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Coordinates: 8°30′N 11°30′W / 8.500°N 11.500°W / 8.500; -11.500
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{{EngvarB|date=October 2015}}
{{about|the country}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Coord|23|S|58|W|display=title}}
{{Coord|8|30|N|11|30|W|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
|coordinates = {{Coord|8|29.067|N|13|14.067|W|type:city}}
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Paraguay
|languages_type = Spoken languages
|native_name = {{unbulleted list|item_style=font-size:88%; |{{native name|es|República del Paraguay}} |{{native name|gn|Tetã Paraguái}}}}
|leader_name2 = {{nowrap|[[Victor Bockarie Foh]] {{small|(APC)}}}}
|common_name = Paraguay
|leader_name3 = {{nowrap|[[Sheku Badara Bashiru Dumbuya|S.B.B. Dumbuya]] {{small|(APC)}}}}
|image_flag = Flag of Paraguay.svg
|leader_name4 = [[Abdulai Hamid Charm]]
|flag_caption = Flag (obverse)
|conventional_long_name = Yes
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Paraguay.svg
|image_flag = World map.svg
|symbol_type = {{nowrap|[[Coat of arms of Paraguay|Coat of arms]]{{tsp}}{{#tag:ref |The reverse side of the Coat of arms of Paraguay:<br/><center>[[File:Coat of arms of Paraguay (reverse).svg|100px]]</center> |group="nb"}}<!--(end nowrap:)-->}}
|image_coat = Penis.svg
|image_map = Paraguay (orthographic projection).svg
|common_name =Sierra Leone
|national_motto = {{native phrase|es|"Paz y justicia"|italics=off|nolink=on}}<br/>{{small|"Peace and justice"}}
|symbol_type = Coat of arms
|national_anthem = <br/>{{native name|es|[[Paraguayos, República o Muerte]]|nolink=on}}<br/>{{small|''Paraguayans, Republic or Death''}}<br /><center>[[File:Paraguay National Anthem.ogg]]</center>
|national_motto = "Big weenie"
|languages_type = [[Official language]]s<ref name=languages>{{cite journal |url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/pa00000_.html#A140_ |title=Paraguay – Constitution, Article 140 About Languages |publisher=International Constitutional Law Project |accessdate=3 December 2007 }} (see [http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/pa__indx.html translator's note])</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf |title=8 LIZCANO |publisher=Convergencia.uaemex.mx |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref>
|national_anthem = ''[[Ooga booga look at the cripple fat man]]''<br/><center>[[File:National Anthem of Sierra Leone by US Navy Band.ogg]]</center>
|official_languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Paraguayan Spanish|Spanish]] |[[Guarani language|Guarani]]}}
|image_map = Location Sierra Leone AU Goat.svg
|demonym = Paraguayan
|map_caption = {{map caption |countryprefix= |location_color=dark blue |region=Africa |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[African Union]] |subregion_color=light blue |legend=Location Sierra Leone AU Africa.svg}}
|image_map2 = Sierra Leone - Location Map (2012) - SLE - UNOCHA.svg
|capital = [[Freetown]]
|largest_city = capital
|official_languages =[[English language|English]]<ref name=":0"/>
|languages = {{hlist |[[Temne language|Temne]] |[[Mende language|Mende]] |[[Krio language|Krio]]}}
|ethnic_groups =
|ethnic_groups =
{{unbulleted list
{{unbulleted list
| 95% [[mestizo]]
|35% [[Temne people|Temne]]
|31% [[Mende people|Mende]]
| 5% other
|8% [[Limba people (Sierra Leone)|Limba]]
|5% [[Kono people|Kono]]
|2% [[Sierra Leone Creole people|Krio (Creole)]]
|2% [[Mandingo people of Sierra Leone|Mandingo]]
|2% [[Loko people|Loko]]
|15% others
}}
}}
|ethnic_groups_year = 2008
|ethnic_groups_year = 2016<ref name=CIA>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |title=Paraguay |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |location=Langley, Virginia |year=2016 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pa.html |accessdate=January 1, 2017}}</ref>
|demonym = Sierra Leonean
|capital = [[Asunción]]
|coordinates = {{Coord|25|16|S|57|40|W|type:city}}
|largest_city = Asunción
|government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[constitutional republic]]
|government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[constitutional republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Paraguay|President]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Sierra Leone|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Horacio Cartes]]
|leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Ernest Bai Koroma]] {{small|([[All People's Congress|APC]])}}}}
|leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Paraguay|Vice President]]
|leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Sierra Leone|Vice-President]]
|leader_title3 = [[Speaker of the House of Parliament of Sierra Leone|Speaker of Parliament]]
|leader_name2 = [[Juan Afara]]
|leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice]]
|leader_title3 =
|legislature = [[Parliament of Sierra Leone|Parliament]]
|leader_name3 =
|established_event1 = from the [[United Kingdom]]
|legislature = [[Congress of Paraguay|Congress]]
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|upper_house = [[Senate of Paraguay|Chamber of Senators]]
|established_event2 = Republic declared
|lower_house = [[Chamber of Deputies of Paraguay|Chamber of Deputies]]
|established_date1 = 27 April 1961
|area_rank = 60th
|established_date2 = 19 April 1971
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area_km2 = 406752
|area_km2 = 71,840
|area_rank = 119th
|percent_water = 2.3
|area_sq_mi = 27,699
|population_estimate = 6,783,272<ref name=CIA/>
|percent_water = 1.1
|population_estimate_rank = 104th
|population_estimate =
|population_estimate_year = 2015
|population_census = 7,075,641<ref name=Stat.sl>[http://www.statistics.sl/2004_pop._&_hou._census_analytical_reports/2004_population_and_housing_census_report_on_projection_for_sierra_leone.pdf Official projection (medium variant) for the year 2013 based on the population and housing census held in Sierra Leone on 4 December 2004]. statistics.sl. page 13.</ref>
|population_census = |population_census_year =
|population_estimate_year =
|population_density_km2 = 17.2
|population_census_year = 2015
|population_density_sq_mi = 39 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|population_density_km2 = 79.4
|population_density_rank = 204th
|population_density_rank = 114th<sup>a</sup>
|GDP_PPP = $68.005 billion<ref name=imf2>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=86&pr1.y=10&c=288&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= Paraguay]. International Monetary Fund</ref>
|population_density_sq_mi = 205.6
|GDP_PPP_rank = 100th
|GDP_PPP = $11.551&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=61&pr.y=12&sy=2017&ey=2022&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=614%2C668%2C638%2C674%2C616%2C676%2C748%2C678%2C618%2C684%2C624%2C688%2C622%2C728%2C626%2C692%2C628%2C694%2C632%2C714%2C636%2C716%2C634%2C722%2C662%2C718%2C642%2C724%2C643%2C199%2C644%2C733%2C646%2C734%2C648%2C738%2C652%2C742%2C656%2C746%2C654%2C754%2C664%2C698%2C666&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=#cs149 |title=Sierra Leone |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=18 April 2013}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_year = 2017
|GDP_PPP_year = 2017
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $9,779<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,760<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 107th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $4.088&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2017
|GDP_nominal_year = 2017
|GDP_nominal = $28.743 billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $623<ref name=imf2/>
|Gini = 35.4 <!--number only-->
|GDP_nominal_rank = 99th
|Gini_year = 2011
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,133<ref name=imf2/>
|Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 109th
|Gini_ref =<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=2 March 2011}}</ref>
|sovereignty_type = Independence {{nobold|from [[Spain]]}}
|established_event1 = Declared
|established_date1 = 14 May 1811
|established_event2 = Recognized
|established_date2 = 25 November 1842
|Gini_year = 2014
|Gini_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|Gini = 51.7 <!--number only-->
|Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=PY |title=Gini Index |publisher=[[World Bank]] |accessdate=9 November 2016}}</ref>
|Gini_rank =
|Gini_rank =
|HDI = 0.420 <!--number only-->
|HDI_year = 2015<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
|HDI_year = 2015<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
|HDI_change = steady<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|HDI_ref =<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf|title=2016 Human Development Report|year=2016|accessdate=21 March 2017|publisher=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref>
|HDI = 0.693 <!--number only-->
|HDI_rank = 179th
|HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf |title=2016 Human Development Report |year=2016 |accessdate=25 March 2017 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref>
|currency = [[Sierra Leonean leone|Leone]]
|HDI_rank = 110th
|currency_code = SLL
|currency = [[Paraguayan guaraní|Guaraní]]
|time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]
|currency_code = PYG
|country_code = PRY
|utc_offset = +0
|utc_offset_DST =
|time_zone = [[UTC–4|PYT]]
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset = –4
|drives_on = right<sup>b</sup>
|time_zone_DST = [[Daylight saving time in Paraguay|PYST]]
|calling_code = [[+232]]
|utc_offset_DST = –3
|cctld = [[.sl]]
|drives_on = right
|footnote_a = Rank based on 2007 figures.
|calling_code = [[+595]]
|footnote_b = Since 1 March 1971.
|cctld = [[.py]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|footnote_a = Mixed European and [[Amerindian]].
|country_code =
}}
}}


'''Sierra Leone''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Sierra Leone.ogg|s|iː|ˈ|ɛər|ə|_|l|iː|ˈ|oʊ|n|iː|,_|-|l|iː|ˈ|oʊ|n}}),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Sierra+Leone?s=t|title=Sierra Leone|publisher=[[Dictionary.com]]|year=2012|accessdate=18 June 2012}}</ref> officially the '''Republic of Sierra Leone''', is a [[country]] in [[West Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Guinea]] to the north-east, [[Liberia]] to the south-east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the south-west. Sierra Leone has a [[tropical climate]], with a diverse environment ranging from [[savannah]] to [[rainforests]]. The country has a total area of {{convert|71740|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="Sierra Leone">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563681/Sierra_Leone.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228134322/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563681/Sierra_Leone.html|archivedate=28 February 2008|title=Sierra Leone|author=Encarta Encyclopedia|accessdate=19 February 2008|deadurl=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and a population of 7,075,641 (based on 2015 national census).<ref name=Stat.sl>[http://www.statistics.sl/2004_pop._&_hou._census_analytical_reports/2004_population_and_housing_census_report_on_projection_for_sierra_leone.pdf Official projection (medium variant) for the year 2013 based on the population and housing census held in Sierra Leone on 4 December 2004]. statistics.sl. page 13.</ref> It is a constitutional [[republic]] with a [[directly elected]] president and a [[unicameral]] legislature.
'''Paraguay''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ær|ə|ɡ|w|aɪ}}; {{IPA-es|paɾaˈɣwaj}}; {{lang-gn|Paraguái}}, {{IPA-gn|paɾaˈɰwai|}}), officially the '''Republic of Paraguay''' ({{lang-es|República del Paraguay|links=no}}<!--{{IPA-es|reˈpuβlika ðel paɾaˈɣwai̯|}}-->; {{lang-gn|Tetã Paraguái|links=no}}<!--{{IPA-gn|teˈtã paɾaˈɣwaj|}}-->), is a [[landlocked country]] in central [[South America]], bordered by [[Argentina]] to the south and southwest, [[Brazil]] to the east and northeast, and [[Bolivia]] to the northwest. Paraguay lies on both banks of the [[Paraguay River]], which runs through the center of the country from north to south. Due to its central location in South America, it is sometimes referred to as ''Corazón de Sudamérica'' ("Heart of South America").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.com.py/edicion-impresa/locales/en-el-corazon-de-sudamerica-1220500.html |title=En el corazón de Sudamérica |publisher=ABC|accessdate=12 December 2015}}</ref> Paraguay is one of the two landlocked countries (the other is [[Bolivia]]) outside [[Afro-Eurasia]], and is the smallest<ref>{{cite journal|author=Schenoni, Luis |year=2017|title=Subsystemic Unipolarities?|journal=Strategic Analysis|volume= 41|issue=1|pages=74–86 |doi=10.1080/09700161.2016.1249179|url=https://www.academia.edu/30528886/_Subsystemic_Unipolarities_Power_Distribution_and_State_Behaviour_in_South_America_and_Southern_Africa_in_Strategic_Analysis_41_1_74-86}}</ref> [[landlocked country]] in the [[Americas]].


Sierra Leone is made up of four administrative regions: the [[Northern Province, Sierra Leone|Northern Province]], [[Eastern Province, Sierra Leone|Eastern Province]], [[Southern Province, Sierra Leone|Southern Province]] and the [[Western Area]], which are subdivided into [[Districts of Sierra Leone|fourteen districts]]. Each district has its own [[directly elected]] [[local government]], though with [[Limited government|limited power]], as most of the power are held by the [[central government]] in Freetown. [[Freetown]] (population 1,050,301), located in the [[Western Area]], is Sierra Leone's [[capital city|capital]], largest city and its economic centre. [[Kenema]] (population 200,354) is Sierra Leone second largest city, and is about 200 miles from Freetown, in the Eastern province of the country, Other major cities in Sierra Leone are [[Bo, Sierra Leone|Bo]], [[Koidu|Koidu Town]] and [[Makeni]].
The [[indigenous people|indigenous]] [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]] had been living in Paraguay for at least a millennium before the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] conquered the territory in the 16th century. Spanish settlers and [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Reductions|missions]] introduced [[Christianity]] and Spanish culture to the region. Paraguay was a peripheral colony of the [[Spanish Empire]], with few urban centers and settlers. Following [[Independence of Paraguay|independence]] from Spain in 1811, Paraguay was ruled by a series of dictators who generally implemented [[isolationism|isolationist]] and [[protectionism|protectionist]] policies.


Sierra Leone became independent from the [[United Kingdom]] on 27 April 1961 led by [[Sir]] [[Milton Margai]]. The current constitution of Sierra Leone was adopted in 1991, though it has been [[amended]] several times. Since independence to present, Sierra Leonean politics has been dominated by two major political parties; the [[Sierra Leone People's Party]] (SLPP) and the [[All People's Congress]] (APC).
Following the disastrous [[Paraguayan War]] (1864–1870), the country lost 60 to 70 percent of its population through war and disease, and about {{convert|140000|sqkm|sqmi|-3|sp=us}}, one quarter of its territory, to Argentina and Brazil.


From 1991 to 2002, the [[Sierra Leone civil war]] was fought and devastated the country. The proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the country's infrastructure destroyed, and over two million Sierra Leoneans displaced as [[refugees]] in neighbouring countries. In January 2002, then Sierra Leone's president [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]], fulfilled his campaign promise by ending the civil war, with help by the [[British Government]], [[ECOWAS]] and the [[United Nations]]. More recently, the [[2014 Ebola outbreak]] overburdened the weak healthcare infrastructure, leading to more deaths from medical neglect than Ebola itself. It created a [[humanitarian crisis]] situation and heavily impacted economic growth. The country has an extremely low [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] relative to other countries, at 57.8 years.<ref name=":0" />
Through the 20th century, Paraguay continued to endure a succession of [[authoritarian]] governments, culminating in the regime of [[Alfredo Stroessner]], who led South America's longest-lived [[military dictatorship]] from 1954 to 1989. He was toppled in an internal military coup, and free [[multi-party system|multi-party]] elections (and the legalization of [[Paraguayan Communist Party|communist parties]]) were organized and held for the first time in 1993. A year later, Paraguay joined Argentina, Brazil and [[Uruguay]] to found [[Mercosur]], a regional economic collaborative.


About sixteen ethnic groups inhabit Sierra Leone, each with its own language and customs. The two largest and most influential are the [[Temne people|Temne]] and the [[Mende people]]. The Temne are predominantly found in the north of the country, while the Mende are predominant in the southeast. Sierra Leone has a significant minority of the [[Krio people]], who are descendants of freed [[African American]] and [[West Indian]] slaves.
{{As of|2009}}, Paraguay's population was estimated to be at around 6.5 million, most of whom are concentrated in the southeast region of the country. The capital and largest city is [[Asunción]], whose metropolitan area is home to nearly a third of Paraguay's population. In contrast to most Latin American nations, Paraguay's indigenous language and culture, Guaraní, remains highly influential. In each census, residents predominantly identify as [[mestizo]], reflecting years of intermarriage among the different ethnic groups. [[Guarani language|Guaraní]] is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish, and both languages are widely spoken in the country.


