global subsidies for fossil fuels. And as noted in a White House fact sheet, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and the International Energy Agency estimate that eliminating fossil fuel subsidies worldwide would cut global greenhouse gas emissions by 10% or more by 2050.[28][29][30]

Despite such pledges, a 2012 report by Oil Change International which analyzed 2011 spending by the world's wealthy nations found five times as much being spent on fossil fuel subsidies than climate aid: $58 billion was spent in fossil fuel subsidies that year, as compared with $11 billion spent by such nations towards climate adaptation and mitigation in developing countries, with figures for the U.S. at $13 billion in fossil fuel subsidies versus $2.5 billion in climate aid for 2011.[31]

In November 2015, OECD countries announced another tightening of international coal subsidies.[32]

Australia

Electricity generation from renewable sources in Australia, 2010

The Australian Greens party have proposed to phase out coal power stations. The NSW Greens proposed an immediate moratorium on coal-fired power stations and want to end all coal mining and coal industry subsidies. The Federal Government's proposed Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, an emissions trading scheme will, if enacted, make it more difficult for new coal-fired power stations to be developed.[citation needed] The Australian Greens and the Australian Labor Party also oppose nuclear power. The Federal Government and Victorian State Government want to modify existing coal-fired power stations into clean coal power stations. The Federal Labor government extended the mandatory renewable energy targets, an initiative to ensure that new sources of electricity are more likely to be from wind power, solar power and other sources of renewable energy in Australia.

Australia is one of the largest consumers of coal per capita, and also the largest exporter. The proposals are strongly opposed by industry, unions[33] and the main Opposition Party in Parliament (now forming the party in government after the September 2013 election).

Canada

In 2005 Canada annually burned 60 million tons of coal, mainly for electrical power, increasing by 15% annually.

Ontario

Beginning in 2005 Ontario, Canada planned coal phase-out legislation.[34] Ontario annually consumed 15 million tons of coal in large power plants to supplement nuclear power. Nanticoke Generating Station was a major source of air pollution, and Ontario suffered "smog days" during the summer.[citation needed] In 2007, Ontario's Liberal government committed to phasing out all coal generation in the province by 2014. Premier Dalton McGuinty said, "By 2030 there will be about 1,000 more new coal-fired generating stations built on this planet. There is only one place in the world that is phasing out coal-fired generation and we're doing that right here in Ontario."[35] The Ontario Power Authority projects that in 2014, with no coal generation, the largest sources of electrical power in the province will be nuclear (57 percent), hydroelectricity (25 percent), and natural gas (11 percent).[36] The final coal plant in Ontario, Thunder Bay Generating Station, stopped burning coal in April 2014.[37]

China

There are currently no plans to phase out coal burning power stations in the People's Republic of China on the national level. In fact, it's quite the reverse.

China’s exceedingly high energy demand has pushed the demand for relatively cheap coal-fired power. Each week, another 2GW of coal-fired power is put online in China. Coal supplies about 80% of China's energy needs today, and that ratio is expected to continue, even as overall power usage grows rapidly. Serious air quality deterioration has resulted from the massive use of coal and many Chinese cities suffer severe smog events.[citation needed]

As a consequence the region of Beijing has decided to phase out all its coal-fired power generation by the end of 2015.[38]

In 2009 China had 172GW of installed hydro capacity the largest in the world, producing 16% of China's electricity, the Eleventh Five-Year Plan has set a 300GW target for 2020. China built the world's largest power plant of any kind, the Three Gorges Dam.

In addition to the huge investments in coal power, China has 32[39] reactors under construction, the highest number in the world.

India

Coal Production in India, 1959-2020

India is the third largest consumer of coal in the world. India's federal energy minister is planning to stop importing thermal coal by 2018.[40] The annual report of India's Power Ministry has a plan to grow power by about 80GW as part of their 11th 5-year plan, and 79% of that growth will be in fossil-fuel–fired power plants, primarily coal.[41] India plans four new "ultra mega" coal-fired power plants as part of that growth, each 4000MW in capacity. As of 2015 there are six nuclear reactors under construction.

Germany

In 2007, Germany announced plans to phase out hard coal-industry subsidies by 2018, a move which is expected to end hard coal mining in Germany.[42][43][44][45][46] This exit is later than the EU-mandated end by 2014.[47] Solar and wind are major sources of energy and renewable energy generation, currently (December 2013) around 15%,[48] and growing. Coal is still the largest source of power in Germany.

In 2007 German Chancellor Angela Merkel and her party agreed to legislation to phase out Germany's hard coal mining sector. That does not mean that they support phasing out coal in general. There were plans to build about 25 new plants in the coming years. Most German coal power plants were built in the 1960s, and have a low energy efficiency. Public sentiment against coal power plants is growing and the construction or planning of some plants has been stopped.[42][43][44][45][46] A number are under construction and still being built. No concrete plan is in place to reduce coal electricity. Remaining coal plants still planned to be built (as of October 2015) include: Niederaussem, Profen and Stade. The coal plants currently under construction include: Mannheim, Hamm D, Datteln, and Willhelmshaven. Between 2012 and 2015, six new plants went online. All of these plants are 600 - 1800 MWe.[49]

In 2014 Germany's coal consumption dropped for the first time, having risen each year since the low during the 2009 recession.[50]

New Zealand

In October 2007 the Clark Labour government introduced a 10-year moratorium on new fossil fuel thermal power generation.[51] The ban was limited to state-owned utilities; an extension to private sector was considered. The new government under MP John Key (NZNP) elected in November 2008 repealed this legislation.[citation needed]

In 2014, almost 80 per cent of the electricity produced in New Zealand was Sustainable energy.[52] On 6 August 2015, Genesis Energy Limited announced to close its two last coal-fueled power stations.[53]

South Africa

South Africa's power sector is currently the 8th highest global emitter of CO2.[54] Around 77% of South Africa's energy demand is directly met by coal,[55] and when current projects come online, this ratio will increase in the near term.

There are no plans to phase out coal-fired power plants in South Africa, and indeed, the country is investing in building massive amounts of new coal-fired capacity to meet power demands, as well as modernizing the existing coal-fired plants to meet environmental requirements.