Although English is the [[official language]] spoken at schools and government administration, the [[Krio language]], an [[English-based creole]], is the most widely spoken language across Sierra Leone and is spoken by 97% of the country's population. The Krio language unites all the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and social interaction with each other.
==Etymology==
There is no consensus regarding the derivation or meaning of the name ''Paraguay,'' although many versions are similar. The most common interpretations include:


Sierra Leone is a [[Muslim]] majority country, with the overall Muslim population at 78% of the population,<ref name="r1">[http://oluseguntoday.wordpress.com/2009/10/13/71-of-sierra-leoneans-are-muslims/ 71% of Sierra Leoneans are Muslims « Oluseguntoday's Blog]. Oluseguntoday.wordpress.com (13 October 2009). Retrieved on 15 August 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.rtbot.net/Islam_in_Sierra_Leone Islam In Sierra Leone: Information, Videos, Pictures and News]. Rtbot.net. Retrieved on 15 August 2012.</ref><ref>[http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/printer_200520080.shtml "Sama Banya wants Awareness Times to call Tom Nyuma a Buffoon"], News.sl (18 April 2012). Retrieved on 15 August 2012.</ref> though there is an influential [[Christian]] minority at about 21%.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title = The World Factbook|url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sl.html|website = www.cia.gov|accessdate = 7 October 2015}}</ref> Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the most religiously tolerant nations in the world. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other very peacefully. [[Religious violence]] is very rare in the country. The major Muslim holidays of [[Eid al fitr]] (end of [[Ramadan]]), [[Eid Al Adha]], and [[Mawlid|Mawlid Al Nabi]] (commemorate the birth of the Islamic [[Prophet Muhammad]]) are officially celebrated as [[national holiday]]s in Sierra Leone. The major Christian holidays of [[Christmas]], [[Easter]], [[Boxing Day]] and [[Good Friday]] are also officially celebrated as national holidays in Sierra Leone. In politics, the overwhelming majority of Sierra Leoneans vote for a candidate without regard to whether the candidate is a Muslim or a Christian.<ref>{{cite news|title=All things happily to all men|url=http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21603015-sierra-leone-bucks-west-african-trend-celebrating-its-religious-tolerance-all|work=The Economist|date=31 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |type=Ph.D. |last=Batty|first=Fodei J.|date=2010 |title=What Role for Ethnicity? Political Behavior and Mobilization in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone and Liberia |publisher=Western Michigan University|url=http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1503&context=dissertations}}</ref>
# "Born from water" (derived from ''para'' "water" and ''guay'' "born" from the [[Guarani language]])<ref>{{OEtymD|Paraguay}}</ref>


Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially [[diamonds]], for its economic base. It is also among the largest producers of [[titanium]] and [[bauxite]], a major producer of [[gold]] and has one of the world's largest deposits of [[rutile]]. Sierra Leone is home to the third-largest natural harbour in the world. Despite exploitation of this natural wealth, 70% of its population live in [[poverty]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/sierra_leone/population_below_poverty_line.html |title=Sierra Leone Population below poverty line – Economy |publisher=Indexmundi.com |date=9 January 2012 |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>
# "Riverine of many varieties" (also derived from Guarani, from ''para' "of many varieties" and ''gua'' "riverine"){{who|date=January 2016}}
# "River which originates a sea"{{who|date=April 2013}}
# ''[[Friar|Fray]]'' [[Antonio Ruiz de Montoya]] (1585–1652) said that it meant "river crowned."
# The Spanish officer and scientist [[Félix de Azara]] (1746–1821) suggests two derivations: the [[Payaguá people|Payaguas]] (Payaguá-ý", or "river of Payaguás"), referring to the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] tribe who lived along the river, or a great chief named ''"Paraguaio."''
# The French-Argentine historian and writer [[Paul Groussac]] (1848–1929) argued that it meant "river that flows through the sea (''Pantanal'')."
# Paraguayan poet and ex-president [[Juan Natalicio González]] (1897–1966) said it meant "river of the inhabitants of the sea."


Sierra Leone is a member of many international organisations, including the [[United Nations]], the [[African Union]], the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), the [[Mano River Union]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[African Development Bank]] and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].
==History==
{{Main article|History of Paraguay}}


=== Pre-Columbian Era ===
== History ==
{{Main article|History of Sierra Leone}}
[[Indigenous peoples in Paraguay|Indigenous peoples]] have inhabited this area for thousands of years. Pre-Columbian society, in the region which is now Paraguay, consisted of semi-nomadic tribes which were known for their warrior traditions. These indigenous tribes belonged to five distinct language families, which were the bases of their major divisions. Differing language speaking groups were generally competitive over resources and territories. They were further divided into tribes by speaking languages in branches of these families. Today 17 separate [[Ethnolinguistics|ethnolinguistic]] groups remain.


=== Colonization ===
=== Early history ===
[[File:Prehistoric pottery shards, Sierra Leone.jpg|thumb|Fragments of [[prehistoric]] [[pottery]] from [[Kamabai]] Rock Shelter]]
The first Europeans in the area were Spanish explorers in 1516.<ref name=eec>Sacks, Richard S. "Early explorers and conquistadors". In Hanratty & Meditz.</ref> The Spanish explorer [[Juan de Salazar de Espinosa]] founded the settlement of [[Asunción]] on 15 August 1537. The city eventually became the center of a [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonial province of Paraguay]].
[[File:slaves sierra leone.jpg|thumb|An 1835 illustration of liberated Africans arriving in Sierra Leone.]]
[[File:Freetown2.jpg|thumb|The colony of Freetown in 1856]]
[[File:Houses at Sierra-Leone (May 1853, X, p.55) - Copy.jpg|thumb|Houses at Sierra-Leone (May 1853, X, p.55)<ref name="Juvenile1853">{{cite journal|title=Houses at Sierra-Leone|journal=The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering: A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons|date=May 1853|volume=X|page=55|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil19socigoog|accessdate=29 February 2016|publisher=Wesleyan Missionary Society}}</ref>]]


Archaeological finds show that Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years,<ref name="Culture of Sierra Leone">{{cite web|url=http://www.everyculture.com/Sa-Th/Sierra-Leone.html|title=Culture of Sierra Leone|author=Countries and Their Cultures|accessdate=22 February 2008}}</ref> populated successively by societies who migrated from other parts of Africa.<ref name="Sierra Leone History">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-55344/Sierra-Leone|title=Sierra Leone History|author=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=19 February 2008}}</ref> The people adopted the use of iron by the 9th century and by 1000 AD agriculture was being practised along the coast.<ref name="Sierra Leone - History">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Sierra-Leone-HISTORY.html|title=Sierra Leone – History|author=Encyclopedia of the Nations|accessdate=22 February 2008}}</ref> The climate changed considerably and boundaries among different ecological zones changed as well, affecting migration and conquest.<ref name="brooks"/>
An attempt to create an autonomous Christian Indian nation <ref name="cite wdl|#2581">{{cite web |url={{wdl|2581}} |title=Paraguariae Provinciae Soc. Jesu cum Adiacentibg. Novissima Descriptio |language=Latin |trans_title=A Current Description of the Province of the Society of Jesus in Paraguay with Neighboring Areas |work=World Digital Library |date=1732 }}</ref> was undertaken by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missions and settlements in this part of South America in the eighteenth century, which included portions of Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil. They developed [[Jesuit reduction]]s to bring Guarani populations together at Spanish missions and protect them from virtual slavery by Spanish settlers, in addition to seeking their conversion to Christianity. Catholicism in Paraguay was influenced by the indigenous peoples; the [[syncretic]] religion has absorbed native elements. The ''reducciones'' flourished in Eastern Paraguay for about 150 years, until the expulsion of the Jesuits by the Spanish Crown in 1767. The ruins of two 18th-century [[Jesuit Missions of La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangue]] have been designated as [[World Heritage Sites]] by [[UNESCO]].<ref name="cite wdl|#2581"/>


Sierra Leone's dense tropical rainforest and swampy environment was considered impenetrable; it was also host to the [[tsetse fly]], which carried a disease fatal to horses and the zebu cattle used by the [[Mande people]]. This environmental factor protected its people from conquests by the Mande and other African empires.<ref name="brooks">[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2789148 Christopher Fyfe, "Weighing the Probabilities"], Review: ''Landlords and Strangers: Ecology, Society and Trade in Western Africa, 1000–1630'', By George E. Brooks. Boulder: Westview Press, 1994. ({{ISBN|0-8133-1263-9}})</ref><ref name="protected from influence">[[#Utting|Utting]] (1931), p. 33</ref> This also reduced the [[Islam]]ic influence of the [[Mali Empire]] but Islam, introduced by [[Sosso Empire|Susu]] traders, merchants and migrants from the north and east, became widely adopted in the 18th century.<ref name="rainforest">[[#Utting|Utting]] (1931), p. 8</ref>
=== Independence and rule of Francia===
<!--Expand this section to tell about culture of indigenous peoples and how and why they became Muslim. Also describe paramount chiefs, tribal organisation as it influenced colonial and early national history-->
{{main article|Independence of Paraguay}}
[[File:José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.jpg|left|thumb|[[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]], Paraguay's first dictator.]]
Paraguay overthrew the local Spanish administration on 14 May 1811. Paraguay's first dictator was [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]] who ruled Paraguay from 1814 until his death in 1840, with very little outside contact or influence. He intended to create a [[utopian]] society based on the French theorist [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s [[The Social Contract|''Social Contract'']].<ref>[http://warofthepacific.com/warofthetriplealliance.htm War of The Triple Alliance], War of the Pacific. Retrieved 14 November 2010</ref>


===European trading===
Rodríguez de Francia established new laws that greatly reduced the powers of the Catholic church (Catholicism was then an established state religion) and the cabinet, forbade colonial citizens from marrying one another and allowed them to marry only blacks, [[mulattoes]] or natives, in order to break the power of colonial-era elites and to create a [[mixed-race]] or mestizo society.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Romero|first1=Simon|title=In Paraguay, Indigenous Language With Unique Staying Power|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/12/world/americas/in-paraguay-indigenous-language-with-unique-staying-power.html|website=The New York Times|accessdate=5 October 2015}}</ref> He cut off relations between Paraguay and the rest of South America. Because of Francia's restrictions of freedom, [[Fulgencio Yegros]] and several other Independence-era leaders in 1820 planned a ''coup d’état'' against Francia, who discovered the plot and had its leaders either executed or imprisoned for life.
European contacts within Sierra Leone were among the first in West Africa. In 1462, [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese explorer]] [[Pedro de Sintra]] mapped the hills surrounding what is now Freetown Harbour, naming the shaped formation ''Serra da Leoa'' or "Serra Leoa" ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] for Lioness Mountains).<ref name="ReferenceA">''Kingfisher Geography encyclopedia''. {{ISBN|1-85613-582-9}}. p. 180</ref> The Spanish rendering of this geographic formation is ''Sierra Leona'', which later was adapted and, misspelled, became the country's current name. Although according to the [[professor]] C. Magbaily Fyle this could have been a misinterpretation of historians: according to him, there has been evidence of travellers calling the region ''Serra Lyoa'' well before 1462, the year when de Sintra first arrived. This would imply that the identity of the person who named Sierra Leone still remains unclear.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://slconcordtimes.com/pedro-da-cintra-did-not-name-sierra-leone-an-exploration-into-available-evidence/ |title=Pedro da çintra did not name Sierra Leone: An Exploration into available evidence |last= |first= |date=22 June 2017 |website= |publisher=Sierra Leone Concord Times |access-date=26 May 2017 |quote=}}</ref>


Soon after Sintra's expedition, Portuguese traders arrived at the harbour. By 1495 they had built a fortified [[trading post]].<ref name="LeVert">{{Cite book |last =LeVert |first =Suzanne |title =Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone |page=22|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn =978-0-7614-2334-8 |year =2006}}</ref> The Dutch and French also set up trade here, and each nation used Sierra Leone as a trading point for [[slave]]s brought by African traders from interior areas.<ref name="Sibthorpe">{{Cite book |last =Sibthorpe |first =A. B. C. |title =The History of Sierra Leone |page=7|publisher=Routledge |isbn =978-0-7146-1769-5 |year =1970}}</ref> In 1562, the English initiated the [[Triangle Trade]] when [[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] transported 300 enslaved Africans – acquired "by the sword and partly by other means" – to the Spanish colony of [[Santo Domingo]] in the Caribbean, where he sold them.<ref name="Sir John Hawkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=BHC2755|title=Sir John Hawkins|author=National Maritime Museum|accessdate=9 December 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516145546/http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=BHC2755|archivedate=16 May 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
===Rule of the López===
After Francia's death in 1840, Paraguay was ruled by various military officers under a new ''[[military junta|junta]]'', until [[Carlos Antonio López]] (allegedly Rodríguez de Francia's nephew) came to power in 1841. López modernized Paraguay and opened it to foreign commerce. He signed a [[non-aggression pact]] with Argentina and officially declared independence of Paraguay in 1842. After López's death in 1862, power was transferred to his eldest son, [[Francisco Solano López]].


=== Early colonies ===
The regime of the López family was characterized by pervasive and rigid centralism in production and distribution. There was no distinction between the public and the private spheres, and the López family ruled the country as it would a large estate.<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+py0019) "Carlos Antonio López"], Library of Congress Country Studies, December 1988. URL accessed 30 December 2005.</ref>
Following the [[American Revolutionary War]], the British evacuated thousands of freed [[African-American]] slaves and resettled them in Canadian and Caribbean colonies and London which gave them new lives. In 1787 the British Crown founded a settlement in Sierra Leone in what was called the "[[Province of Freedom]]". It intended to resettle some of the "Black Poor of London," mostly African Americans freed by the British during the war. About 400 blacks and 60 whites reached Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787. The group also included some West Indians of African descent from London. After they established [[Granville Town]], most of the first group of colonists died, owing to disease and warfare with the indigenous African peoples ([[Temne people|Temne]] and [[Mende people|Mende]]), who resisted their encroachment. The 64&nbsp;remaining colonists established a second Granville Town.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Pham |first = John-Peter |title = Child Soldiers, Adult Interests: The Global Dimensions of the Sierra Leonean Tragedy |publisher = Nova Publishers |year = 2005 |pages = 4–8 |url = https://books.google.com/?id=ZnPFKpwoIkIC&pg=PA4 |isbn = 978-1-59454-671-6 |accessdate = 17 June 2014}}</ref>


Following the Revolution, more than 3,000 [[Black Loyalists]] had also been settled in [[Nova Scotia]], where they were finally granted land. They founded [[Birchtown, Nova Scotia]], but faced harsh winters and racial discrimination from nearby [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia]]. [[Thomas Peters (black leader)|Thomas Peters]] pressed British authorities for relief and more aid; together with British abolitionist [[John Clarkson (abolitionist)|John Clarkson]], the [[Sierra Leone Company]] was established to relocate Black Loyalists who wanted to take their chances in West Africa. In 1792 nearly 1200&nbsp;persons from Nova Scotia crossed the Atlantic to build the second (and only permanent) Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of [[Freetown]] on 11 March 1792. In Sierra Leone they were called the [[Nova Scotian Settlers (Sierra Leone)|''Nova Scotian Settlers'']], the ''Nova Scotians'', or the ''Settlers''.
The government exerted control on all exports. The export of [[yerba mate]] and valuable wood products maintained the balance of trade between Paraguay and the outside world.<ref>{{worldhistory|section=1665|quote=Page 630}}</ref> The Paraguayan government was extremely protectionist, never accepted loans from abroad and levied high [[tariff]]s against imported foreign products. This [[protectionism]] made the society self-sufficient, and it also avoided the debt suffered by Argentina and Brazil. Slavery existed in Paraguay, although not in great numbers, until 1844, when it was legally abolished in the new Constitution.{{sfn|Cunninghame Graham|1933|p=39-40}}


The Settlers built Freetown in the styles they knew from their lives in the [[American South]]; they also continued American fashion and American manners. In addition, many continued to practice [[Methodism]] in Freetown. The initial process of society-building in Freetown, however, was a harsh struggle. The Crown did not supply enough basic supplies and provisions, and the Settlers were continually threatened by illegal slave trading and the risk of re-enslavement.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Fyfe |first = Christopher |title = Our Children Free and Happy: Letters from Black Settlers in Africa in the 1790s|publisher = Edinburgh University Press |year = 1992}}</ref> In the 1790s, the Settlers, including adult women, voted for the first time in elections.<ref name=economist>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12775514 |title=Sierra Leone's struggle for progress |work=The Economist |date= 11 December 2008|accessdate=22 August 2010}}</ref> The Sierra Leone Company, controlled by London investors, refused to allow the settlers to take [[fee simple|freehold]] of the land. In 1799 some of the Settlers revolted. The Crown subdued the revolt by bringing in forces of more than 500&nbsp;[[Jamaica]]n [[Maroon (people)|Maroon people]], whom they transported from [[Trelawny Town]] via Nova Scotia in 1800.
[[Francisco Solano López]], the son of Carlos Antonio López, replaced his father as the President-Dictator in 1862, and generally continued the political policies of his father. Both wanted to give an international image of Paraguay as "democratic and republican", but in fact, the ruling family had almost total control of all public life in the country, including Church and colleges.{{sfn|Cunninghame Graham|1933|p=41-42}}