On April 6, 2010, the World Bank approved a $3.75B loan to SA to support the construction of the world's 4th largest coal-fired plant, at Medupi.[56] The proposed World Bank loan includes a relatively small amount - $260 million - for wind and solar power.

Rated at 4800MW, Medupi Power Station would join other mammoth coal-fired power plants already in operation in the country, namely Kendal Power Station (4100MW), Majuba Power Station (4100), and Matimba Power Station (4000), as well as a similar-capacity Kusile Power Station, at 4800MW, currently under construction. Kusile is expected to come online in stages, starting in 2012, while Medupi is expected to first come online in 2013, with full capacity available by 2017. These schedules are provisional, and may change.

Some estimate that after Kusile and Medupi come online, South Africa will then derive 94% of its domestic energy from coal.

United Kingdom

Ed Miliband (energy secretary from 3 October 2008 – 11 May 2010) announced that no new coal-fired power stations will be built in Britain from 2009 onwards unless they capture and bury at least 25% of greenhouse gases immediately and 100% by 2025 although at the time this was a statement of intent rather than something he was able to enforce.[57]

Chris Huhne (energy secretary from 12 May 2010 – 5 February 2012) has confirmed that the legislation required to allow his office to enforce emissions standards are proceeding.[58]

The UK is also subject to the EU's Large Combustion Plant Directive covering non-CO2 emissions which is expected to bring many older plants to a close over the next few years as they are too expensive to upgrade.[59]

Amber Rudd (energy secretary from 11 May 2015) announced on 18 November 2015 that all coal-fired power stations would close by 2025. This will not be a complete phase out of fossil fuels because new gas-fired power stations will replace them.[60]

United States

Year Electrical
generation
from coal (TWh) 		Total
electrical
generation (TWh) 		%
from
coal 		Number of
coal
plants
2002 1,933 3,858 50.1% 633
2003 1,974 3,883 50.8% 629
2004 1,978 3,971 49.8% 625
2005 2,013 4,055 49.6% 619
2006 1,991 4,065 49.0% 616
2007 2,016 4,157 48.5% 606
2008 1,986 4,119 48.2% 598
2009 1,756 3,950 44.4% 593
2010 1,847 4,125 44.8% 580
2011 1,733 4,100 42.3% 589
2012 1,514 4,048 37.4% 557
2013 1,581 4,066 38.9% 518
2014 1,582 4,094 38.6% 491
2015 1,352 4,078 33.2% 427
2016 1,239 4,077 30.4% 381
2017 1,206 4,035 29.9% 359
2018 1,149 4,181 27.5% 336
2019 965 4,131 23.4% 308
2020 773 4,010 19.3% 284
2021 898 4,108 21.9% 269
References: [61]
Estimated effect of a carbon tax on sources of United States electrical generation (US Energy Information Administration)
Total energy consumption in the US by source: comparing fossil fuels with nuclear and renewable energy.
US electrical generation: fossil fuels vs. nuclear and renewable energy

In 2007, 154 new coal-fired plants were on the drawing board in 42 states.[62] By 2012, that had dropped to 15, mostly due to new rules limiting mercury emissions, and limiting carbon emissions to 1,000 pounds of CO2 per megawatt-hour of electricity produced.[63]

In July 2013, US Secretary of Energy Ernest Moniz outlined Obama administration policy on fossil fuels:

In the last four years, we’ve more than doubled renewable energy generation from wind and solar power. However, coal and other fossil fuels still provide 80 percent of our energy, 70 percent of our electricity, and will be a major part of our energy future for decades. That’s why any serious effort to protect our kids from the worst effects of climate change must also include developing, demonstrating and deploying the technologies to use our abundant fossil fuel resources as cleanly as possible.[64]

Then-US Energy Secretary Stephen Chu and researchers for the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory have noted that greater electrical generation by non-dispachable renewables, such as wind and solar, will also increase the need for flexible natural gas-powered generators, to supply electricity during those times when solar and wind power are unavailable.[65][66] Gas-powered generators have the ability to ramp up and down quickly to meet changing loads.[67]

In the US, many of the fossil fuel phase-out initiatives have taken place at the state or local levels.

California electricity generation by source, 2010 (data from US EIA)
Sources of electricity generated in Maine. 2010 (US EIA)
Sources of electricity generated in Texas, 2010 (US EIA)
Sources of electricity generation in Washington state, 2010 (US EIA)

California

California's SB 1368 created the first governmental moratorium on new coal plants in the United States. The law was signed in September 2006 by Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger,[68] took effect for investor-owned utilities in January 2007, and took effect for publicly owned utilities in August 2007. SB 1368 applied to long-term investments (five years or more) by California utilities, whether in-state or out-of-state. It set the standard for greenhouse gas emissions at 1,100 pounds of carbon dioxide per megawatt-hour, equal to the emissions of a combined-cycle natural gas plant. This standard created a de facto moratorium on new coal, since it could not be met without carbon capture and sequestration.[69]

Maine

On April 15, 2008, Maine Governor John E. Baldacci signed LD 2126, "An Act To Minimize Carbon Dioxide Emissions from New Coal-Powered Industrial and Electrical Generating Facilities in the State." The law, which was sponsored by Rep. W. Bruce MacDonald (D-Boothbay), requires the Board of Environmental Protection to develop greenhouse gas emission standards for coal gasification facilities. It also puts a moratorium in place on building any new coal gasification facilities until the standards are developed.[70]

Oregon

In early March 2016, Oregon lawmakers approved a plan to stop paying for out-of-state coal plants by 2030 and require a 50 percent renewable energy standard by 2040.[71] Environmental groups such as the American Wind Energy Association and leading democrats praised the bill.

Texas

In 2006 a coalition of Texas groups organized a campaign in favor of a statewide moratorium on new coal-fired power plants. The campaign culminated in a "Stop the Coal Rush" mobilization, including rallying and lobbying, at the state capital in Austin on February 11 and 12th, 2007.[72] Over 40 citizen groups supported the mobilization.[73]

In January, 2007, A resolution calling for a 180-day moratorium on new pulverized coal plants was filed in the Texas Legislature by State Rep. Charles "Doc" Anderson (R-Waco) as House Concurrent Resolution 43.[74] The resolution was left pending in committee.[75] On December 4, 2007, Rep. Anderson announced his support for two proposed integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) coal plants proposed by Luminant (formerly TXU).[76]

Washington state

Washington has followed the same approach as California, prohibiting coal plants whose emissions would exceed those of natural gas plants. Substitute Senate Bill 6001 (SSB 6001), signed on May 3, 2007, by Governor Christine Gregoire, enacted the standard.[77] As a result of SSB 6001, the Pacific Mountain Energy Center in Kalama was rejected by the state. However, a new plant proposal, the Wallula Energy Resource Center, shows the limits of the "natural gas equivalency" approach as a means of prohibiting new coal plants. The proposed plant would meet the standard set by SSB 6001 by capturing and sequestering a portion (65 percent, according to a plant spokesman) of its carbon.[77]

Utility action in the US

  • Progress Energy Carolinas[78] announced on June 1, 2007, that it was beginning a two-year moratorium on proposals for new coal-fired power plants while it undertook more aggressive efficiency and conservation programs. The company added, "Additional reductions in future electricity demand growth through energy efficiency could push the need for new power plants farther into the future."[79]
  • Public Service of Colorado[80] concluded in its November 2007 Resource Plan: "In sum, in light of the now likely regulation of CO2 emissions in the future due to broader interest in climate change issues, the increased costs of constructing new coal facilities, and the increased risk of timely permitting to meet planned in-service dates, Public Service does not believe it would not be prudent to consider at this time any proposals for new coal plants that do not include CO2 capture and sequestration.[81]
  • Xcel Energy noted in its 2007 Resource Plan that "given the likelihood of future carbon regulation, we have only modeled a future coal-based resource option that includes carbon capture and storage."[81]
  • Minnesota Power Company[82] announced in December 2007 that it would not consider a new coal resource without a carbon solution.[81]
  • Avista Utilities[83] announced that it does not anticipate pursuing coal-fired power plants in the foreseeable future.[81]
  • NorthWestern Energy[84] announced on December 17, 2007, that it planned to double its wind power capacity over the next seven years and steer away from new baseload coal plants. The plans are detailed in the company's 2007 Montana Electric Supply Resource Plan.[85]
  • California Energy Commission (CEC) has initiated its review of two 53.4-megawatt solar thermal power plants that will each include a 40-megawatt biomass power plant to supplement the solar power.[86]

Public support for a coal moratorium

Opinion polls

Opinion Research

In October, 2007, Civil Society Institute released the results of a poll of 1,003 U.S. citizens conducted by Opinion Research Corporation.

The authors of the poll reported: "75 percent of Americans –-including 65 percent of Republicans, 83 percent of Democrats and 76 percent of Independents—would 'support a five-year moratorium on new coal-fired power plants in the United States if there was stepped-up investment in clean, safe renewable energy—such as wind and solar—and improved home energy-efficiency standards.' Women (80 percent) were more likely than men (70 percent) to support this idea. Support also was higher among college graduates (78 percent) than among those who did not graduate from high school (68 percent).[87]

The exact question posed by the survey was as follows: More than half of power plant-generated electricity comes from coal. Experts say that power plants are responsible for about 40 percent of U.S. carbon dioxide pollution linked to global warming. There are plans to build more than 150 new coal-fired power plants over the next several years. Would you support a five-year moratorium on new coal-fired power plants in the United States if there was stepped-up investment in clean, safe and renewable energy –such as wind and solar –and improved home energy-efficiency standards? Would you say definitely yes, probably yes, probably no, definitely no, or don't know.

The results were as follows:[88]

  • 30% "definitely yes"
  • 45% "probably yes"
  • 13% "probably no"
  • 8% "definitely no"
  • 4% "don't know"

Gallup

In 2013, the Gallup organization determined that 41% of Americans wanted less emphasis placed on coal energy, versus 31% who wanted more. Large majorities wanted more emphasis placed on solar (76%), wind (71%), and natural gas (65%).[89]

ABC News/Washington Post

A 2009 ABC/Washington Post poll found 52% of Americans favored more coal mining (33% strongly favored), while 45% opposed (27% strongly opposed). The most support was for wind and solar, which were favored by 91% (79% strongly favored).[90]

CLEAN call to action

In October, 2007, fifteen groups led by Citizens Lead for Energy Action Now (CLEAN) called for a five-year moratorium on new coal-fired power plants, with no exception for plants sequestering carbon. The groups included Save Our Cumberland Mountains (Tennessee); Ohio Valley Environmental Council (West Virginia); Cook Inlet Keeper (Alaska); Christians for the Mountains (West Virginia); Coal River Mountain Watch (West Virginia); Kentuckians for the Commonwealth (Kentucky); Civil Society Institute (Massachusetts); Clean Power Now (Massachusetts); Indigenous Environmental Network (Minnesota); Castle Mountain Coalition (Alaska); Citizens Action Coalition (Indiana); Appalachian Center for the Economy & the Environment (West Virginia); Appalachian Voices (NC); and Rhode Island Wind Alliance (Rhode Island).[91]

Environmental Defense Fund

The US-based Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) has taken a stand in favor of natural gas production and hydraulic fracturing, while pressing for stricter environmental controls on gas drilling, as a feasible way to replace coal.[92] The organization has funded studies jointly with the petroleum industry on the environmental effects of natural gas production. The organization sees natural gas as a way to quickly replace coal, and that natural gas in time will be replaced by renewable energy.[93] The policy has been criticized by some environmentalists.[94] EDF counsel and blogger Mark Brownstein answered:

"Demand for natural gas is not going away, and neither is hydraulic fracturing. We must be clear-eyed about this, and fight to protect public health and the environment from unacceptable impacts. We must also work hard to put policies in place that ensure that natural gas serves as an enabler of renewable power generation, not an impediment to it. We fear that those who oppose all natural gas production everywhere are, in effect, making it harder for the U.S. economy to wean itself from dirty coal."[95]

Other groups supporting a coal moratorium

Shareholder resolutions in favor of a coal moratorium

"RESOLVED: Shareholders request that BOA’s board of directors amend its GHG emissions policies to observe a moratorium on all financing, investment and further involvement in activities that support MTR coal mining or the construction of new coal-burning power plants that emit carbon dioxide.[105]

Prominent individuals supporting a coal moratorium

If you're a young person looking at the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now, and not done, I believe we have reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration.