On 1 January 1808, [[Thomas Ludlam (colonialist)|Thomas Ludlam]], the Governor of the Sierra Leone Company and a leading abolitionist, surrendered the Company's charter. This ended its 16&nbsp;years of running the Colony. The British Crown reorganised the Sierra Leone Company as the [[African Institution]]; it was directed to improve the local economy. Its members represented both British who hoped to inspire local entrepreneurs and those with interest in the Macauley & Babington Company, which held the (British) [[monopoly]] on Sierra Leone trade.<ref>Harris, Sheldon H. (1972): ''Paul Cuffe: Black America and the African Return'', New York: Simon and Schuster, pp. 32–33, especially note 15 on p. 140.</ref>
Militarily, Carlos Antonio López modernized and expanded industry and the [[Paraguayan Army]] and greatly strengthened the strategic defences of Paraguay by developing the [[Fortress of Humaitá]].<ref>Robert Cowley, ''The Reader's Encyclopedia to Military History''. New York, New York: Houston Mifflin, 1996. Page 479.</ref> The government hired more than 200 foreign technicians, who installed [[telegraph]] lines and [[railroad]]s to aid the expanding steel, textile, paper and ink, naval construction, weapons and gunpowder industries. The [[Ybycuí]] foundry, completed in 1850, manufactured [[cannon]]s, [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s and bullets of all calibers. River [[warship]]s were built in the shipyards of [[Asunción]]. [[Fortification]]s were built, especially along the [[Apa River]] and in [[Gran Chaco]].<ref name=Hooker>Hooker, T.D., 2008, The Paraguayan War, Nottingham: Foundry Books, {{ISBN|1901543153}}</ref>{{rp|22}} The work was continued by his son Francisco Solano.
[[File:1864 Mitchell Map of Brazil, Bolivia and Chili - Geographicus - SouthAmericaSouth-mitchell-1864.jpg|thumbnail|right|Political map of the region, 1864]]
According to George Thompson, C.E., Lieutenant Colonel of Engineers in the Paraguayan Army prior to and during the war, López's government was comparatively a good one for Paraguay:
{{quote|Probably in no other country in the world has life and property been so secure as all over Paraguay during his (Antonio Lopez's) reign. Crime was almost unknown, and when committed, immediately detected and punished. The mass of the people was, perhaps, the happiest in existence. They had hardly to do any work to gain a livelihood. Each family had its house or hut in its own ground. They planted, in a few days, enough tobacco, maize and mandioca for their own consumption [...]. Having at every hut a grove of oranges [...] and also a few cows, they were almost throughout the year under little necessity [...]. The higher classes, of course, lived more in the European way...|George Thompson, C.E.{{sfn|Thompson|1869|p=10}} }}


At about the same time (following the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|abolition of the slave trade in 1807]]), British crews delivered thousands of formerly enslaved Africans to Freetown, after liberating them from illegal slave ships. These Liberated Africans or ''[[recaptives]]'' were sold for $20 a head as apprentices to the white settlers, Nova Scotian Settlers, and the Jamaican Maroons. Some of the recaptives who were not sold as apprentices were forced to join the Navy. Though this apprentice system was not slavery, many recaptives were treated poorly and even abused because some of the original settlers considered them their property. Cut off from their various homelands and traditions, the Liberated Africans were forced to assimilate to the Western styles of Settlers and Maroons. For example, some of the recaptives were forced to change their name to a more Western sounding names. Though some people happily embraced these changes because they considered it as being part of the community, some were not happy with these changes and wanted to keep their own identity. Many recaptives were so unhappy that they risked the possibility of being sold back into slavery by leaving Sierra Leone and going back to their original villages.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schwarz|first=Suzanne|date=5 January 2013|title=Reconstructing the Life Histories of Enslaved Africans: Sierra Leone, c. 1808–19|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267884583_Reconstructing_the_Life_Histories_of_Enslaved_Africans_Sierra_Leone_c_1808-19}}</ref> They built a flourishing trade in flowers and beads on the West African coast.
===Paraguayan War (1864–1870)===
{{main article|Paraguayan War}}
{{main article|Paraguayan War casualties}}


These returned Africans were from many areas of Africa, but principally the west coast. During the 19th century, freed black Americans, some [[Americo Liberian]] 'refugees', and particularly West Indians, also immigrated and settled in Freetown. Together these peoples created a new creole ethnicity called the [[Krio people]] (initially called Creoles) and a trading language, [[Krio language|Krio]], which became commonly used among many of the ethnicities in the country.
[[File:FRANCISCO SOLANO LOPEZ (From a Photograph taken in 1859).jpg|thumb|[[Francisco Solano López]]]]
In 12 October 1864, despite Paraguayan ultimatums, the [[Empire of Brazil|Brazilian Empire]] (sided with Argentina and the rebellious Gen. [[Venancio Flores]]) invaded the Republic of Uruguay (which then was an ally of the Lopez's Government{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}), thus starting the [[Paraguayan War]].<ref>Sir Richard Francis Burton: "Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay", p.76 – Tinsley Brothers Editors – London (1870) – Burton, as a witness of the conflict, marks this date (12–16 October 1864) as the real beginning of the war. He writes (and it's the most logic account, considering the facts): ''The Brazilian Army invades the Banda Oriental, despite the protestations of President López, who declared that such invasion would be held a "casus belli"''.</ref> The Paraguayans, led by the [[Grand marshal|Marshal of the Republic]] Francisco Solano López, held a fierce resistance, but were ultimately defeated in 1870 after the [[Battle of Cerro Corá|Death of Solano López]], who was [[killed in action]].<ref>Hooker, T.D., 2008, "The Paraguayan War". Nottingham: Foundry Books, pp. 105–108. {{ISBN|1901543153}}</ref> The real causes of this war, which remains the bloodiest international conflict in Latin American history, are still highly debated.<ref>The classical view asserts that Francisco Solano López's expansionist and hegemonic views are the main reason for the outbreak of the conflict. The traditional paraguayan view, held by the "''lopistas''" (supporters of Solano López, both in Paraguay and worldwide), affirms that Paraguay acted in self-defense and for the protection of the "Equilibrium of the Plate Basin". This view is usually contested by the "''anti-lopistas''" (also known in Paraguay as "''legionarios''"), who favoured the "''Triple Alliance''". Revisionist views, both from right and left wing national-populists, put a great emphasis on the influence of the British Empire in the conflict, a view that is discarded by a majority of historians.</ref>


=== Colonial era (1800–1960) ===
About the disaster suffered by the Paraguayans at the outcome of the war, [[William D. Rubinstein]] wrote: ''"The normal estimate is that of a Paraguayan population of somewhere between 450,000 and 900,000, only 220,000 survived the war, of whom only 28,000 were adult males."''<ref>{{Cite book | last = Rubinsein | first = W. D. | title = Genocide: a history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC | publisher = Pearson Education | year = 2004 | page = 94 | isbn = 0-582-50601-8 }}</ref> Paraguay also suffered extensive territorial losses to Brazil and Argentina.
{{Main|Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate}}
[[File:TuyutiDetail.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Tuyutí]], May 1866.]]
The settlement of Sierra Leone in the 1800s was unique in that the population was composed of displaced Africans who were brought to the colony after the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807. Upon arrival in Sierra Leone, each “recaptive” was given a registration number, and information on their physical qualities would be entered into the Register of Liberated Africans. However, oftentimes the documentations of the recaptives would be overwhelmingly subjective and would result in inaccurate entries on the recaptives and would make them difficult to track. In addition, differences between the Register of Liberated Africans of 1808 and the List of Captured Negroes of 1812 (which emulated the 1808 document) revealed some disparities in the entries of the recaptives, specifically in the names; many recaptives decided to change their given names to a more anglicised version which contributed to the difficulty in tracking the recaptives after they arrived in Sierra Leone.


According to the British Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1807, the recaptives could be subject to apprenticeships led by British colonists in Sierra Leone and the males enlisted into the Army or Navy. In many instances, the recaptives who were assigned to apprenticeships were sold for $20, giving the apprenticeship system qualities similar to slavery.<ref name="Schwartz 2012">{{Cite journal|last=Schwartz|first=Suzanne|date=2012|title=Reconstructing the Life Histories of Liberated Africans: Sierra Leone in the Early Nineteenth Century|url=|journal=History in Africa|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> It is documented that the recaptive apprentices were unpaid and the settlers who they were appointed to had devices which could be used to discipline them, namely sticks. According to Suzanne Schwartz, a historian on colonial Sierra Leone, in June 1808 a group of 21 men and women ran away to the nearby native settlement of Robiss and upon recapture were imprisoned by the settlers in Sierra Leone, thus contributing to the slavery-like qualities of the apprenticeship system.<ref name="Schwartz 2012"/> [[File:Bai Bureh.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Bai Bureh]], Temne leader of the [[Hut Tax War of 1898]] against British rule.]]
During the pillaging of Asunción in 1869, the Brazilian Imperial Army packed up and transported the Paraguayan National Archives to Rio de Janeiro.<ref>Hipólito Sanchez Quell: "Los 50.000 Documentos Paraguayos Llevados al Brasil". Ediciones Comuneros, Asunción (2006).</ref><ref>Some of the documents taken by Brasil during the war, were returned to Paraguay in the collection known as "Colección de Río Branco", nowadays in the National Archives of Asunción, Paraguay</ref> Brazil's records from the war have remained classified.<ref>{{cite web|author=Barbara Weinstein |url=http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0704/0704pre1.cfm |title=Let the Sunshine In: Government Records and National Insecurities |publisher=Historians.org |date=28 January 2008 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> This has made Paraguayan history in the Colonial and early National periods difficult to research and study.


In the early 19th century, Freetown served as the residence of the British colonial governor of the region, who also administered the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]]) and the [[Gambia]] settlements. Sierra Leone developed as the educational centre of British West Africa. The British established [[Fourah Bay College]] here in 1827, which rapidly became a magnet for English-speaking Africans on the West Coast. For more than a century, it was the only European-style university in western [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].
=== 20th century ===
[[File:Chacokrieg.jpg|thumb|[[Gran Chaco]] was the site of the [[Chaco War]] (1932–35), in which Bolivia lost most of the disputed territory to Paraguay.]]
[[File:Recrutas paraguaios..jpg|thumbnail|right|Paraguayan recruits during the Chaco war]]
In 1904 the Liberal revolution against the rule of Colorados broke out. The Liberal rule started a period of great political instability. Between 1904 and 1954 Paraguay had thirty-one [[President of Paraguay|presidents]], most of whom were removed from office by force.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Hanratty| first = Dannin M.| last2 = Meditz| first2 = Sandra W.| title = Paraguay: A Country Study| place = Washington| publisher = GPO for the Library of Congress| year = 1988| url = http://countrystudies.us/paraguay/2.htm }}</ref> Conflicts between the factions of the ruling Liberal party led to the [[Paraguayan Civil War (1922)|Paraguayan Civil War of 1922]].


[[File:Bai Bureh (1898).jpg|thumb|Temne leader Bai Bureh seen here in 1898 after his surrender, sitting relaxed in his traditional dress with a handkerchief in his hands, while a Sierra Leonean [[Royal West African Frontier Force|Royal West African Frontier]] soldier stands guard next to him ]]
The unresolved border conflict with Bolivia over Chaco region finally erupted in early 1930s in the [[Chaco War]]. After great losses Paraguay defeated Bolivia and established its sovereignty over most of the disputed Chaco region. After the war, military officers used popular dissatisfaction with the Liberal politicians to seize the power for themselves. On 17 February 1936, the [[February Revolution (Paraguay)|February Revolution]] brought colonel [[Rafael Franco]] to power. Between 1940 and 1948, the country was ruled by general [[Higinio Moríñigo]]. Dissatisfaction with his rule resulted in the [[Paraguayan Civil War (1947)|Paraguayan civil war of 1947]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/pat/paraguay/fparaguay1947.htm |title=Paraguay Civil War 1947 |publisher=Onwar.com |accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> In its aftermath [[Alfredo Stroessner]] began involvement in a string of plots, which resulted in his military [[coup d'état]] of 4 May 1954.
The British interacted mostly with the Krios in Freetown, who did most of the trading with the indigenous peoples of the interior. In addition, educated Krios held numerous positions in the colonial government, giving them status and good-paying positions.


Following the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884–1885, the UK decided that it needed to establish more dominion over the inland areas, to satisfy what was described by the European powers as "effective occupation" of territories. In 1896 it annexed these areas, declaring them the Sierra Leone Protectorate.<ref name="harris40">Harris, David (2012) [https://books.google.com/books?id=B5RxmwC6aNwC&pg=PA1 ''Civil War and Democracy in West Africa: Conflict Resolution, Elections and Justice in Sierra Leone and Liberia''], I.B. Tauris. p. 40</ref> With this change, the British began to expand their administration in the region, recruiting British citizens to posts, and pushing Krios out of positions in government and even the desirable residential areas in Freetown.<ref name="harris40"/>
===Stroessner===
{{See also|El Stronato}}
A series of unstable governments ensued until the establishment in 1954 of the regime of dictator [[Alfredo Stroessner]], who remained in office for more than three decades until 1989. Paraguay was modernized to some extent under Stroessner's regime, although his rule was marked by extensive civil right abuses.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/08/16/AR2006081601729.html |title=Alfredo Stroessner; Paraguayan Dictator |work=The Washington Post |date= 17 August 2006|accessdate=2 May 2010 | first=Adam | last=Bernstein}}</ref>


In addition, the British annexation of the Protectorate interfered with the sovereignty of indigenous chiefs. They designated chiefs as units of local government, rather than dealing with them individually as had been previous practice. They did not maintain relationships even with longtime allies, such as [[Bai Bureh]], chief of Kasseh, a community on the Small Scarcies River. He was later unfairly portrayed as a prime instigator of the Hut Tax war in 1898.<ref name="abraham">{{cite journal
Stroessner and the ''Colorado'' party ruled the country from 1954 to 1989. The dictator oversaw an era of economic expansion, but also had a poor human rights and environmental record (see "Political History"). Torture and death for political opponents was routine. After his overthrow, the ''Colorado'' continued to dominate national politics until 2008.
|title = Bai Bureh, The British, and the Hut Tax War
|last = Abraham
|first = Arthur
|journal = [[The International Journal of African Historical Studies]]
|issn = 0361-7882
|volume = 7
|issue = 1
|year = 1974
|pages = 99–106
|doi = 10.2307/216556
|jstor = 216556
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|registration = y
}}</ref>


Colonel Frederic Cardew, military governor of the Protectorate, in 1898 established a new tax on dwellings and demanded that the chiefs use their peoples to maintain roads. The taxes were often higher than the value of the dwellings, and 24 chiefs signed a petition to Cardew, telling how destructive this was; their people could not afford to take time off from their subsistence agriculture. They resisted payment of taxes. Tensions over the new colonial requirements, and administration suspicions about the chiefs, led to the [[Hut Tax War of 1898|Hut Tax war of 1898]], also called the Temne-Mende War. The British fired first. The Northern front of majority Temne people was led by [[Bai Bureh]]. The Southern front, consisting mostly of [[Mende people]], entered conflict somewhat later and for different reasons.
The splits in the ''Colorado'' Party in the 1980s, and the prevailing conditions: Stroessner's advanced age, the character of the regime, the economic downturn, and [[international isolation]], were catalysts for anti-regime demonstrations and statements by the opposition prior to the 1988 general elections.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}


For several months, Bureh's fighters had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British forces. Both the British troops and Bureh's warriors suffered hundreds of fatalities each.<ref>[http://www.sierra-leone.org/Heroes/heroes5.html History], Sierra-leone.org, Retrieved 17 January 2007.</ref> Bai Bureh finally surrendered on 11 November 1898 to end the destruction of his people's territory and dwellings. Although the British government recommended leniency, Cardew insisted on sending the chief and two allies into [[exile]] in the Gold Coast;<ref name="abraham"/> his government hanged 96 of the chief's warriors. Bai Bureh was allowed to return in 1905, when he resumed his chieftaincy of Kasseh.<ref name="abraham"/>
''[[Authentic Radical Liberal Party|PLRA]]'' leader [[Domingo Laino]] served as the focal point of the opposition in the second half of the 1980s. The government's effort to isolate Laino by exiling him in 1982 had backfired. On his sixth attempt to re-enter the country in 1986, Laino returned with three television crews from the U.S., a former United States ambassador to Paraguay, and a group of Uruguayan and Argentine congressmen. Despite the international contingent, the police violently barred Laino's return.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}


[[File:SierraLeoneP016.tiff|thumb|right|Moa River Bridge, Sierra Leone. [[Alphonso Lisk-Carew|Lisk-Carew Brothers]], Freetown, Sierra Leone]]
The Stroessner regime relented in April 1987, and permitted Laino to return to Asunción. Laino took the lead in organizing demonstrations and reducing infighting among the opposition party. The opposition was unable to reach agreement on a common strategy regarding the elections, with some parties advocating abstention, and others calling for blank voting. The parties held numerous 'lightning demonstrations' (''mítines relámpagos''), especially in rural areas. Such demonstrations were gathered and quickly disbanded before the arrival of the police.
[[File:British Expeditionary Force in Freetown, 1919.jpg|thumb|250px|British [[West Africa Campaign (World War I)|West African Campaign]] troops in Freetown, c. 1914–1916. Published caption: "British expeditionary force preparing to embark at Freetown to attack the [[German Cameroons]], the main object of the attack being the port of [[Douala|Duala]]. Auxiliary native troops were freely used in African warfare."]]