— Al Gore at the Clinton Global Initiative Annual Meeting
  • Banker and financier Tom Sanzillo, currently First Deputy Comptroller for the state of New York, called for a moratorium on new coal plants in the state of Iowa. Citing slow growth in electricity demand and better alternative sources of energy, Sanzillo said, "It's not only good public policy, it's great economics."[107]

Prominent individuals supporting a coal phase-out

Mayors supporting a coal moratorium

On October 13, 2007, Pocatello, Idaho, mayor Roger Chase told other mayors from across the state attending an Association of Idaho Cities legislative committee that he favored a moratorium no new coal plants in the state.[109]

On June 1, 2007, Park City, Utah, mayor Dana Wilson wrote a letter to Warren Buffett expressing the city's opposition to three coal plants proposed by Rocky Mountain Power.[110]

In November 2007, Salt Lake City mayor Rocky Anderson expressed his support for a coal moratorium at a rally organized by the Step It Up! campaign.[111]

In January 2008, Charlottesville, VA, mayor Dave Norris blogged in favor of a moratorium on new coal-fired power plants.[112] On December 19, 2007, Charlottesville passed the Charlottesville Clean Energy Resolution putting the city on record as supporting a moratorium.[citation needed]

Local governments supporting a coal moratorium

  • In January, 2008, Black Hawk County (Iowa) Health Board recommended that the state adopt a moratorium on new coal-fired power plants until it enacts tougher air pollution standards.[113]

Oil

Oil is refined into fuel oil, diesel and gasoline. The refined products are primarily consumed by cars, trucks, trains, planes and ships for transportation. Popular alternatives are public transport or electric vehicles, which use electricity that may be sourced from renewables or fossil fuels. Biofuels produce similar air pollution to fossil fuels and may increase atmospheric methane, a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.

Move toward renewable energy

See also: Energiewende and 100% renewable energy

Renewable energy is energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. As of 2013, 19% of global final energy consumption comes from renewable resources, with 9% of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, 4% from hydroelectricity 1% from biofuels and 4% from biomass, geothermal or solar heat . Popular renewables (wind, solar, geothermal and biomass for power) accounted for another 1.3% and are growing rapidly.[114]

Toward hydroelectricity

Grand Coulee Dam is a hydroelectric dam on the Columbia River. The dam has an installed capacity of 6,809 MW and is the largest electric power-producing facility in the United States.

Renewable hydroelectric energy provides 16.3% of the worlds electricity. When hydroelectric is combined with other renewables such as wind, geothermal, solar, biomass and waste: together they make the "renewables" total, 21.7% of electricity generation worldwide as of 2013.[115] There are a few examples of hydroelectric power stations that have been proposed but never built. One example is the Rampart Dam. This 5000MW project would have dammed the Yukon River in Alaska. The creation of the Yukon Flats National Wildlife Sanctuary prevents this project from being built in the future. Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity has become a popular alternative to dams that create reservoirs in environmentally sensitive areas.

Toward wind power

Main article: Wind farm
Lillgrund Wind Farm in Sweden
First wind farm consisting of 7,5 MW Enercon E-126 turbines, Estinnes, Belgium, 20 July 2010, two months before completion; note the 2-part blades.

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.

Wind power has grown dramatically since 2005 and by 2013 supplied almost 1% of global energy consumption.[116]

Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the United States and China. The Gansu Wind Farm in China has over 5,000 MW installed with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. China has several other "wind power bases" of similar size. The Alta Wind Energy Center in California, United States is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1020 MW of power.[117] As of February 2012, the Walney Wind Farm in the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 367 MW, followed by Thanet Offshore Wind Project (300 MW), also in the United Kingdom. As of February 2012, the Fântânele-Cogealac Wind Farm in Romania is the largest onshore wind farm in Europe at 600 MW.[118]

There are many large wind farms under construction and these include Sinus Holding Wind Farm (700 MW), Anholt Offshore Wind Farm (400 MW), BARD Offshore 1 (400 MW), Clyde Wind Farm (350 MW), Greater Gabbard wind farm (500 MW), Lincs Wind Farm (270 MW), London Array (1000 MW), Lower Snake River Wind Project (343 MW), Macarthur Wind Farm (420 MW), Shepherds Flat Wind Farm (845 MW), and Sheringham Shoal (317 MW).

Wind power in Denmark produced the equivalent of 42.1% of total electricity consumption in 2015,[119][120] however, use of wind for heating is minor.[121][122][123][124]

Toward solar

Solar heating, solar driven turbines and solar photovoltaic are all rapidly growing in popularity. By 2020 the solar contribution to global final energy consumption will exceed 1%.[125]

Solar photovoltaics

The 71.8 MW Lieberose Photovoltaic Park in Germany.
Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations

Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity and many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built. The size of these stations has increased progressively over the last decade with frequent new capacity records.

As of January 2013, the largest individual photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are Agua Caliente Solar Project, (Arizona, over 247 MW connected - to increase to 397 MW), Golmud Solar Park (China, 200 MW), Mesquite Solar project (Arizona, 150 MW), Neuhardenberg Solar Park (Germany, 145 MW), Templin Solar Park (Germany, 128 MW), Toul-Rosières Solar Park (France, 115 MW), and Perovo Solar Park (Ukraine, 100 MW). The Charanka Solar Park is a collection of solar power stations of which 214 MW were reported complete in April 2012,[126] on a 2000 ha site.[127] It is part of Gujarat Solar Park,[128][129] a group of solar farms at various locations in the Gujarat state of India, with overall capacity of 702 MW.[130] There are a total of 570 MW of solar parks in Golmud, with 500 MW more expected in 2012.[131]

Many large plants are under construction. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550 MW solar power plant under construction in Riverside County, California, that will use thin-film solar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar.[132] The Topaz Solar Farm is a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant, being built in San Luis Obispo County, California.[133] The Blythe Solar Power Project is a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in Riverside County, California. The Agua Caliente Solar Project is a 290 megawatt photovoltaic solar generating facility being built in Yuma County, Arizona. The California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) is a 250 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic power plant, which is being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast of California Valley.[134] The 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area of the Western Mojave Desert, and due to be completed in 2013.[135]

Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. Solar power plants have no fuel costs or emissions during operation.

Concentrated solar power

The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining.[136]
See also: Concentrated solar power

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[137]

Carbon-neutral and negative fuels

Main articles: Carbon-neutral fuel and Methanol economy

Carbon-neutral fuels are synthetic fuels (including methane, gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel or ammonia[138]) produced by hydrogenating waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue-gas emissions, recovered from automotive exhaust gas, or derived from carbonic acid in seawater.[139] Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce synthetic fuels for less than petroleum fuels when oil costs more than $55 per barrel.[140] Renewable methanol (RM) is a fuel produced from hydrogen and carbon dioxide by catalytic hydrogenation where the hydrogen has been obtained from water electrolysis. It can be blended into transportation fuel or processed as a chemical feedstock.[141]

The George Olah carbon dioxide recycling plant operated by Carbon Recycling International in Grindavík, Iceland has been producing 2 million liters of methanol transportation fuel per year from flue exhaust of the Svartsengi Power Station since 2011.[142] It has the capacity to produce 5 million liters per year.[143] A 250 kilowatt methane synthesis plant was constructed by the Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research (ZSW) at Baden-Württemberg and the Fraunhofer Society in Germany and began operating in 2010. It is being upgraded to 10 megawatts, scheduled for completion in autumn, 2012.[144][145] Audi has constructed a carbon-neutral liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant in Werlte, Germany.[146] The plant is intended to produce transportation fuel to offset LNG used in their A3 Sportback g-tron automobiles, and can keep 2,800 metric tons of CO2 out of the environment per year at its initial capacity.[147] Other commercial developments are taking place in Columbia, South Carolina,[148] Camarillo, California,[149] and Darlington, England.[150]

Part of a series about
Environmental economics
Carbon price
Climate change
Concepts
Energy transition
Policies

Such fuels are considered carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases.[151] To the extent that synthetic fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid,[152] and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.[153]

Such renewable fuels alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels, enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles.[154]

In the USA, nighttime wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because the load curve for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day, so, the price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative.

In Europe, the situation is usually opposite - winds blow more during the day and winter, coinciding with consumption. Germany has built a 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant which they are scaling up to 10 megawatts.[144][145][155]

Toward biofuels

Main article: biofuel

Biofuels, in the form of liquid fuels derived from plant materials, are entering the market. However, many of the biofuels that are currently being supplied have been criticised for their adverse impacts on the natural environment, food security, and land use.[156][157]

Toward Biomass

Biomass is biological material from living, or recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials.[158] As a renewable energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or indirectly—once or converted into another type of energy product such as biofuel. Biomass can be converted to energy in three ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion.

Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas in some cases (such as with indoor heating and cooking).[159][160][161] Utilization of wood biomass as a fuel can also produce fewer particulate and other pollutants than open burning as seen in wildfires or direct heat applications.[162] Black carbon – a pollutant created by combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass – is possibly the second largest contributor to global warming.[163] In 2009 a Swedish study of the giant brown haze that periodically covers large areas in South Asia determined that it had been principally produced by biomass burning, and to a lesser extent by fossil-fuel burning.[164] Denmark has increased the use of biomass and garbage,[165] and decreased the use of coal.[166]

Move toward nuclear energy

There are more than 60 nuclear reactors shown as under construction in the list of Nuclear power by country with China leading at 23. China has stated its plans to double nuclear generation by 2030. India also plans to greatly increase its nuclear power.