[[File:The Royal Navy during the Second World War A24465.jpg|thumb|African Naval ratings march past the Governor of Sierra Leone, Sir Hubert Stevenson.]]
In response to the upsurge in opposition activities, Stroessner condemned the Accord for advocating "sabotage of the general elections and disrespect of the law." He used national police and civilian [[vigilantes]] of the ''Colorado'' Party to break up demonstrations. A number of opposition leaders were imprisoned or otherwise harassed. [[Hermes Rafael Saguier]], another key leader of the ''PLRA'', was imprisoned for four months in 1987 on charges of sedition. In early February 1988, police arrested 200 people attending a National Coordinating Committee meeting in [[Coronel Oviedo]]. Laino and several other opposition figures were arrested before dawn on the day of the election, 14 February, and held for twelve hours. The government declared Stroessner's re-election with 89% of the vote.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/15/world/paraguayan-wins-his-eighth-term.html?scp=3&sq=Paraguay%20february%201988&st=cse "Paraguayan Wins His Eighth Term"], ''The New York Times'', 15 February 1988.</ref>
The defeat of the Temne and Mende in the Hut Tax war ended large-scale organised resistance to the Protectorate and colonial government. But resistance continued throughout the colonial period in the form of intermittent, wide-scale rioting and chaotic labour disturbances. For instance, riots in 1955 and 1956 involved "many tens of thousands" of natives in the protectorate.<ref>Killson, Martin (1966) ''Political Change in a West African State: A Study of the Modernization Process in Sierra Leone'', Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, pp. 60; also pp. 106, 107, 110, 111, 186–188 on other riots and strikes.</ref>


Domestic [[Slavery in Africa|slavery]], which continued to be practised by local African elites, was abolished in 1928.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Committee Office, House of Commons |url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmintdev/923/923m21.htm |title=House of Commons – International Development – Memoranda |publisher=Publications.parliament.uk |date=6 March 2006 |accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref> One notable event in 1935 was the granting of a monopoly on mineral mining to the [[Sierra Leone Selection Trust]], run by [[De Beers]]. The monopoly was scheduled to last 98 years. Mining of diamonds in the east and other minerals expanded, drawing labourers there from other parts of the country.
The opposition attributed the results in part to the virtual Colorado monopoly on the mass media. They noted that 53% of those polled indicated that there was an "uneasiness" in Paraguayan society. 74% believed that the political situation needed changes, including 45% who wanted a substantial or total change. Finally, 31% stated that they planned to abstain from voting in the February elections. {{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}


In 1924, the UK government divided Sierra Leone into a Colony and a Protectorate, with separate and different political systems constitutionally defined for each. The Colony was Freetown and its coastal area; the Protectorate was defined as inland areas dominated by tribal chiefs. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate in 1947, when proposals were introduced to provide for a single political system for both the Colony and the Protectorate. Most of the proposals came from leaders of the Protectorate, whose population far outnumbered that in the colony. The [[Sierra Leone Creole people|Creoles]] (Krios), led by [[I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson|Isaac Wallace-Johnson]], opposed the proposals, as they would have resulted in reducing the political power of the Krios in the Colony.
On 3 February 1989, Stroessner was overthrown in a military coup headed by General [[Andrés Rodríguez (President)|Andrés Rodríguez]]. As president, Rodríguez instituted political, legal, and economic reforms and initiated a ''rapprochement'' with the international community. Reflecting the deep hunger of the rural poor for land, hundreds immediately occupied thousands of acres of unused territories belonging to Stroessner and his associates; by mid-1990, 19,000 families occupied {{convert|340000|acres|-3|abbr=on}}. At the time, 2.06 million people lived in rural areas, more than half of the 4.1 million total population, and most were landless.<ref name="nagel"/>


In 1951, the educated protectorate leaders from across different ethnic groups, including [[Sir]] [[Milton Margai]], [[Lamina Sankoh]], [[Siaka Stevens]], Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, [[John Karefa-Smart]], Kande Bureh, Sir [[Albert Margai]], [[Amadu Wurie]] and Sir [[Banja Tejan-Sie]] joined together united with the powerful [[paramount chiefs]] in the protectorate to form the [[Sierra Leone People's Party]] or SLPP as the party of the protectorate. The SLPP leadership, led by Sir Milton Margai, negotiated with the British and the educated Krio-dominated colony based in Freetown to achieve independence [http://www.sierra-leone.org/Heroes/heroes8.html].
===Post-1989===
The June 1992 constitution established a democratic system of government and dramatically improved protection of fundamental human rights. In May 1993, Colorado Party candidate [[Juan Carlos Wasmosy]] was elected as Paraguay's first civilian president in almost 40 years, in what international observers deemed fair and free elections.


Owing to the astute politics of Sir Milton Margai, an ethnic [[Mende people|Mende]], the educated Protectorate elite was won over to join forces with the [[paramount chiefs]] in the face of Krio intransigence. Later, Sir Milton used the same skills to win over opposition leaders and moderate Krio elements to achieve independence from the UK.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newafricanmagazine.com/special-reports/country-reports/sierra-leone-a-nation-reborn/how-independence-was-won |title=How Independence Was Won |publisher=Newafricanmagazine.com |accessdate=19 March 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029212925/http://www.newafricanmagazine.com/special-reports/country-reports/sierra-leone-a-nation-reborn/how-independence-was-won |archivedate=29 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
With support from the United States, the [[Organization of American States]], and other countries in the region, the Paraguayan people rejected an April 1996 attempt by then Army Chief General [[Lino Oviedo]] to oust President Wasmosy.


In November 1951, Margai oversaw the drafting of a new constitution, which united the separate Colonial and Protectorate legislatures and – most importantly – provided a framework for [[decolonisation]].<ref name="advocate">[http://www.advocatenations.org/html/sierra_leone.html Advocate Nations of Africa: Sierra Leone] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205062710/http://www.advocatenations.org/html/sierra_leone.html |date=5 December 2014 }}</ref> In 1953, Sierra Leone was granted local ministerial powers, and Sir Milton Margai was elected [[Chief Minister]] of Sierra Leone.<ref name="advocate"/> The new constitution ensured Sierra Leone a parliamentary system within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].<ref name="advocate"/>
Oviedo was nominated as the Colorado candidate for president in the 1998 election, however, when the Supreme Court upheld in April his conviction on charges related to the 1996 coup attempt, he was not allowed to run and was detained in jail. His former running mate, [[Raúl Cubas]], became the Colorado Party's candidate, and was elected in May in elections deemed by international observers to be free and fair. One of Cubas' first acts after taking office in August was to commute Oviedo's sentence and release him. In December 1998, Paraguay's Supreme Court declared these actions unconstitutional. In this tense atmosphere, the murder of Vice President and long-time Oviedo rival [[Luis María Argaña]] on 23 March 1999, led the Chamber of Deputies to impeach Cubas the next day.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} On 26 March, eight student anti-government demonstrators were murdered, widely believed to have been carried out by Oviedo supporters. This increased opposition to Cubas, who resigned on 28 March. Senate President [[Luis González Macchi]], a Cubas opponent, was peacefully sworn in as president the same day.


In May 1957, Sierra Leone held its first parliamentary election. The [[Sierra Leone People's Party]] (SLPP), which was then the most popular political party in the colony of Sierra Leone and was supported by the powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, won the most seats in Parliament, and Margai was re-elected as Chief Minister by a landslide.
In 2003, Nicanor Duarte Frutos was elected as president.


=== 1960 Independence Conference ===
For the 2008 general elections, the Colorado Party was favored in polls. Their candidate was Minister of Education [[Blanca Ovelar]], the first woman to be nominated as a candidate for a major party in Paraguayan history. After sixty years of Colorado rule, voters chose [[Fernando Lugo]], a former Roman Catholic Bishop and not a professional politician in civil government. He had long followed [[liberation theology]], which was controversial in South American societies, but he was backed by the center-right Liberal Party, the Colorado Party's traditional opponents.
On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai led a twenty four member Sierra Leonean delegation at constitutional conferences that were held with [[Queen Elizabeth II]] and British Colonial Secretary [[Iain Macleod]] in negotiations for independence held in London.<ref name="Murtala Mohammed Kamara">{{cite web|url=http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/printer_200517413.shtml |title=Sierra Leone was ripe for Independence: Exclusive interview with Reginald Boltman |publisher=News.sl |date=28 February 2011|author=Murtala Mohammed Kamara |accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="Momoh">{{cite web|last=Momoh |first=John |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201105040814.html |title=Sierra Leone: Viewpoint – Celebrating a New Nation! |publisher=allAfrica.com |date=4 May 2011 |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>


On the conclusion of talks in London on 4 May 1960, the United Kingdom agreed to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961.<ref name="Murtala Mohammed Kamara"/><ref name="Momoh"/>
===From Lugo's 2008 election to his 2012 impeachment===


=== Independence (1961) and Sir Milton Margai Administration (1961–1964) ===
Lugo achieved a historic victory in Paraguay's presidential election, defeating the ruling party candidate, and ending 61 years of conservative rule. Lugo won with nearly 41% of the vote, compared to almost 31% for Blanca Ovelar of the Colorado party.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.electstud.2008.10.001 | author = Nickson, Andrew | year = 2009 | title = The general election in Paraguay, April 2008 | journal = Journal of Electoral Studies | volume = 28 | issue = 1| pages = 145–9 }}</ref> Outgoing President Nicanor Duarte Frutos hailed the moment as the first time in the history of the nation that a government had transferred power to opposition forces in a constitutional and peaceful fashion.
On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai led Sierra Leone to independence from Great Britain and became the country's first Prime Minister. Thousands of Sierra Leoneans took to the streets in celebration. Sierra Leone retained a parliamentary system of government and was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The leader of the main opposition [[All People's Congress]] (APC), Siaka Stevens, along with Isaac Wallace-Johnson, another outspoken critic of the SLPP government, were arrested and placed under [[house arrest]] in Freetown, along with sixteen others charged with disrupting the independence celebration.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/27/newsid_2502000/2502411.stm |title=BBC ON THIS DAY &#124; 27 &#124; 1961: Sierra Leone wins independence |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=20 May 2012 |date=27 April 1961}}</ref>


In May 1962, Sierra Leone held its [[Sierra Leonean general election, 1962|first general election]] as an Independent nation. The [[Sierra Leone People's Party]] (SLPP) won a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] of seats in parliament, and Sir [[Milton Margai]] was re-elected as prime minister.
Lugo was sworn in on 15 August 2008. The Paraguayan Congress continued to be dominated by right-wing elected officials. The Lugo administration set its two major priorities as the reduction of corruption and economic inequality.<ref name="state.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1841.htm#econ |title=Paraguay |publisher=State.gov |date=15 March 2012 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref>


Sir Milton was very popular among Sierra Leoneans during his time in power. Sir Milton was known for his self-effacement. He was neither corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of his power or status.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}} He based the government on the [[rule of law]] and the separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly viable representative structures. Margai used his conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials to represent various ethnic groups. Margai employed a brokerage style of politics, by sharing political power among political parties and interest groups; and with the powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, most of whom were key allies of his government .{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
[[File:Saludo de Piñera a Cartes.jpg|thumb|Inauguration of new President [[Horacio Cartes]], 15 August 2013]]
Political instability following Lugo's election and disputes within his cabinet encouraged some renewal of popular support for the Colorado Party. Reports suggested that the businessman Horacio Cartes became the new political figure amid disputes. Despite the US [[Drug Enforcement Administration]]'s strong accusations against Cartes related to drug trafficking, he continued to amass followers in the political arena.


===Final years of democracy (1964–1967)===
On 14 January 2011, the Colorado Party convention nominated Horacio Cartes as the presidential candidate for the party. However, the party's constitution didn't allow it.{{clarify|date=April 2012}}
Upon Sir Milton's unexpected death in 1964, his [[half-brother]], Sir [[Albert Margai]], was appointed as Prime Minister by parliament. Sir Albert's leadership was briefly challenged by Sierra Leone's Foreign Minister [[John Karefa-Smart]], who questioned Sir Albert's succession to the SLPP leadership position. Karefa-Smart lead a prominent small minority faction within the SLPP party in opposition of Albert Margai as Prime Minister. However, Kareefa-Smart failed to receive strong support within the SLPP and the SLPP dominated members of parliament in his attempt to have Albert Margai stripped of as the leader of the SLPP and prime minister of the country. The large majority of SLPP members backed Albert Margai over Kareefa-Smart. Soon after Albert Margai was sworn in as Prime Minister, he immediately dismissed several senior government officials who had served under his elder brother Sir Milton's government, as he viewed them as a threat to his administration, including Kareefa-Smart.
On 21 June 2012, [[Impeachment of Fernando Lugo|impeachment proceedings against President Lugo]] began in the country's lower house, which was controlled by his opponents. Lugo was given less than twenty-four hours to prepare for the proceedings and only two hours in which to mount a defense.<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news |title=What will Washington do about Fernando Lugo's ouster in Paraguay? |author=Mark Weisbrot |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jun/22/washington-fernando-lugo-ouster-paraguay |newspaper=The Guardian |date=22 June 2012 |accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref> Impeachment was quickly approved and the resulting trial in Paraguay's Senate, also controlled by the opposition, ended with the removal of Lugo from office and Vice President Federico Franco assuming the duties of president.<ref name=CNN22>{{cite news |title=Paraguayan Senate removes president |author=Mariano Castillo |url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/06/22/world/americas/paraguay-president/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=22 June 2012 |accessdate=22 June 2012}}</ref> Lugo's rivals blamed him for the deaths of 17 people – eight police officers and nine farmers – in armed clashes after police were ambushed by armed peasants when enforcing an eviction order against rural trespassers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Paraguay's president vows to face impeachment effort |author= Daniela Desantis |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/21/us-paraguay-lugo-idUSBRE85K13N20120621 |newspaper=Reuters US edition |date=21 June 2012 |accessdate=21 June 2012}}</ref>


Sir Albert resorted to increasingly [[authoritarian]] actions in response to protests and enacted several laws against the opposition [[All People's Congress]] (APC), whilst attempting to establish a [[one-party state]].{{citation needed|date=April 2014}} Sir Albert was opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing executive powers to the Paramount Chiefs, many of whom had been key allies of his late brother Sir Milton. Accordingly, they began to consider Sir Albert as a threat to the ruling houses across the country. Margai appointed many non ethnic Creole to the country's [[civil service]] in [[Freetown]], in an overal diversity of the civil service in the capital, which was previously dominated by members of the Creole ethnic group, as a result Albert Margai became unpopular in the Creole community, many of whom had supported his older brother Sir Milton. Margai was accused of favoring members of his own Mende ethnic group for prominent positions.
Lugo's supporters gathered outside Congress to protest the decision as a "politically motivated [[coup d'état]]".<ref name=CNN22/> Lugo's removal from office on 22 June 2012 is considered by [[UNASUR]] and other neighboring countries, especially those currently governed by leftist leaders, as a coup d'état.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unasursg.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=698%3Acomunicado-asuncion-22-de-junio-de-2012&catid=68%3Acomunicados&Itemid=346 |title=COMUNICADO UNASUR Asunción, 22 de Junio de 2012 |language=Spanish |date=22 June 2012 |publisher=UNASUR |accessdate=23 June 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627050748/http://www.unasursg.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=698:comunicado-asuncion-22-de-junio-de-2012&catid=68:comunicados&Itemid=346 |archivedate=27 June 2012 }}</ref> The [[Organization of American States]], which sent a mission to Paraguay to gather information, concluded that the impeachment process had been carried out in accordance with the [[Constitution of Paraguay]].


In 1967, riots broke out in Freetown against Sir Albert's policies; in response Margai declared a [[state of emergency]] across the country. Sir Albert was accused of corruption and of a policy of [[affirmative action]] in favour of his own [[Mende people|Mende]] ethnic group.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Pham |first = John-Peter |title = Child soldiers, adult interests: the global dimensions of the Sierra Leonean tragedy |publisher = Nova Publishers |year = 2005 |pages = 33–35 |url = https://books.google.com/?id=ZnPFKpwoIkIC&pg=PA32 |isbn = 978-1-59454-671-6 |accessdate = 17 June 2014}}</ref> Although Sir Albert had the full backing of the country's security forces, he called for free and fair elections.
==Geography==
{{Main article|Geography of Paraguay}}
[[File:Paraguay map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Paraguay map of Köppen climate classification.]]
[[File:Chaco Boreal Paraguay.jpg|thumb|Landscape in the [[Gran Chaco]], Paraguay]]
Paraguay is divided by the [[Río Paraguay]] into two well differentiated geographic regions. The eastern region (Región Oriental); and the western region, officially called Western Paraguay (Región Occidental) and also known as the Chaco, which is part of the [[Gran Chaco]]. The country lies between latitudes [[19th parallel south|19°]] and [[28th parallel south|28°S]], and longitudes [[54th meridian west|54°]] and [[63rd meridian west|63°W]].
The terrain consists mostly of grassy plains and wooded hills in the eastern region. To the west are mostly low, marshy plains.