See also

References

  1. ^ http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/contents.html
  2. ^ http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2010/07/27/MN5H1EK6BV.DTL#ixzz0v1KwN5yZ
  3. ^ Synapse Energy Economics (November 16, 2011). "Toward a Sustainable Future for the U.S. Power Sector: Beyond Business as Usual 2011" (PDF).
  4. ^ Hansen, J., Mki. Sato, P. Kharecha, D. Beerling, R. Berner, V. Masson-Delmotte, M. Pagani, M. Raymo, D.L. Royer, and J.C. Zachos (2008). "Target Atmospheric CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim?" (PDF). Open Atmos. Sci. J. 2: 217–231. arXiv:0804.1126. Bibcode:2008OASJ....2..217H. doi:10.2174/1874282300802010217. Retrieved 2 February 2009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ "Father of climate change: 2C limit is not enough". The Independent.
  6. ^ By (3 November 2013). "Top climate change scientists issue open letter to policy influencers - CNN.com". CNN.
  7. ^ Kharecha, P.A.; J.E. Hansen (2008). "Implications of "peak oil" for atmospheric CO2 and climate". Global Biogeochem. Cycles. 22 (22): GB3012. arXiv:0704.2782. Bibcode:2008GBioC..22.3012K. doi:10.1029/2007GB003142.
  8. ^ [1][dead link]
  9. ^ "Energy Revolution". Greenpeace International. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  10. ^ http://www.erec.org/fileadmin/erec_docs/Documents/Press_Releases/Press_release_Greenpeace_EREC__October_2008.pdf
  11. ^ "Science news and science jobs from New Scientist - New Scientist". Environment.newscientist.com. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  12. ^ "Electric Power Monthly - Table 1.1. Net Generation by Energy Source". US Energy Information Administration. 2011-02-14. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
  13. ^ World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups December 31, 2008 Microsoft Excel file format table
  14. ^ Kharecha, P.A., and J.E. Hansen, "Implications of "peak oil" for atmospheric CO2 and climate," Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 22, GB3012, doi:10.1029/2007GB003142
  15. ^ * Big Coal: The Dirty Secret Behind America's Energy Future by Jeff Goodell. 324 pages
  16. ^ Rosenthal, Elizabeth (23 April 2008). "Europe Turns Back to Coal, Raising Climate Fears". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 11 July 2012. "We need a moratorium on coal now," he added, "with phase-out of existing plants over the next two decades."
  17. ^ US Energy Information Administration, International statistics: coal consumption, 2012.
  18. ^ Damian Carrington, "More than 1,000 new coal plants being planned, The Guardian, 19 Nov. 2012.
  19. ^ US EIA, Multiple factors push Western Europe to use less natural gas and more coal, 27 Sept. 2013.
  20. ^ "Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste: By burning away all the pesky carbon and other impurities, coal power plants produce heaps of radiation". 2009-05-18. Retrieved 2009-05-18.
  21. ^ "Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions - The Potential of Coal" (PDF). Coal Industry Advisory Board/International Energy Agency. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/International Energy Agency. Retrieved 28 July 2014.
  22. ^ "Clean Coal: Wave of the Future or Empty Rhetoric?". Worldwatch Institute. Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved 28 July 2014.
  23. ^ Gerhardt, Tina (1 November 2012). "Record Number of Coal Power Plants Retire". E-Magazine. {{cite news}}: |archive-date= requires |archive-url= (help)
  24. ^ a b Electric Power Monthly, March 2011 (released May 2012), U.S. Energy Information Administration
  25. ^ Liam Denning. "Trump can’t make both coal and fracking great again" 2016-05-29. Quote: "The trend of gas taking market share from coal began in earnest in 2009 — which just happens to be when the cost of gas to produce electricity collapsed"
  26. ^ http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=2070
  27. ^ cite web |first=Rachel |last=Nuwer |title=A 20-Year Low in U.S. Carbon Emissions |url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/17/a-20-year-low-in-u-s-carbon-emissions/ |date=August 17, 2012
  28. ^ "Leader's statement on the Pittsburgh summit". The White House. 2013-04-01. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  29. ^ "Remarks by the President at G20 Closing Press Conference". The White House. 2009-09-25. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  30. ^ http://www.whitehouse.gov/files/documents/g20/Pittsburgh_Fact_Sheet_Energy_Security.pdf
  31. ^ Wealthy Nations' Fossil Fuel Subsidies Are Five Times Greater Than Climate Aid. YouTube. 4 December 2012.
  32. ^ https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/11/17/in-a-major-step-on-the-road-to-paris-rich-countries-agree-to-slash-export-subsidies-for-coal-plants/
  33. ^ Australian Options Magazine, CFMEU on coal phase out
  34. ^ Ontario's Coal Phase-out Will Have Drastic Consequences, Say The Thinking Companies. February 16, 2005
  35. ^ "Ont. Liberals promise to close coal plants by 2014". CTV News. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  36. ^ Ontario Power Authority, Long-Term Energy Plan 2013, module 3, 2014.
  37. ^ http://www.opg.com/news-and-media/news-releases/Documents/140415TBGSBurnsLastCoal.pdf
  38. ^ http://www.platts.com/latest-news/electric-power/singapore/chinas-beijing-city-to-abolish-coal-fired-power-27490804
  39. ^ "PRIS - Country Details". Iaea.org. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
  40. ^ [2]
  41. ^ http://powermin.nic.in/indian_electricity_scenario/pdf/Annual_Report_2008-09_English.pdf
  42. ^ a b "Germany to shut down coal mines in 2018". Forbes. January 30, 2007. Archived from the original on October 24, 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ a b "End of an Industrial Era: Germany to Close its Coal Mines". Spiegel Online. 2007-01-30. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  44. ^ a b "German plan to close coal mines". BBC News. January 29, 2007. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
  45. ^ a b Gonzalez, David. "The New York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  46. ^ a b "The World From Berlin: Good Riddance to Coal Mining". Spiegel Online. 2007-01-30. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  47. ^ http://www.dw.com/en/germany-stays-firm-on-plan-to-scrap-coal-subsidies-in-2018/a-6243150
  48. ^ www.kenovate.com. "Germany targets 47% Renewable Energy Production by 2020". Rncos.com. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  49. ^ http://energytransition.de/2015/10/the-demise-of-coal-in-germany-and-globally/
  50. ^ http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/Energy-economics/statistical-review-2015/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2015-coal-section.pdf
  51. ^ "New Zealand issues ten-year ban on new thermal power plants". Power-Gen Worldwide. PennWell Corporation. 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2011-01-07.
  52. ^ http://www.sciencealert.com. 10 August 2015: New Zealand will shut down its last large coal-fired power generators in 2018.
  53. ^ Market release: GNE announces timetable to end coal-fired generation in New Zealand
  54. ^ http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071114163448.htm
  55. ^ http://www.dme.gov.za/energy/coal.stm
  56. ^ Webster, Ben (April 6, 2010). "Britain may block World Bank loan for coal plant in South Africa". The Times. London. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
  57. ^ Vidal, John (April 23, 2009). "Clean coal push marks reversal of UK energy policy". The Guardian. London.
  58. ^ "Huhne promises no more coal plants without CCS". BusinessGreen. 17 Aug 2010. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  59. ^ "Large Combustion Plant Directive « Industrial emissions". Defra.gov.uk. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  60. ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/12001752/UK-coal-plants-must-close-by-2025-Amber-Rudd-to-announce.html
  61. ^ "Electric Power Annual (Section 3.1A and 4.1)". US Energy Information Administration. November 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2023.
  62. ^ Eco Concern: Coal Plant Boom
  63. ^ Keith Johnson in Washington, Rebecca Smith in San Francisco and Kris Maher in Pittsburgh (28 March 2012). "EPA Proposes CO - WSJ". WSJ.
  64. ^ Ernest Moritz, Excerpts of Energy Secretary Ernest Moniz’s Remarks at National Energy Technology Laboratory in Morgantown, US Department of Energy, 29 July 2013.
  65. ^ April Lee and others, Opportunities for synergy between natural gas and renewable energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Dec. 2012.
  66. ^ John Funk, DOE boss says shale gas could benefit wind and solar, Cleveland Plain Dealer, 18 Jan. 2012.
  67. ^ US EIA, Natural gas-fired combustion turbines are generally used to meet peak electricity load, 1 Oct. 2013.
  68. ^ "SB 1368 Emission Performance Standards". Energy.ca.gov. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  69. ^ "California Takes on Power Plant Emissions: SB 1368 Sets Groundbreaking Greenhouse Gas Performance Standard," Natural Resources Defense Council Fact Sheet, August 2007.
  70. ^ Rhonda Erskine, "Maine Governor Baldacci Signs Bill to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions," WCSH WCSH6.com, April 15, 2008
  71. ^ Oregon lawmakers approve far-reaching climate change bill
  72. ^ "Stop the Coal Rush" Rally & Lobby Day Set for February 11 & 12", Sierra Club Lone Star Chapter.
  73. ^ "StopTheCoalRush - Hot Rush in Marketing". stopthecoalrush.com.]
  74. ^ Text of HCR 43
  75. ^ "Texas Legislature Online - 80(R) History for HCR 43". state.tx.us.
  76. ^ Rep. Anderson press release, December 4, 2007.
  77. ^ a b Christina Russell, "Wallula Coal Plant Proposal Controversial Among Students, Faculty," Whitman College Pioneer, 11/15/07
  78. ^ "Progress Energy Carolinas Customer Service Phone Number, Reviews". Customerservicenumbers.com. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  79. ^ "Progress Energy Carolinas sets goal of doubling efficiency savings to 2,000 MW," Progress Energy Inc press release, June 1, 2007.
  80. ^ "Public Service Company of Colorado". Rmao.com. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  81. ^ a b c d "Don't Get Burned: The Risks of Investing in New Coal-Fired Generating Facilities," Synapse Energy Economics, 2008, p. 11 (PDF file)
  82. ^ "Minnesota Power, an ALLETE Company - Home". Mnpower.com. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  83. ^ "Welcome to Avista". avistautilities.com.
  84. ^ "Home". northwesternenergy.com.
  85. ^ "NorthWestern Energy Plans For More Wind; Says New Coal is Too Risky," Renewable Northwest Project, 12/17/07.
  86. ^ "EERE News: Georgia Power Wins Approval to Switch Coal Plant to Biomass Power". energy.gov.
  87. ^ Opinion Research Corporation, A Post Fossil-Fuel America, Executive Summary, National Opinion Survey Produced for Citizens Lead for Energy Action Now (CLEAN), A Project of the Civil Society Institute, October 18, 2007
  88. ^ Opinion Research Corporation, A Post Fossil-Fuel America, National Opinion Survey Produced for Citizens Lead for Energy Action Now (CLEAN), A Project of the Civil Society Institute, page 18, October 18, 2007
  89. ^ Gallup, Americans want more emphasis on solar, wind, natural gas, 27 Mar. 2013.
  90. ^ ABC News/Washington Post, Energy policy has initial support, 28 August 2009.
  91. ^ CLEAN press release, October 18, 2007.
  92. ^ EDF, Natural gas policy, accessed 4 Oct. 2013.
  93. ^ EDF, Why natural gas is important, accessed 4 Oct. 2013.
  94. ^ Larry Bernstein, Environmental Defense Fund scolded by other green organizations on ‘fracking’, Washington Post, 22 May 2013.
  95. ^ Mark Brownstein, Why EDF is working on natural gas, 10 Sept. 2012
  96. ^ "Solutions: Get Off Coal; Invest in Renewable Energy". 1sky.org.
  97. ^ http://www.coopamerica.org/programs/climate/dirtyenergy/coal/index.cfm
  98. ^ http://kansas.sierraclub.org/Wind/Coal%20Moratorium.htm
  99. ^ Citizens
  100. ^ http://ran.org/what_we_do/global_finance/spotlight/coal_is_over/
  101. ^ "Rising Tide - Your Eyes on Climate Change". risingtide.org.au.
  102. ^ "Sierra Club Home Page: Explore, Enjoy, and Protect the Planet". Sierra Club.
  103. ^ "Six Degrees - Coal and Climate Change". sixdegrees.org.au.
  104. ^ http://stepitup2007.org/article.php?id=469
  105. ^ "Moratorium on Coal Financing," accessed April 2008.
  106. ^ Nobel Lecture, Oslo, December 10, 2007
  107. ^ Economics of Coal in IA: Investor Sees Poor Future for Coal. YouTube. 22 January 2008.
  108. ^ "Google CEO ERic Schmidt offers energy plan," San Jose Mercury News, 9/9/08
  109. ^ "E. Idaho Mayor Doesn't Want Coal-Fired Plant in State," Associated Press, 10/14/07.
  110. ^ Letter from Dana Wilson to Warren Buffett, June 1, 2007.
  111. ^ "Event Report: Step It Up SLC," 11/3/07.
  112. ^ Mayor Dave Norris (2007-12-14). "Clean Energy for Cville & Beyond". CvilleDave. Retrieved January 2008. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  113. ^ "Board calls for coal plant moratorium," The Waterloo-Cedar Falls Courier, 1/16/08.
  114. ^ http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low1.pdf page27
  115. ^ Historical Data Workbook (2013 calendar year)
  116. ^ http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low_nolinks.pdf page 27
  117. ^ Terra-Gen Press Release, 17 April 2012
  118. ^ FG Forrest; a. s.; fg {zavináč } fg {tečka} cz - Content Management System - Edee CMS; SYMBIO Digital, s. r. o. - Webdesign. "CEZ Group - The Largest Wind Farm in Europe Goes Into Trial Operation". cez.cz.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  119. ^ Denmark breaks its own world record in wind energy
  120. ^ http://energinet.dk/EN/El/Nyheder/Sider/Dansk-vindstroem-slaar-igen-rekord-42-procent.aspx
  121. ^ Wittrup, Sanne. "Dong: Vores kraftværker bruger allerede billig vindmøllestrøm i elpatroner" Ingeniøren, 15 January 2015. Retrieved: January 2015.
  122. ^ Blarke, Morten Boje. "Liste over el-drevne varmepumper i fjernvarmen" SmartVarme.dk, 12 February 2014. Retrieved: January 2015.