=== Climate ===
=== Military coups (1967–1968) ===
The APC, with its leader [[Siaka Stevens]], narrowly won a small majority of seats in Parliament over the SLPP in a closely contested [[Sierra Leonean general election, 1967|1967 Sierra Leone general election]]. Stevens was sworn in as Prime Minister on 21 March 1967.
{{Main article|Climate of Paraguay}}
The overall climate is [[tropical climate|tropical]] to [[subtropical climate|subtropical]]. Like most lands in the region, Paraguay has only wet and dry periods. Winds play a major role in influencing Paraguay's weather: between October and March, warm winds blow from the Amazon Basin in the North, while the period between May and August brings cold winds from the Andes.


Within hours after taking office, Stevens was ousted in a bloodless [[military coup]] led by [[Brigadier General]] [[David Lansana]], the commander of the [[Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces|Sierra Leone Armed Forces]]. He was a close ally of Sir Albert Margai, who had appointed him to the position in 1964. Brigadier Lansana placed Stevens under [[house arrest]] in Freetown and insisted that the determination of the Prime Minister should await the election of the tribal representatives to the House. Upon his released, Stevens went into exiled in [[Guinea]].
The absence of mountain ranges to provide a natural barrier allows winds to develop speeds as high as {{convert|161|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. This also leads to significant changes in temperature within a short span of time; between April and September, temperatures will sometimes drop below freezing. January is the hottest summer month, with an average daily temperature of 28.9 degrees Celsius (84 degrees F).


On 23 March 1967, a group of military officers in the Sierra Leone Army led by [[Brigadier]] General [[Andrew Juxon-Smith]], overrode this action by a coup d'état; they seized control of the government, arresting Brigadier Lansana, and suspending the constitution. The group set up the [[National Reformation Council]] (NRC), with Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith as its chairman and Head of State of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldrover.com/history/sierra_leone_history.html |title=History of Sierra Leone |publisher=Worldrover.com |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>
Rainfall varies dramatically across the country, with substantial rainfall in the eastern portions, and semi-arid conditions in the far west. The far eastern forest belt receives an average of {{convert|170|cm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} of rain annually, while the western Chaco region typically averages no more than {{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} a year. The rains in the west tend to be irregular and evaporate quickly, contributing to the aridity of the area.


On 18 April 1968 a group of Corporals in the Sierra Leone Army who called themselves the Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM), led by [[Brigadier General]] [[John Amadu Bangura]], overthrew the NRC [[Military junta|junta]]. The ACRM junta arrested many senior NRC members. They reinstated the constitution and returned power to Stevens, who at last assumed the office of Prime Minister.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Gberie|first =Lansana |title = A dirty war in West Africa: the RUF and the destruction of Sierra Leone |publisher =C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |year =2005 |pages = 26–27 |url =https://books.google.com/?id=OeBYQAFPXxsC&pg=PA34|isbn =978-1-85065-742-2|accessdate =17 June 2014}}</ref>
==Government and politics==
{{Main article|Politics of Paraguay |Human rights in Paraguay|Foreign relations of Paraguay}}
Paraguay is a [[representative democratic]] republic, with a multi-party system and [[separation of powers]] in three branches. Executive power is exercised solely by the [[President of Paraguay|President]], who is [[head of state]] and [[head of government]]. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the two chambers of the [[Congress of Paraguay|National Congress]]. The [[Judicial Branch|judiciary]] is vested on [[tribunals]] and Courts of [[Civil Law (legal system)|Civil Law]] and a nine-member Supreme Court of Justice, all of them independent of the executive and the legislature.


=== One-party state (1968–1991) ===
===Military===
[[File:All People's Congress political rally Sierra Leone 1968.jpg|thumb|300px|An [[All People's Congress|APC]] political rally in the northern town of [[Kabala, Sierra Leone|Kabala]] outside the home of supporters of the rival [[Sierra Leone People's Party|SLPP]] in 1968.]]
{{main article|Military of Paraguay}}
[[File:Paraguayan marines at Ancon Marine Base 2010-07-19.JPG|thumb|Paraguayan marines at Ancon Marine Base]]
The [[military of Paraguay]] consist of the Paraguayan [[army]], [[navy]] (including [[naval aviation]] and [[marine corps]]) and [[air force]].


Stevens assumed power again in 1968 with a great deal of hope and ambition. Much trust was placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens had campaigned on a platform of bringing the tribes together under socialist principles. During his first decade or so in power, Stevens renegotiated some of what he called "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by his predecessors, both Albert Margai of the SLPP and Juxon-Smith of the NRC. Some of these policies by the SLPP and the NRC were said to have left the country in an economically deprived state.
The [[constitution of Paraguay]] establishes the [[president of Paraguay]] as the [[commander-in-chief]].


Stevens reorganised the country's refinery, the government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, and a cement factory. He cancelled Juxon-Smith's construction of a church and mosque on the grounds of Victoria Park (since mid 2017 ''Freetown Amusement Park''). Stevens began efforts that would later bridge the distance between the provinces and the city. Roads and hospitals were constructed in the provinces, and Paramount Chiefs and provincial peoples became a prominent force in Freetown.
Paraguay has [[Conscription|compulsory military service]], and all 18-year-old males and 17-year-olds in the year of their 18th birthday are liable for one year of [[active duty]]. Although the 1992 constitution allows for conscientious objection, no enabling legislation has yet been approved.


Under pressure of several coup attempts, real or perceived, Stevens' rule grew more and more [[authoritarian]], and his relationship with some of his ardent supporters deteriorated. He removed the SLPP party from competitive politics in general elections, some believed, through the use of violence and intimidation. To maintain the support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as the head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.
In July 2005, military aid in the form of U.S. [[Special Forces]] began arriving at Paraguay's [[Mariscal Estigarribia]] air base, a sprawling complex built in 1982.<ref>{{Cite news | title=U.S. Military Moves in Paraguay Rattle Regional Relations | publisher=[[International Relations Center]] | date=14 December 2005 | url=http://americas.irc-online.org/am/2991|archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/5Ppo0hSpY |archivedate = 24 June 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref name="Clarin">[http://www.clarin.com/suplementos/zona/2005/09/11/z-03615.htm US Marines put a foot in Paraguay], ''[[Clarín (Argentine newspaper)|El Clarín]]'', 9 September 2005 {{es icon}}</ref>


After the return to civilian rule, by-elections were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed. Calm was not completely restored. In November 1968, unrest in the provinces led Stevens to declare a state of emergency across the country. Many senior officers in the Sierra Leone Army were greatly disappointed with Stevens' policies and his handling of the Sierra Leone Military; but none could confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who had reinstated Stevens as Prime Minister, was widely considered the only person who could put the brakes on Stevens. The army was devoted to Bangura, and this made him potentially dangerous to Stevens. In January 1970, Bangura was arrested and charged with [[Conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy]] and plotting to commit a coup against the Stevens government. After a trial that lasted a few months, Bangura was [[convicted]] and [[Capital punishment|sentenced to death]]. On 29 March 1970, Brigadier Bangura was executed by hanging in Freetown.
===Administrative subdivisions===
{{Main article|Departments of Paraguay|Districts of Paraguay}}
Paraguay consists of seventeen departments and one capital district (''distrito capital'').


After the execution of Brigadier Bangura, a group of soldiers loyal to the executed Brigadier Bangura held a [[mutiny]] in the capital Freetown and in some other parts of the country in opposition of Stevens' government. Dozens of soldiers were arrested and [[convicted]] by a [[court martial]] in the capital [[Freetown]] for their participation in the mutiny against president Stevens; and among the soldiers arrested was a little known army [[Corporal]] [[Foday Sankoh]], a strong supporter of the executed Brigadier Bangura. Corporal Sankoh was convicted and jailed for seven years at the Pademba Road Prison in Freetown.
It is also divided into 2 regions: The "Occidental Region" or Chaco (Boquerón, Alto Paraguay and Presidente Hayes), and the "Oriental Region" (the other departments and the capital district).


In April 1971, a new republican constitution was adopted under which Stevens became President. In the 1972 by-elections the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and procedural obstruction by the APC and militia. These problems became so severe that the SLPP boycotted the [[Sierra Leonean general election, 1973|1973 general election]]; as a result the APC won 84 of the 85 elected seats.<ref>{{Cite book |last =Rotberg |first =Robert I. |title =State failure and state weakness in a time of terror |publisher = Brookings Institution Press|year =2003 |page = 80 |url =https://books.google.com/?id=oajfCpTpgCIC&pg=PA80|isbn = 978-0-8157-7574-4|accessdate = 17 June 2014}}</ref>
These are the departments, with their capitals, population, area and the number of districts:

{{Paraguay labelled map}}
An alleged plot to overthrow president Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed. In mid 1974, Guinean soldiers, requested by Stevens, were in the country to help maintain his hold on power. As Stevens was a close ally of then Guinean president [[Ahmed Sekou Toure]]. In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition for a second five-year term as president. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army and government officials including Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Mohamed Sorie Forna (father of writer [[Aminatta Forna]]), Brigadier General Ibrahim Bash Taqi and Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara were executed after being convicted of allegedly attempting a coup to topple president Stevens' government.
{| class="wikitable"

In 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against the government disrupted Sierra Leone politics. The demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens' own personal Special Security Division (SSD) force, a heavily armed paramilitary force he had created to protect him and to maintain his hold on power.<ref>[http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/1669 Politicized security forces or tribalized national politics; which is which?]. Newstime Africa. Retrieved on 26 February 2013.</ref> The SSD officers were very loyal to Stevens and were deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or protest against Stevens' government. [[Sierra Leonean parliamentary election, 1977|A general election]] was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15. In 1978, the APC-dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a [[one-party state]]. The 1978 constitution made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.<ref name=Gberie>Gberie, Lansana (1998). ''[http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/30/ War and state collapse: The case of Sierra Leone]'' (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University</ref>

This move led to another major demonstration against the government in many parts of the country but again it was put down by the army and Stevens' SSD forces. Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but on a positive note, he kept the country stable and from going into civil war. He built several government institutions that are still in use today. Stevens also reduced ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominant APC government.

Siaka Stevens retired from politics in November 1985 after being in power for eighteen years. The APC named a new presidential candidate to succeed Stevens at their last delegate conference held in Freetown in November 1985. He was [[Major General]] [[Joseph Saidu Momoh]], the head of the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces and Stevens' own choice to succeed him. As head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces, Major General Momoh was very loyal to Stevens, who had appointed him to the position. Like Stevens, Momoh was also a member of the minority Limba ethnic group.

Momoh was elected President as the only contesting candidate, without any opposition, and was sworn in as Sierra Leone's second president on 28 November 1985 in Freetown. A one-party parliamentary election between APC members was held in May 1986. President Momoh appointed his former military colleague and key ally, Major General Mohamed Tarawalie to succeed him as the head of the Sierra Leone Military. Major General Tarawalie was also a strong loyalist and key supporter of president Momoh. President Momoh named James Bambay Kamara as the head of the [[Sierra Leone Police]]. Bambay Kamara was a key loyalist and strong supporter of President Momoh. Momoh broke away from former president Siaka Stevens, by integrating the powerful SSD into the Sierra Leone Police as a special [[paramilitary force]] of the Sierra Leone Police. Previously under President Stevens, the SSD was a personal force of Stevens to maintain his hold on power, and the SSD was very powerful and was independent from the Sierra Leone Military and Sierra Leone Police Force, and the SSD was directly under the control of President Stevens. The Sierra Leone Police under Bambay Kamara leadership, was accused of physical violence, arrest and intimidation against critics of President Momoh's government.

President Momoh's strong links with the army and his verbal attacks on corruption earned him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. With the lack of new faces in the new APC cabinet under president Momoh and the return of many of the old faces from Stevens' government, criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens.

The next couple of years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise his war against corruption, President Momoh announced a "[[Code of Conduct]] for Political Leaders and Public Servants." After an alleged attempt to overthrow President Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice President [[Francis Minah]], who was removed from office, convicted of plotting the coup, and executed by [[hanging]] in 1989 along with 5 others.

=== Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002) ===
{{Further information|Sierra Leone Civil War}}
[[File:School destroyed by Sierra Leone Civil War.jpg|thumb|300px|A school in [[Koindu]] destroyed during the [[Sierra Leone Civil War|Civil War]]; in total 1,270 primary schools were destroyed in the War.<ref name="ilab"/>]]
In October 1990, owing to mounting pressure from both within and outside the country for political and economic reform, president Momoh set up a constitutional review commission to assess the 1978 one-party constitution. Based on the commission's recommendations a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system was approved by the exclusive APC Parliament by a 60% majority vote, becoming effective on 1 October 1991. There was great suspicion that president Momoh was not serious about his promise of political reform, as APC rule continued to be increasingly marked by abuses of power.

The brutal civil war that was going on in neighbouring [[Liberia]] played a significant role in the outbreak of fighting in Sierra Leone. [[Charles Taylor (Liberia)|Charles Taylor]] – then leader of the [[National Patriotic Front of Liberia]] – reportedly helped form the [[Revolutionary United Front|Revolutionary United Front (RUF)]] under the command of former Sierra Leonean army [[corporal]] [[Foday Sankoh|Foday Saybana Sankoh]], an ethnic Temne from [[Tonkolili District]] in Northern Sierra Leone. Sankoh was a British trained former army corporal who had also undergone guerrilla training in Libya. Taylor's aim was for the RUF to attack the bases of Nigerian dominated peacekeeping troops in Sierra Leone who were opposed to his rebel movement in Liberia.

On 29 April 1992, a group of young soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army, and lead by its seven coup ring leaders consisting of Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Captain [[Valentine Strasser]], Sargent [[Solomon Musa]], Captain [[Komba Mondeh]], Lieutenant [[Tom Nyuma]], Captain [[Julius Maada Bio]] and Captain Komba Kambo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sl/drwebsite/exec/view.cgi?archive=2&num=106 |title=NPRC's Komba Kambo Speaks After Eleven Years Of Silence!: Sierra Leone News |publisher=News.sl |accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref> that launched a [[military coup]], which sent president Momoh into [[exile]] in Guinea and the young soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) with twenty five year old Captain Valentine Strasser as its chairman and Head of State of the country.<ref name="blogspot1">{{cite web|url=http://salonenow.blogspot.com/2011/08/attempts-to-launder-maada-bios-battered.html#!/2011/08/attempts-to-launder-maada-bios-battered.html |title=SIERRA LEONE NOW: Attempts To Launder Maada Bio’s Battered Image Fail... We Were Not Supreme Council Members – Civilians In NPRC Deny Involvement In Atrocities |publisher=Salonenow.blogspot.com |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref>

Sargent Solomon Musa, a childhood friend of Strasser, became the deputy chairman and deputy leader of the NPRC [[Military junta|junta]] government. Strasser became the world's youngest Head of State when he seized power just three days after his 25th birthday. The NPRC junta established the National Supreme Council of State as the military highest command and final authority in all matters, and was exclusively made up of the highest ranking NPRC soldiers, included Strasser himself and the original soldiers who toppled president Momoh.<ref name="blogspot1"/>

One of the highest ranking soldiers of the NPRC Junta, Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, a trusted ally of Strasser, was assassinated, allegedly by Major S.I.M. Turay, a key loyalist of ousted president Momoh. A heavily armed military manhunt took place across the country to find Lieutenant Sandy's killer, however, the main suspect Major S.I.M Turay went into hiding and fled the country to Guinea, fearing for his life. Dozens of soldiers loyal to the ousted president Momoh were arrested including colonel Kahota M Dumbuya and Major Yayah Turay. Lieutenant Sandy' was given a [[state funeral]] and his funeral prayers service at the [[cathedral]] church in Freetown was attended by many high ranking soldiers of the NPRC junta including Strasser himself and NPRC deputy leader Sergeant Solomom Musa

The NPRC Junta immediately suspended the constitution, banned all political parties, limited [[freedom of speech]] and [[freedom of the press]] and enacted a rule-by-decree policy, in which soldiers were granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial, and challenges against such detentions in court were precluded.