  123. ^ Capion, Karsten. "Analyse nr. 9 - Mulighederne for den fremtidige fjernvarmeproduktion i decentrale områder" Danish Energy, 15 January 2014. Retrieved: 15 January 2015.
  124. ^ Blarke, Morten Boje. "Store eldrevne varmepumper" Aalborg University, 17 April 2013. Retrieved: January 2015.
  125. ^ http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low_nolinks.pdf pg 27 & 28
  126. ^ "Gujarat's 214MW solar park named as Asia's largest single PV plant". PV Tech. 23 April 2012. Retrieved Apr 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  127. ^ "Site plan of Charanka Solar Park, Gujarat, India". Wiki-Solar. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  128. ^ Asia's largest solar field 'Gujarat Solar Park' switched on in India
  129. ^ "Website". gujaratsolarpark.com.
  130. ^ "State Load Despatch Centre (SLDC)". sldcguj.com.
  131. ^ "China". chinadaily.com.cn.
  132. ^ "DOE Closes on Four Major Solar Projects". Renewable Energy World. 30 September 2011.
  133. ^ Steve Leone (7 December 2011). "Billionaire Buffett Bets on Solar Energy". Renewable Energy World.
  134. ^ "NRG Energy Completes Acquisition of 250-Megawatt California Valley Solar Ranch from SunPower". MarketWatch. 30 September 2011.
  135. ^ "Exelon purchases 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch One from First Solar". Solar Server. 4 October 2011.
  136. ^ Edwin Cartlidge (18 November 2011). "Saving for a rainy day". Science (Vol 334). pp. 922–924. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  137. ^ Martin and Goswami (2005), p. 45
  138. ^ Leighty and Holbrook (2012) "Running the World on Renewables: Alternatives for Transmission and Low-cost Firming Storage of Stranded Renewables as Hydrogen and Ammonia Fuels via Underground Pipelines" Proceedings of the ASME 2012 International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition November 9–15, 2012, Houston, Texas
  139. ^ Graves, Christopher; Ebbesen, Sune D.; Mogensen, Mogens; Lackner, Klaus S. (2011). "Sustainable hydrocarbon fuels by recycling CO2 and H2O with renewable or nuclear energy". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 15 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.07.014. (Review.)
  140. ^ Holte, Laura L. (2010). Sustainable Transportation Fuels From Off-peak Wind Energy, CO2 and Water (PDF). 4th International Conference on Energy Sustainability, May 17–22, 2010. Phoenix, Arizona: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Retrieved September 7, 2012. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  141. ^ "First Commercial Plant". Carbon Recycling International. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
  142. ^ "George Olah CO2 to Renewable Methanol Plant, Reykjanes, Iceland" (Chemicals-Technology.com)
  143. ^ "First Commercial Plant" (Carbon Recycling International)
  144. ^ a b Center for Solar Energy; Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg (2011). "Verbundprojekt 'Power-to-Gas'" (in German). zsw-bw.de. Retrieved September 9, 2012. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  145. ^ a b Center for Solar Energy; Hydrogen Research (July 24, 2012). "Bundesumweltminister Altmaier und Ministerpräsident Kretschmann zeigen sich beeindruckt von Power-to-Gas-Anlage des ZSW" (in German). zsw-bw.de. Retrieved September 9, 2012. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  146. ^ Okulski, Travis (June 26, 2012). "Audi's Carbon Neutral E-Gas Is Real And They're Actually Making It". Jalopnik (Gawker Media). Retrieved 29 July 2013.
  147. ^ Rousseau, Steve (June 25, 2013). "Audi's New E-Gas Plant Will Make Carbon-Neutral Fuel". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 29 July 2013.
  148. ^ "Doty Windfuels". Windfuels.com. Retrieved 2012-11-01.
  149. ^ "CoolPlanet Energy Systems". Coolplanetbiofuels.com. 2012-10-24. Retrieved 2012-11-01.
  150. ^ "Air Fuel Synthesis, Ltd". Airfuelsynthesis.com. Retrieved 2012-11-01.
  151. ^ Lackner, Klaus S.; Matter, J. M.; Park, A.-H. A.; Wright, A.; Van Der Zwaan, B.; et al. (2012). "The urgency of the development of CO2 capture from ambient air". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (33): 13156–62. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10913156L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1108765109. PMID 22843674. Retrieved September 7, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Missing |author2= (help)
  152. ^ Eisaman, Matthew D.; et al. (2012). "CO2 extraction from seawater using bipolar membrane electrodialysis" (PDF). Energy and Environmental Science. 5 (6): 7346–52. doi:10.1039/C2EE03393C. Retrieved July 6, 2013.
  153. ^ Goeppert, Alain; Czaun, Miklos; Prakash, G.K. Surya; Olah, George A. (2012). "Air as the renewable carbon source of the future: an overview of CO2 capture from the atmosphere". Energy and Environmental Science. 5 (7): 7833–53. doi:10.1039/C2EE21586A. Retrieved September 7, 2012. (Review.)
  154. ^ Ted, Jones. "Energy Storage Via Carbon-Neutral Fuels Made From CO 2 , Water, and Renewable Energy". Critical Systems Inc. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  155. ^ Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft (May 5, 2010). "Storing green electricity as natural gas". fraunhofer.de. Retrieved September 9, 2012. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  156. ^ The Royal Society (January 2008). Sustainable biofuels: prospects and challenges, ISBN 978-0-85403-662-2, p. 61.
  157. ^ Gordon Quaiattini. Biofuels are part of the solution Canada.com, April 25, 2008. Retrieved December 23, 2009.
  158. ^ Biomass Energy Center. Biomassenergycentre.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
  159. ^ Eartha Jane Melzer (January 26, 2010). "Proposed biomass plant: Better than coal?". The Michigan Messenger. Archived from the original on May 14, 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  160. ^ Zhang, J.; Smith, K. R. (2007). "Household Air Pollution from Coal and Biomass Fuels in China: Measurements, Health Impacts, and Interventions". Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (6): 848–855. doi:10.1289/ehp.9479. PMC 1892127. PMID 17589590.
  161. ^ "Announcement". Archives of Virology. 130: 225. 1993. doi:10.1007/BF01319012.
  162. ^ Springsteen, Bruce; Christofk, Tom; Eubanks, Steve; Mason, Tad; Clavin, Chris; Storey, Brett (2011). "Emission Reductions from Woody Biomass Waste for Energy as an Alternative to Open Burning". Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 61 (1): 63–68. doi:10.3155/1047-3289.61.1.63.
  163. ^ 2009 State Of The World, Into a Warming World, Worldwatch Institute, 56–57, ISBN 978-0-393-33418-0
  164. ^ Gustafsson, O.; Krusa, M.; Zencak, Z.; Sheesley, R. J.; Granat, L.; Engstrom, E.; Praveen, P. S.; Rao, P. S. P.; et al. (2009). "Brown Clouds over South Asia: Biomass or Fossil Fuel Combustion?". Science. 323 (5913): 495–8. Bibcode:2009Sci...323..495G. doi:10.1126/science.1164857. PMID 19164746.
  165. ^ Klimaråd: Affaldsimport vil belaste dansk CO2-regnskab 27 November 2015.
  166. ^ Danish energy statistics, 2014 page 5 and 12
  167. ^ "Beyond Coal". sierraclub.org.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuel_phase-out&oldid=722977966"