The NPRC Junta maintained relations with the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) and strengthened support for Sierra Leone-based [[Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group|ECOMOG]] troops fighting in Liberia. On 28 December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against the NPRC government of Strasser, aimed at freeing the detained Colonel Yahya Kanu, Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya and former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara was foiled. Several Junior army officers lead by Seargen Mohamed Lamin Bangura were identified as being behind the coup plot. The coup plot led to the [[firing squad]] execution of seventeen soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army including Colonel Kahota M Dumbuya, Major Yayah Kanu and Seargent Mohamed Lamin Bangura. Several prominent members of the Momoh government who had been in detention at the Pa Demba Road prison, including former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara were also executed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.standardtimespress.org/artman/publish/article_4699.shtml |title=STANDARD TIMES PRESS SIERRA LEONE NPRC's Ruthlessness No Death Certificates For 29 Sierra Leoneans PAGE |publisher=Standardtimespress.org |date=23 June 2010 |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

On 5 July 1994 the deputy NPRC leader Seargent Solomon Musu, who was very popular with the general population, particularly in Freetown, was arrested and sent into exile after he was accused of planning a coup to topple Strasser. An accusation Seargent Musa denied. Strasser replaced Musa as deputy NPRC chairman with Captain Julius Maada Bio, who was instantly promoted by Strasser to [[Brigadier]].

The NPRC proved to be nearly as ineffectual as the Momoh-led APC government in repelling the RUF. More and more of the country fell to RUF fighters, and by 1994 they held much of the diamond-rich Eastern Province and were at the edge of Freetown. In response, the NPRC hired several hundred mercenaries from the private firm [[Executive Outcomes]]. Within a month they had driven RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone's borders, and cleared the RUF from the Kono diamond producing areas of Sierra Leone.

With Strasser's two most senior NPRC allies and commanders Lieutenant Sahr Sandy and Lieutenant [[Solomon Musa]] no longer around to defend him, Strasser's leadership within the NPRC Supreme Council of State was not considered much stronger. On 16 January 1996, after about four years in power, Strasser was arrested in a palace coup at the Defence Headquarter in Freetown by his fellow NPRC soldiers<ref name="FSL Vol 2 No 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.focus-on-sierra-leone.co.uk/Vol2_1.htm |title=FSL Vol 2 No 1 |publisher=Focus-on-sierra-leone.co.uk |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> Strasser was immediately flown into exile in a [[military helicopter]] to [[Conakry]], [[Guinea]].

In his first public broadcast to the nation following the 1996 coup, Brigadier Bio stated that his support for returning Sierra Leone to a democratically elected civilian government and his commitment to ending the civil war were his motivations for the coup.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/How+Sierra+Leone+fell+into+the+hands+of+young+soldiers.-a0254314002 |title=How Sierra Leone fell into the hands of young soldiers|publisher=Thefreelibrary.com |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> Promises of a return to civilian rule were fulfilled by Bio, who handed power over to [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]], of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), after the conclusion of elections in early 1996. President Kabbah took power with a great promise of ending the civil war. President Kabbah opened [[dialogue]] with the RUF and invited RUF leader Foday Sankoh for peace negotiations.

On 25 May 1997, seventeen soldiers in the Sierra Leone army led by Corporal Tamba Gborie, loyal to the detained [[Major General]] [[Johnny Paul Koroma]], launched a military coup which sent President Kabbah into exile in Guinea and they established the [[Armed Forces Revolutionary Council]] (AFRC). Corporal Gborie quickly went to the SLBS FM 99.9 headquarters in Freetown to announce the coup to a shocked nation and to alert all soldiers across the country to report for guard duty. The soldiers immediately released Koroma from prison and installed him as their chairman and Head of State.

Koroma suspended the constitution, banned demonstrations, shut down all private radio stations in the country and invited the RUF to join the new junta government, with its leader Foday Sankoh as the Vice-Chairman of the new AFRC-RUF coalition junta government. Within days, Freetown was overwhelmed by the presence of the RUF combatants who came to the city in thousands. The Kamajors, a group of traditional fighters mostly from the Mende ethnic group under the command of deputy [[Defence Minister]] [[Samuel Hinga Norman]], remained loyal to President Kabbah and defended the Southern part of Sierra Leone from the soldiers.

=== Kabbah's government and the end of civil war (2002–2014) ===
{{update|section|date=February 2013}}
After 9 months in office, the junta was overthrown by the Nigerian-led [[ECOMOG]] forces, and the democratically elected government of president Kabbah was reinstated in February 1998. On 19 October 1998 twenty-four soldiers in the Sierra Leone army were executed by firing squad after they were convicted at a [[court martial]] in Freetown, some for orchestrating the 1997 coup that overthrew President Kabbah and others for failure to reverse the mutiny.<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AFR51/019/1998/en/dab1072b-d9ac-11dd-af2b-b1f6023af0c5/afr510191998en.html Document – Sierra Leone: Imminent execution / death penalty / legal concern |Amnesty International]. Amnesty.org (1998). Retrieved on 26 February 2013.</ref>

In October 1999, the United Nations agreed to send [[peacekeeping|peacekeepers]] to help restore order and disarm the rebels. The first of the 6,000-member force began arriving in December, and the [[UN Security Council]] voted in February 2000 to increase the force to 11,000, and later to 13,000. But in May, when nearly all [[Nigeria]]n forces had left and UN forces were trying to disarm the RUF in eastern Sierra Leone, [[Foday Sankoh|Sankoh]]'s forces clashed with the UN troops, and some 500 peacekeepers were taken [[hostage]] as the peace accord effectively collapsed. The hostage crisis resulted in more fighting between the RUF and the government as UN troops launched [[Operation Khukri]] to end the siege. The Operation was successful with Indian and British [[Special Forces]] being the main contingents.

The situation in the country deteriorated to such an extent that British troops were deployed in [[Operation Palliser]], originally simply to evacuate foreign nationals. However, the British exceeded their original mandate, and took full military action to finally defeat the rebels and restore order. The British were the catalyst for the ceasefire that ended the civil war. Elements of the [[British Army]], together with administrators and politicians, remain in Sierra Leone to this day, helping train the armed forces, improve the infrastructure of the country and administer financial and material aid. [[Tony Blair]], the Prime Minister of Britain at the time of the British intervention, is regarded as a hero by the people of Sierra Leone, many of whom are keen for more British involvement.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} Sierra Leoneans have been described as "The World's Most Resilient People".<ref>{{cite book|last=Bah|first=M.|title=The Worlds Most Resilient People|year=1998|publisher=Alpha|location=London}}</ref>

Between 1991 and 2001, about [[List of wars by death toll|50,000 people were killed]] in Sierra Leone's civil war. Hundreds of thousands of people were forced from their homes and many became refugees in [[Guinea]] and [[Liberia]]. In 2001, UN forces moved into rebel-held areas and began to disarm rebel soldiers. By January 2002, the war was declared over. In May 2002, [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah|Kabbah]] was re-elected president by a landslide. By 2004, the disarmament process was complete. Also in 2004, a UN-backed [[war crime]]s court began holding trials of senior leaders from both sides of the war. In December 2005, UN peacekeeping forces pulled out of Sierra Leone.

In August 2007, Sierra Leone held presidential and parliamentary elections. However, no presidential candidate won the 50% plus one vote majority stipulated in the constitution on the first round of voting. A runoff election was held in September 2007, and [[Ernest Bai Koroma]], the candidate of the main opposition APC, was elected president. Koroma was re-elected president for a second (and final) term in November 2012.

=== Struggle with epidemic (2014–present) ===
In 2014 an [[Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone]] began, which had widespread impact on the country,<ref name="internationalsos.com">[https://www.internationalsos.com/ebola/index.cfm?content_id=397&language_id=ENG Sierra Leone]. Internationalsos.com. Retrieved on 24 February 2017.</ref> including forcing Sierra Leone to declare a state of emergency.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094194|title=Sierra Leone country profile|date=4 January 2017|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=21 February 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref> By the end of 2014 there were nearly 3000 deaths and 10 thousand cases of the disease in Sierra Leone.<ref name="internationalsos.com"/> The epidemic also led to the [[Ouse to Ouse Tock]] in September 2014, a nationwide three-day quarantine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sierra Leone launches three-day, door-to-door Ebola prevention campaign|url=http://www.unicef.org/media/media_75963.html|publisher=UNICEF|accessdate=24 September 2014}}</ref> The epidemic occurred as part of the wider [[Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa]]. In early August 2014 Sierra Leone cancelled league football (soccer) matches because of the Ebola epidemic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/soccer/sierra-leone-cancels-soccer-matches-ebola-outbreak-article-1.1892588|title=Sierra Leone cancels all soccer matches over Ebola outbreak |work=NY Daily News|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref>

== Geography and climate ==
{{Main article|Geography of Sierra Leone}}

[[File:UNsierraleone.PNG|thumb|550px|A map of Sierra Leone.]]
[[File:Sierra Leone map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Sierra Leone map of Köppen climate classification.]]
Sierra Leone is located on the west coast of Africa, lying mostly between latitudes [[7th parallel north|7°]] and [[10th parallel north|10°N]] (a small area is south of 7°), and longitudes [[10th meridian west|10°]] and [[14th meridian west|14°W]]. The country is bordered by [[Guinea]] to the north and northeast, [[Liberia]] to the south and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.<ref name="LeVertP7">{{Cite book |last =LeVert |first =Suzanne |title =Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone |page=7|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn =978-0-7614-2334-8 |year =2006}}</ref>

Sierra Leone has a total area of {{convert|71740|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, divided into a land area of {{convert|71620|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} and water of {{convert|120|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=Sierra Leone |work=[[The World Factbook]] |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sl.html |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]|accessdate=15 September 2011}}</ref> The country has four distinct geographical regions. In eastern Sierra Leone the [[plateau]] is interspersed with high mountains, where [[Mount Bintumani]] reaches {{convert|1948|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, the highest point in the country. The upper part of the [[drainage basin]] of the [[Moa River]] is located in the south of this region.

The centre of the country is a region of [[lowland]] [[plain]]s, containing forests, [[The bush|bush]] and [[Arable land|farmland]],<ref name="LeVertP7"/> that occupies about 43% of Sierra Leone's land area. The northern section of this has been categorised by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] as part of the [[Guinean forest-savanna mosaic]] [[ecoregion]], while the south is rain-forested plains and farmland.

In the west, Sierra Leone has some {{convert|400|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} of Atlantic coastline, giving it both bountiful marine resources and attractive tourist potential. The coast has areas of low-lying [[Guinean mangroves]] swamp. The national capital [[Freetown]] sits on a coastal [[peninsula]], situated next to the Sierra Leone Harbour, the world's third largest natural harbour.

The climate is tropical, with two seasons determining the agricultural cycle: the [[rainy season]] from May to November, and a [[dry season]] from December to May, which includes [[harmattan]], when cool, dry winds blow in off the [[Sahara Desert]] and the night-time temperature can be as low as {{convert|16|°C|°F|1}}. The average temperature is {{convert|26|°C|°F|1}} and varies from around {{convert|26|to|36|°C|°F|1}} during the year.<ref>{{Cite book |last =Blinker |first =Linda |date=September 2006 |title =Country Environment Profile (CEP) Sierra Leone |publisher=Consortium Parsons Brinckerhoff |location = Freetown, Sierra Leone
|url=http://www.sliip.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=46|page=12 |accessdate = 2 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last =LeVert |first =Suzanne|title =Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone |pages=8–9|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn =978-0-7614-2334-8 |year =2006}}</ref>

=== Environment ===
{{See also|Wildlife of Sierra Leone}}

Human activities claimed to be responsible or contributing to [[land degradation]] in Sierra Leone include unsustainable agricultural land use, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation, removal of natural vegetation, fuelwood consumption and to a lesser extent overgrazing and urbanisation.<ref name="unccd">{{cite web
|url=http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/africa/national/2004/sierra_leone-eng.pdf|title=National Report on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Sierra Leone |year=2004 |author=UNCCD |accessdate=24 November 2011 |page=39}}</ref>

[[Deforestation]], both for commercial timber and to make room for agriculture, is the major concern and represents an enormous loss of natural economic wealth to the nation.<ref name="unccd"/> Mining and [[slash and burn]] for land conversion – such as cattle grazing – dramatically diminished forested land in Sierra Leone since the 1980s. It is listed among countries of concern for emissions, as having Low Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD).<ref name="Angelsen, Arild et al 2009 75–77">{{cite web|title= Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): An Options Assessment Report |publisher=Meridian Institute for the Government of Norway |year= 2009 |url= http://www.africaclimatesolution.org/features/REDD-Options_Assessment_Report.pdf|pages=75–77 |accessdate=24 November 2011 |author=Angelsen, Arild|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

There are concerns that heavy logging continues in the Tama-Tonkoli Forest Reserve in the north. Loggers have extended their operations to Nimini, Kono District, Eastern Province; Jui, Western Rural District, Western Area; Loma Mountains National Park, Koinadougu, Northern Province; and with plans to start operations in the Kambui Forest reserve in the Kenema District, Eastern Province.<ref name="Angelsen, Arild et al 2009 75–77"/>

[[Habitat]] degradation for the [[African wild dog]], ''Lycaon pictus'', has been increased, such that this [[Canidae|canid]] is deemed to have been extirpated in Sierra Leone.<ref>Hogan, C. Michael (2009). [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 Painted Hunting Dog: ''Lycaon pictus''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 |date=9 December 2010 }}. GlobalTwitcher.com.</ref>

Until 2002, Sierra Leone lacked a forest management system because of the civil war that caused tens of thousands of deaths. Deforestation rates have increased 7.3% since the end of the civil war.<ref name="rainforests.mongabay.com">Butler, Rhett (2005). [http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20sierraleone.htm ''Sierra Leone: Environmental Profile''], mongabay.com</ref> On paper, 55 protected areas covered 4.5% of Sierra Leone as of 2003. The country has 2,090 known [[species]] of higher plants, 147 [[mammals]], 626 birds, 67 [[reptiles]], 35 [[amphibians]], and 99 fish species.<ref name="rainforests.mongabay.com"/>

The [[Environmental Justice Foundation]] has documented how the number of [[illegal fishing]] vessels in Sierra Leone's waters has multiplied in recent years. The amount of illegal fishing has significantly depleted fish stocks, depriving local fishing communities of an important resource for survival. The situation is particularly serious as fishing provides the only source of income for many communities in a country still recovering from over a decade of civil war.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Environmental Justice Foundation |url=http://www.ejfoundation.org/page370.html |title=Sierra Leone |date=17 September 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010165129/http://www.ejfoundation.org/page370.html |archivedate=10 October 2008}}</ref>

In June 2005, the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] (RSPB) and BirdLife International agreed to support a conservation-[[sustainable development]] project in the [[Gola Forest]] in south eastern Sierra Leone,<ref>BBC News, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7136606.stm ''Sierra Leone sets up forest park''], 10 December 2007
</ref> an important surviving fragment of [[rainforest]] in Sierra Leone.

== Government and politics ==
{{Main article|Politics of Sierra Leone}}
[[File:Ernest Bai Koroma.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Bai Koroma]], current president of Sierra Leone]]
Sierra Leone is a [[constitutional republic]] with a [[Direct democracy|directly elected]] president and a [[unicameral legislature]]. The current system of national government in Sierra Leone, established under the 1991 Constitution, is modelled on the following structure of government: the Legislature, the Executive and the [[Judiciary]].<ref name="nyulawglobal.org">Hanatu Kabbah (November 2006). [http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Sierra_Leone.htm Sierra Leone Legal System and Legal Research]. nyulawglobal.org</ref>

Within the confines of the 1991 Constitution, supreme legislative powers are vested in [[Parliament of Sierra Leone|Parliament]], which is the law making body of the nation. Supreme executive authority rests in the president and members of his cabinet and judicial power with the judiciary of which the [[Chief Justice]] is head.

The president is the [[head of state]], the [[head of government]] and the [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Military of Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone Armed Forces]] and the [[Sierra Leone Police]]. The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers, which must be approved by the Parliament. The president is elected by [[Direct election|popular vote]] to a maximum of two five-year terms. The president is the highest and most influential position within the government of Sierra Leone.

To be elected president of Sierra Leone, a candidate must gain at least 55% of the vote. If no candidate gets 55%, there is a [[Two-round system|second-round runoff]] between the top two candidates.

The current president of Sierra Leone is [[Ernest Bai Koroma]], who was sworn in on 17 September 2007. The first person of Temne ancestry to be elected president, he won a tense run-off election, defeating incumbent [[Vice President of Sierra Leone|Vice-president]], [[Solomon Berewa]] of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP).<ref>{{cite news
|title=Country profile: Sierra Leone
|date=18 June 2008
|publisher=BBC News
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1061561.stm
|accessdate=5 August 2008
}}</ref>

Koroma was re-elected as President for his second and final term, on 23 November 2012, with 58.7%, in the 2012 Sierra Leone Presidential election, defeating his main opponent, [[Retired]] [[Brigadier]] [[Julius Maada Bio]] of the main opposition Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), who got 37.4%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nec-sierraleone.org/ |title=nec-sierraleone.org |publisher=nec-sierraleone.org |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20472962 |title=BBC News – Sierra Leone: Ernest Bai Koroma wins presidential poll |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=23 November 2012 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rttnews.com/2011439/sierra-leone-president-ernest-bai-koroma-reelected.aspx?type=msgn |title=Sierra Leone President Ernest Bai Koroma Reelected |publisher=Rttnews.com |date=23 November 2012 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/2012-11/24/c_123995695.htm |title=Ernest Bai Koroma re-elected as Sierra Leone's President – Xinhua &#124; English.news.cn |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |date=24 November 2012 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref>

Koroma was sworn in as President for his second and final term by [[Chief Justice]] [[Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh]] at [[State House (Sierra Leone)|State House]] in Freetown; the same day he was declared the winner of the election.<ref>{{cite web |author=Dustan B, Brima |url=http://www.cocorioko.net/?p=40646 |title=The time for politics is over and moment for continuation of transformation has come, President says as he is sworn in to serve second term |publisher=Cocorioko |date=27 November 2012 |accessdate=20 March 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212065344/https://www.cocorioko.net/?p=40646 |archivedate=12 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Next to the president is the [[Vice President of Sierra Leone|Vice-president]], who is the second-highest ranking government official in the executive branch of the Sierra Leone Government. As designated by the Sierra Leone Constitution, the vice-president is to become the new president of Sierra Leone upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president by parliament and to assume the Presidency temporarily while the president is otherwise temporarily unable to fulfil his or her duties. The vice-president is elected jointly with the president as his or her [[running mate]]. Sierra Leone's current vice-president is [[Victor Bockarie Foh]], who was sworn in on 19 March 2015 [http://www.voanews.com/content/sierra-leone-president-swears-in-a-new-vice-president/2688017.html][http://theafricapaper.com/2015/03/23/sierra-leones-president-swears-in-new-vp-despite-legal-challenge/][http://slconcordtimes.com/victor-foh-appointed-vp/].

=== Parliament ===
[[File:Freetown Court 1984.jpg|thumb|250px|The Sierra Leone [[Supreme Court of Sierra Leone|Supreme Court]] in the capital [[Freetown]], the highest and most powerful court in the country]]
The [[Parliament of Sierra Leone]] is [[unicameral]], with 124 seats. Each of the country's fourteen districts is represented in parliament. 112 members are elected concurrently with the presidential elections; the other 12 seats are filled by [[paramount chief]]s from each of the country's 12 [[Districts of Sierra Leone|administrative districts]]. The Sierra Leone parliament is led by the Speaker of Parliament, who is the overall leader of Parliament and is directly elected by sitting members of parliament. The current speaker of the Sierra Leone parliament is [[Sheku Badara Bashiru Dumbuya]], who was elected by members of parliament on 21 January 2014.

The current members of Parliament of Sierra Leone were elected in the 2012 Sierra Leone parliamentary election. The [[All People's Congress]] (APC) currently has 70 of the 112 elected parliamentary seats and the [[Sierra Leone People's Party]] (SLPP) has 42 of the elected 112 parliamentary seats. Sierra Leone's two most dominant [[political party|parties]], the APC and the SLPP, collectively won every elected seats in Parliament in the 2012 Sierra Leone parliamentary election. To be qualified as Member of Parliament, the person must be a citizen of Sierra Leone, must be at least 21 years old, must be able to speak, read and write the English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him to actively take part in proceedings in Parliament; and must not have any criminal conviction.<ref name="nyulawglobal.org"/>

Since independence in 1961, Sierra Leone's politics has been dominated by two major political parties: the SLPP and the ruling APC. Other minor political parties have also existed but with no significant support.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Sierra Leone National Election Commission Bulletin
|date=September–December 2011
|url=http://www.nec-sierraleone.org/Bulletin.html
|accessdate=25 February 2012
}}</ref>

=== Judiciary ===
{{main article|Judiciary of Sierra Leone}}
The judicial power of Sierra Leone is vested in the [[judiciary]], headed by the [[Chief Justice]] and comprising the Sierra Leone Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the country and its ruling therefore cannot be appealed; the High Court of Justice; the Court of Appeal; the magistrate courts; and traditional courts in rural villages. The president appoints and parliament approves Justices for the three courts. The Judiciary have jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters throughout the country. The current acting [[Chief Justice]] of Sierra Leone is Valicious Thomas [http://www.newctzen.com/index.php/11-news/2289-acting-chief-justice-appeals-to-colleagues]

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main article|Foreign relations of Sierra Leone}}
[[File:Embassy of Sierra Leone.JPG|thumb|Embassy of Sierra Leone in Washington, D.C.]]

The Sierra Leone Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation is responsible for foreign policy of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone has diplomatic relations that include China, [[Russia]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ambassade de la Fédération de Russie en République de Guinée|title=Russia and Sierra Leone diplomatic relations|url=http://guinea.mid.ru/web/guinee-fr/actualites-de-l-ambassade/-/asset_publisher/u42vl5IwZdlL/content/55th-anniversary-of-diplomatic-relations-between-russia-and-sierra-leone?inheritRedirect=false&redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fguinea.mid.ru%2Fweb%2Fguinee-fr%2Factualites-de-l-ambassade%3Fp_p_id%3D101_INSTANCE_u42vl5IwZdlL%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3Dview%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-1%26p_p_col_count%3D1|website=mid.ru|accessdate=2 May 2017}}</ref> [[Libya]], [[Iran]], and [[Cuba]]. Sierra Leone has good relations with the West, including the United States, and has maintained historical ties with the United Kingdom and other former [[British Empire|British colonies]] through membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].<ref>{{cite web |date =October 2008 |title =Background Note: Sierra Leone |publisher=U.S. Department of State |url =https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5475.htm |accessdate =7 October 2008}}</ref> The United Kingdom has played a major role in providing aid to the former colony, together with administrative help and military training since intervening to end the Civil War in 2000.

Former President [[Siaka Stevens]]' government had sought closer relations with other [[West African]] countries under the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) a policy continued by the current government. Sierra Leone, along with [[Liberia]] and [[Guinea]], form the [[Mano River Union]] (MRU). It is primarily designed to implement development projects and promote regional [[economic integration]] between the three countries.<ref>{{cite web|year =2006 |title =Welcome to the Mano River Union Website |publisher=Mano River Union |url =http://www.manoriverunion.org/ |accessdate =7 October 2008}}</ref>

Sierra Leone is also a member of the United Nations and its specialised agencies, the [[African Union]], the [[African Development Bank]] (AFDB), the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM).<ref name=foreign>{{cite web |year =2007 |title =Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Relations |publisher =Sierra Leone Encyclopedia |url =http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_2mfa.htm |archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182542/http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_2mfa.htm |archivedate =23 February 2009 |accessdate =7 October 2008 |deadurl =yes |df =dmy-all }}</ref> Sierra Leone is a member of the [[International Criminal Court]] with a [[Bilateral Immunity Agreement]] of protection for the [[Military of the United States|US military]] (as covered under Article 98).

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main article|Administrative divisions of Sierra Leone}}
[[File:Sierra Leone Districts.png|thumb|350px|The 12 districts and 2 areas of Sierra Leone.]]
The Republic of Sierra Leone is composed of four regions: the [[Northern Province, Sierra Leone|Northern Province]], [[Southern Province, Sierra Leone|Southern Province]], the [[Eastern Province, Sierra Leone|Eastern Province]], and the [[Western Area]]. The first three provinces are further divided into 12 districts.

The districts are divided into 149 chiefdoms, which have traditionally been led by [[paramount chiefs]], recognised by the British administration in 1896 at the time of organising the Protectorate of Sierra Leone. The Paramount Chiefs are very influential, particularly in [[villages]] and small rural towns.<ref name="tristan">[http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jrobinson/files/history.pdf Tristan Reed and James A. Robinson, ''The Chiefdoms of Sierra Leone''], ''Scholar'', Harvard University, 15 July 2013, accessed 30 April 2014</ref> Each chiefdom has ruling families that were recognised at that time; the Tribal Authority, made up of local notables, elects the paramount chief from the ruling families.<ref name="tristan"/> Typically, chiefs have the power to "raise taxes, control the judicial system, and allocate land, the most important resource in rural areas."<ref name="daron">[http://public-prod-acquia.gsb.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/documents/pe_10_13_Robinson_0.pdf Daron Acemoglu, Tristan Reed. and James A. Robinson. "Chiefs: Economic Development and Elite Control of Civil Society in Sierra Leone"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305101740/http://public-prod-acquia.gsb.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/documents/pe_10_13_Robinson_0.pdf |date=5 March 2016 }}, Stanford University, 29 August 2013, accessed 30 April 2014</ref>

Sierra Leone also designates units of government called ''localities''. To broaden representative government, each has a directly elected local district council to exercise authority and carry out functions at a local level.<ref name="Renner-Thomas 2010 6–7">{{Cite book |last =Renner-Thomas |first = Ade |title = Land Tenure in Sierra Leone: The Law, Dualism and the Making of a Land Policy |publisher =AuthorHouse |year =2010 |pages = 6–7 |url =https://books.google.com/?id=RiIpW6vWVPoC&pg=PA5|isbn=978-1-4490-5866-1|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = ActionAid launches Perception survey as new local councils struggle to survive |publisher = ActionAid |url = http://www.actionaid.org/tanzania/index.aspx?PageID=3925|accessdate =26 February 2011}}{{dead link|date=June 2014}}</ref> There are 13 district councils, one for each of the 12 districts and one for the Western Area Rural. Six municipalities also have elected local councils: [[Freetown]], [[Bo, Sierra Leone|Bo]], [[Bonthe]], [[Kenema]], [[Koidu]], and [[Makeni]].<ref name="Renner-Thomas 2010 6–7"/>

{|class="wikitable" style="float:left;"
!District!!Capital|!!Area km<sup>2</sup>||Province||Population<br/> (2004 census)<ref name=SSL>{{cite web |title =Final Results 2004 population and housing census |publisher=Statistics Sierra Leone |url=http://www.sierra-leone.org/Census/ssl_final_results.pdf|format= PDF|page=3|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref><!--These are the official figures please do not change without discussion-->||Population<br/> (2015 census)<ref name=census2015>{{cite web |url=https://www.statistics.sl/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/2015-Census-Provisional-Result.pdf |title=Provisional Results |work=Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census |date=March 2016 |publisher=Statistics Sierra Leone}}</ref>
|-
|-
|[[Bombali District]] ||[[Makeni]]||align="right"|7,985||rowspan="5"|[[Northern Province, Sierra Leone|Northern<br/> Province]]||align="right"|408,390||align="right"|606,183<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6636 |title=Bombali – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |accessdate=20 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111130941/http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6636 |archivedate=11 January 2012}}</ref>
! [[ISO 3166-2:PY]]
!Departament
! '''Capital'''
!'''Population (2002 census)'''
!'''Area (km²)'''
!'''Districts'''
|-
|-
||[[Koinadugu District]] ||[[Kabala, Sierra Leone|Kabala]]||align="right"|12,121||align="right"|265,758||align="right"|408,097<ref name="Port Loko">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6644 |title=Port Loko |publisher=World-gazetteer.com |accessdate=20 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111130027/http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6644 |archivedate=11 January 2012}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| ASU || Distrito Capital
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Asunción]] ||512,112||117||6
|-
|-
|[[Port Loko District]] ||[[Port Loko]]||align="right"|5,719||align="right"|453,746||align="right"|614,063<ref name="Port Loko"/>
| style="text-align:right;"| 1 || [[Concepción Department (Paraguay)|Concepción]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Concepción, Paraguay|Concepción]]||179,450||18,051||8
|-
|-
|[[Tonkolili District]] ||[[Magburaka]]||align="right"|7,003||align="right"|347,197||align="right"|530,776<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6647 |title=Tonkolili – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |accessdate=20 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325091059/http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6647 |archivedate=25 March 2012}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 2 || [[San Pedro Department, Paraguay|San Pedro]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[San Pedro, Paraguay|San Pedro]]||318,698||20,002||20
|-
|-
|[[Kambia District]] ||[[Kambia, Sierra Leone|Kambia]]||align="right"|3,108||align="right"|270,462||align="right"|343,686<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6639 |title=Kambia – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |accessdate=20 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111130853/http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6639 |archivedate=11 January 2012}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 3 || [[Cordillera Department|Cordillera]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Caacupé]]||233,854||4,948||20
|-
|-
|[[Kenema District]] ||[[Kenema]]||align="right"|6,053||rowspan="3"|[[Eastern Province, Sierra Leone|Eastern<br/> Province]]||align="right"|497,948||align="right"|609,873<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6640 |title=Kenema – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |accessdate=20 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111124545/http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6640 |archivedate=11 January 2012}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 4
| [[Guairá Department|Guairá]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Villarrica, Paraguay|Villarrica]]||178,650||3,846||18
|-
|-
|[[Kono District]] ||[[Koidu|Koidu Town]] ||align="right"|5,641||align="right"|335,401||align="right"|505,767<ref name="World Gazetteer">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6638 |title=Kailahun – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |accessdate=20 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111123401/http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6638 |archivedate=11 January 2012}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 5 || [[Caaguazú Department|Caaguazú]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Coronel Oviedo]]||435,357||11,474||21
|-
|-
|[[Kailahun District]] ||[[Kailahun]] ||align="right"|3,859||align="right"|358,190||align="right"|525,372<ref name="World Gazetteer"/>
| style="text-align:right;"| 6 ||[[Caazapá Department|Caazapá]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Caazapá]]||139,517||9,496||10
|-
|-
|[[Bo District]] ||[[Bo, Sierra Leone|Bo]] ||align="right"|5,219||rowspan="4"|[[Southern Province, Sierra Leone|Southern<br/> Province]]||align="right"|463,668||align="right"|574,201<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6635 |title=Bo – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |accessdate=20 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407025326/http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6635 |archivedate=7 April 2012}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 7 || [[Itapúa]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Encarnación, Paraguay|Encarnación]]||453,692||16,525||30
|-
|-
|[[Bonthe District]] ||[[Mattru Jong]] ||align="right"|3,468||align="right"|139,687||align="right"|200,730<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6637 |title=Bonthe |publisher=World-gazetteer.com |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 8
| [[Misiones Department|Misiones]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[San Juan Bautista, Paraguay|San Juan Bautista]]||101,783||9,556||10
|-
|-
|[[Pujehun District]] ||[[Pujehun]] ||align="right"|4,105||align="right"|228,392 ||align="right"|345,577
| style="text-align:right;"| 9
| [[Paraguarí Department|Paraguarí]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Paraguarí]]||221,932||8,705||17
|-
|-
|[[Moyamba District]] ||[[Moyamba]] ||align="right"|6,902||align="right"|260,910 ||align="right"|318,064
| style="text-align:right;"| 10 || [[Alto Paraná Department|Alto Paraná]]
| style="text-align:left;"|[[Ciudad del Este]]||558,672||14,895||21
|-
|-
|[[Western Area Urban District]] ||[[Freetown]] ||align="right"|13||rowspan="2"|[[Western Area|Western<br/> Area]]||align="right"|772,873||align="right"|1,050,301
| style="text-align:right;"| 11 ||[[Central Department|Central]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Areguá]]||1,362,893||2,465||19
|-
|-
|[[Western Area Rural District]] ||[[Waterloo, Sierra Leone|Waterloo]] ||align="right"|544||align="right"|174,249||align="right"|442,951
| style="text-align:right;"| 12 ||[[Ñeembucú]]
|}
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Pilar, Paraguay|Pilar]]||76,348||12,147||16
{{Clear}}

=== Military ===
{{Main article|Military of Sierra Leone}}

The Military of Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces (RSLAF), are the unified armed forces of Sierra Leone responsible for the territorial security of Sierra Leone's border and defending the national interests of Sierra Leone within the framework of its international obligations. The armed forces were formed after independence in 1961, on the basis of elements of the former British [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] present in the country. The Sierra Leone Armed Forces consists of around 15,500 personnel, comprising the largest Sierra Leone Army,<ref>[http://www.janes.com/extracts/extract/wafrsu/siers100.html Armed forces (Sierra Leone) Jane's Sentinel Security Assessments], June 2008</ref> the Sierra Leone Navy and the Sierra Leone Air Wing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-World-Air-Forces/Summary-Sierra-Leone.html |title=Summary (Sierra Leone) – Jane's World Air Forces |publisher=Janes.com |date=30 July 2010 |accessdate=22 August 2010}}</ref>

The president of Sierra Leone is the [[Commander in Chief]] of the military, with the Minister of Defence responsible for defence policy and the formulation of the armed forces. The current Sierra Leone Defence Minister is retired Major [[Paolo Conteh|Alfred Paolo Conteh]]. The Military of Sierra Leone also has a [[Chief of the Defence Staff (Sierra Leone)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] who is a uniformed [[military official]] responsible for the administration and the operational control of the Sierra Leone military.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200511647.shtml |title=In Sierra Leone, Army Chief of Defence Staff Commends Troops |publisher=News.sl |date=26 March 2009|author=Turay, Aruna |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> [[Brigadier General]] [[Alfred Nelson-Williams]] who was appointed by president Koroma succeeded the retired [[Major General]] [[Edward Sam M’boma]] on 12 September 2008 as the Chief of Defence Staff of the Military.<ref>New Vision, Freetown, 15 September 2008</ref>

Before Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961, the military was known as the Royal Sierra Leone Military Force. The military seized control in 1968, bringing the [[National Reformation Council]] into power. On 19 April 1971, when Sierra Leone became a republic, the Royal Sierra Leone Military Forces were renamed the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force (RSLMF).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_6rslaf.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111070308/http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_6rslaf.htm |archivedate=11 January 2010 |title=Partners: Sierra Leone Armed Forces |publisher=Daco-sl.org |accessdate=20 May 2012 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The RSLMF remained a single-service organisation until 1979, when the Sierra Leone Navy was established. In 1995 Defence Headquarters was established, and the Sierra Leone Air Wing formed. The RSLMF was renamed as the Armed Forces of the Republic of Sierra Leone (AFRSL).

=== Law enforcement ===
Law enforcement in Sierra Leone is primarily the responsibility of the [[Sierra Leone Police]] (SLP). Sierra Leone Police was established by the [[British colony]] in 1894; it is one of the oldest police forces in West Africa. It works to prevent crime, protect life and property, detect and prosecute offenders, maintain [[public order]], ensure safety and security, and enhance access to justice. The Sierra Leone Police is headed by the [[Inspector General of Police]], the professional head of the Sierra Leone Police force, who is appointed by the [[President of Sierra Leone]].

Each one of [[Districts of Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone's 14 districts]] is headed by a district police commissioner who is the professional head of their respective district. These Police Commissioners report directly to the Inspector General of Police at the Sierra Leone Police headquarters in [[Freetown]]. The current Inspector General of Police is [[Brima Acha Kamara]], who was appointed to the position by former president [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]].

== Economy ==
{{Main article|Economy of Sierra Leone}}

[[File:Sierra Leone Export Treemap.png|thumb|350px|A proportional representation of Sierra Leone's exports.]]
By the 1990s economic activity was declining and economic infrastructure had become seriously degraded. Over the next decade much of the formal economy was destroyed in the country's civil war. Since the end of hostilities in January 2002, massive infusions of outside assistance have helped Sierra Leone begin to recover.

Much of the recovery will depend on the success of the government's efforts to limit corruption by officials, which many feel was the chief cause for the civil war. A key indicator of success will be the effectiveness of government management of its diamond sector.

There is high unemployment, particularly among the youth and ex-combatants. Authorities have been slow to implement reforms in the civil service, and the pace of the privatisation programme is also slackening and donors have urged its advancement.

The currency is the [[Sierra Leonean leone|leone]]. The [[central bank]] is the [[Bank of Sierra Leone]]. Sierra Leone operates a floating [[exchange rate]] system, and foreign currencies can be exchanged at any of the commercial banks, recognised foreign exchange [[Service bureau|bureaux]] and most hotels. Credit card use is limited in Sierra Leone, though they may be used at some hotels and restaurants. There are a few internationally linked [[automated teller machine]]s that accept [[Visa card]]s in Freetown operated by ProCredit Bank.

=== Agriculture ===
{{Further information|Agriculture in Sierra Leone}}

[[File:Sierra Leone rice farmer.jpg|thumb|300px|A farmer with his rice harvest in Sierra Leone. Two-thirds of Sierra Leone's population are directly involved in [[subsistence agriculture]].<ref name = "future">{{cite web
|title = Settling for a future in Sierra Leone
|publisher = New Agriculture
|date = November 2007
|url = http://www.new-ag.info/focus/focusItem.php?a=291
|accessdate = 20 February 2011}}</ref>]]

Two-thirds of the population of Sierra Leone are directly involved in [[subsistence agriculture]].<ref name="future"/> Agriculture accounted for 58 percent of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2007.<ref name = "AFEC">{{Cite book |first=OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|last= African Development Bank|title =African Economic Outlook 2009: Country Notes: Volumes 1 and 2|publisher=OECD Publishing|year =2009|pages =561–562|isbn=978-92-64-07618-1}}</ref>

Agriculture is the largest employer with 80 percent of the population working in the sector.<ref name = "tour">{{Cite book |last=König|first=Dirk |title =Linking Agriculture to Tourism in Sierra Leone – a Preliminary Research |publisher =GRIN Verlag|year =2008|page =67 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=ChOkCqPu_QMC&pg=PA65&dq=agriculture+economy+sierra+leone&hl=en&ei=etVsTfvENY2YhQe-uP2ODA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=agriculture%20economy%20sierra%20leone&f=false|isbn=978-3-638-94680-3}}</ref> [[Rice]] is the most important staple crop in Sierra Leone with 85 percent of farmers cultivating rice during the rainy season<ref name = "deep rice">{{Cite book |last=Catling|first=David|title = Rice in deep water|publisher =Int. Rice Res. Inst.|year =1992|page = 372 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=N5JxwKx1RAgC&pg=PA372&dq=rice+sierra+leone&hl=en&ei=R4ZrTdLwLZGJhQf24PXsDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=rice%20sierra%20leone&f=false|isbn=978-971-22-0005-2}}</ref> and an annual consumption of 76&nbsp;kg per person.<ref name = "rice facts">{{Cite book |title =Rice today, Volume 3:Rice facts |publisher =International Rice Research|year =2004|page =48 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=3PZjte6EADYC&pg=PA48&dq=rice+sierra+leone&hl=en&ei=HYBrTZ1nkrCEB6GkmfIO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CFcQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=rice%20sierra%20leone&f=false}}</ref>

=== Mining ===
{{Further information|Mining in Sierra Leone}}

Rich in minerals, Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. The country is among the top ten diamond producing nations. Mineral exports remain the main [[currency]] earner. Sierra Leone is a major producer of gem-quality diamonds. Though rich in diamonds, it has historically struggled to manage their exploitation and export.

Sierra Leone is known for its [[blood diamond]]s that were mined and sold to diamond conglomerates during the [[Sierra Leone Civil War|civil war]], to buy the weapons that fuelled its atrocities.<ref>{{cite news|title=UN targets 'blood diamonds' trade|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3117421.stm|work=BBC News|accessdate=28 April 2011|date=1 August 2003}}</ref> In the 1970s and early 1980s, economic growth rate slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasing corruption among government officials.

{|class="wikitable infobox" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align:right;"
|+ style="font-size: 115%;" |Percentage of GDP by sector (2007)<ref name="AFEC"/>
|-
! scope="col" |Rank
! scope="col" |Sector
! scope="col" |Percentage<br/> of GDP
|-
! scope="row" |1
|Agriculture
|58.5
|-
! scope="row" |2
|Other services
|10.4
|-
! scope="row" |3
|Trade and tourism
|9.5
|-
|-
! scope="row" |4
| style="text-align:right;"| 13 || [[Amambay]]
|Wholesale and retail trade
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Pedro Juan Caballero, Paraguay|Pedro Juan Caballero]]||114,917||12,933||4
|9.0
|-
|-
! scope="row" |5
| style="text-align:right;"| 14 || [[Canindeyú]]
|Mining and quarrying
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Salto del Guairá]]||140.137||14.667||12
|4.5
|-
|-
! scope="row" |6
| style="text-align:right;"| 15 ||[[Presidente Hayes]] || style="text-align:left;"| [[Villa Hayes]]||82,493||72,907||8
|Government Services
|4.0
|-
|-
! scope="row" |7
| style="text-align:right;"| 16 || [[Alto Paraguay]]
|Manufacturing and handicrafts
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Fuerte Olimpo]]||11,587||82,349||4
|2.0
|-
|-
! scope="row" |8
| style="text-align:right;"| 17 || [[Boquerón Department|Boquerón]]
|Construction
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Filadelfia, Paraguay|Filadelfia]]||41,106||91,669||3
|1.7
|-
|-
! scope="row" |9
| style="text-align:right;"| – || '''Paraguay'''
|Electricity and water
| style="text-align:left;"| '''[[Asunción]]'''||'''5,163,198'''||'''406,752'''||'''245'''
|0.4
|}
|}


Annual production of Sierra Leone's diamond estimates range between US$250 million–$300&nbsp;million. Some of that is [[Smuggling|smuggled]], where it is possibly used for [[money laundering]] or financing illicit activities. Formal exports have dramatically improved since the civil war, with efforts to improve the management of them having some success. In October 2000, a UN-approved certification system for exporting diamonds from the country was put in place and led to a dramatic increase in legal exports. In 2001, the government created a mining community development fund ([[Ministry of Mineral Resources (Sierra Leone)|DACDF]]), which returns a portion of diamond export taxes to diamond mining communities. The fund was created to raise local communities' stake in the legal diamond trade.
The departments are further divided into districts (''distritos'').


Sierra Leone has one of the world's largest deposits of [[rutile]], a [[titanium]] ore used as [[paint]] pigment and [[welding]] rod coatings.
==Economy==
{{Main article|Economy of Paraguay}}
The macro-economy in Paraguay has some unique characteristics. It is characterized by a historical low inflation rate – 5% average (in 2013, the inflation rate was 3.7%), international reserves 20% of GDP and twice the amount of the external national debt.
On top of that, the country enjoys clean and renewable energy production of 8,700 MW (current domestic demand 2,300 MW).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140201204724/http://www.opportunitiesinparaguay.com/Focus.html Focus]. opportunitiesinparaguay.com</ref>


=== Transport infrastructure ===
Between 1970 and 2013, the country had the highest economic growth of South America,{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} with an average rate of 7.2% per year.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}
{{Main article|Transport in Sierra Leone}}
[[File:Kenema-Kailahun Road.jpg|thumb|300px|The road from [[Kenema]] to [[Kailahun District]].]]
There are a number of systems of transport in Sierra Leone, which has a road, air and water infrastructure, including a network of highways and several airports. There are {{convert|11,300|km|abbr=off}} of highways in Sierra Leone, of which {{convert|904|km|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="CIA"/> are paved (about 8% of the roads). Sierra Leone highways are linked to [[Conakry]], Guinea, and [[Monrovia]], Liberia.


Sierra Leone has the largest [[natural harbour]] on the African continent, allowing international shipping through the [[Queen Elizabeth II Quay]] in the [[Cline Town, Sierra Leone|Cline Town]] area of eastern Freetown or through Government Wharf in central Freetown. There are {{convert|800|km|0|abbr=on}} of waterways in Sierra Leone, of which {{convert|600|km|0|abbr=on}} are navigable year-round. Major port cities are [[Bonthe]], [[Freetown]], [[Sherbro Island]] and [[Pepel]].
In 2010 and 2013, Paraguay experienced the greatest economic expansion of South America, with a GDP growth rate of 14.5% and 13.6% respectively.<ref>[https://www.bcp.gov.py BCP – Banco Central del Paraguay]. Bcp.gov.py. Retrieved on 18 June 2016.</ref>


There are ten [[regional airport]]s in Sierra Leone, and one [[international airport]]. The [[Lungi International Airport]] located in the coastal town of [[Lungi, Sierra Leone|Lungi]] in Northern Sierra Leone is the primary airport for domestic and international travel to or from Sierra Leone. Passengers cross the river to Aberdeen [[Heliport]]s in Freetown by [[hovercraft]], ferry or a [[helicopter]]. Helicopters are also available from the airport to other major cities in the country. The airport has [[Pavement (material)|paved]] runways longer than {{convert|3,047|m|abbr=off}}. The other airports have unpaved runways, and seven have runways from {{convert|914|to|1,523|m|abbr=off}} long; the remaining two have shorter runways.
[[File:Paraguay Export Treemap.png|thumb|left|Graphical depiction of Paraguay's product exports in 28 color-coded categories, 2012.]]
Paraguay is the sixth-largest [[soybean]] producer in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pa.html|title=Paraguay|last=|first=|date=January 12, 2017|website=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=January 31, 2017}}</ref> second-largest producer of [[stevia]], second-largest producer of [[tung oil]], sixth-largest exporter of corn, tenth-largest exporter of wheat and 8th largest exporter of beef.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}


Sierra Leone appears on the EU list of prohibited countries with regard to the certification of airlines. This means that no airline registered in Sierra Leone may operate services of any kind within the European Union. This is due to substandard safety standards.<ref>{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325010606/http://ec.europa.eu/transport/air-ban/pdf/list_en.pdf |date=25 March 2009 |title=List of banned E.U. air carriers }}. ec.europa.eu</ref>
The market economy is distinguished by a large informal sector, featuring re-export of imported consumer goods to neighboring countries, as well as the activities of thousands of microenterprises and urban street vendors. Nonetheless, over the last 10 years the Paraguayan economy diversified dramatically, with the energy, auto parts and clothing industries leading the way.<ref>{{cite web|title=Paraguay un milagro americano|url=http://paraguay-un-milagro-americano.blogspot.com|accessdate=15 January 2015|language=Spanish}}</ref>


As of May 2014 the country's only [[Lungi International Airport|international airport]] had regularly scheduled direct flights to London, Paris, Brussels and most major cities in West Africa.
The country also boasts the third most important free commercial zone in the world: [[Ciudad del Este]], trailing behind [[Miami]] and [[Hong Kong]].{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} A large percentage of the population, especially in rural areas, derives its living from agricultural activity, often on a subsistence basis. Because of the importance of the informal sector, accurate economic measures are difficult to obtain. The economy grew rapidly between 2003 and 2013 as growing world demand for commodities combined with high prices and favorable weather to support Paraguay's commodity-based export expansion.


In September 2014 there were many Districts with travel restrictions including Kailahun, Kenema, Bombali, Tonkolili, and Port Loko because of [[Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone|Ebola]].<ref>[http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200526223.shtml Sierra Leone News : Africell Presents Second Consignment of Food to all Quarantined Homes]. News.sl. Retrieved on 24 February 2017.</ref>
In 2012, Paraguay's government introduced the MERCOSUR(FOCEM) system in order to stimulate the economy and job growth through a partnership with both Brazil and Argentina.<ref>[http://www.economia.gov.py/v2/index.php?tag=que-es-focem Subsecretaria De Estado De Economia – ¿Qué Es Focem?]. Economia.gov.py. Retrieved on 18 June 2016.</ref>


== Society ==
===Industry and manufacturing===
=== Demographics ===
[[File:BBVA Paraguay.jpg|thumb|[[Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria|BBVA]] Paraguay]]
{{Main article|Demographics of Sierra Leone|Languages of Sierra Leone}}
The [[mineral industry of Paraguay]] produces about 25% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) and employs about 31% of the labor force. Production of [[cement]], [[iron ore]], and [[steel]] occurs commonly throughout Paraguay's industrial sector. The growth of the industry was further fueled by the [[maquila]] industry, with large industrial complexes located in the eastern part of the country. Paraguay put in place many incentives aimed to attract industries to the country. One of them is the so-called "Maquila law" by which companies can relocate to Paraguay, enjoying minimal tax rates.<ref>[http://www.mic.gov.py/v1/node/123 ÂżQuĂŠ es Maquila? | Ministerio de Industria y Comercio – Paraguay]. Mic.gov.py. Retrieved on 18 June 2016.</ref>


[[File:Sierra-Leone-demography.png|thumb|450px|Sierra Leone's total population, from 1961 to 2003.]]
In the [[pharmaceutical industry]], Paraguayan companies now{{when|date=February 2016}} meet 70% of domestic consumption and have begun to [[export]] drugs. Paraguay is quickly{{quantify|date=February 2016}} supplanting foreign suppliers in meeting the country's drug needs.{{citation needed|date=March 2012}} Strong growth also is evident in the production of edible oils, garments, organic sugar, meat processing, and steel.{{citation needed|date=March 2012}}
In 2013 Sierra Leone had an officially projected population of 6,190,280<ref name=Stat.sl/> and a growth rate of 2.216% a year.<ref name="CIA"/> The country's population is mostly young, with an estimated 41.7% under 15, and rural, with an estimated 62% of people living outside the cities.<ref name="CIA"/> As a result of migration to cities, the population is becoming more urban with an estimated rate of urbanisation growth of 2.9% a year.<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="Renner-Thomas 2010 5">{{Cite book |last =Renner-Thomas |first = Ade |title = Land Tenure in Sierra Leone: The Law, Dualism and the Making of a Land Policy |publisher =AuthorHouse |year =2010 |page = 5 |url =https://books.google.com/?id=RiIpW6vWVPoC&pg=PA5|isbn=978-1-4490-5866-1|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref>


Population density varies greatly within Sierra Leone. The [[Western Area Urban District]], including Freetown, the capital and largest city, has a population density of 1,224 persons per square km. The largest district geographically, [[Koinadugu District|Koinadugu]], has a much lower density of 21.4 persons per square km.<ref name="Renner-Thomas 2010 5"/>
In 2003 manufacturing made up 13.6% of the GDP, and the sector employed about 11% of the working population in 2000. Paraguay's primary manufacturing focus is on food and beverages. Wood products, paper products, hides and furs, and non-metallic mineral products also contribute to manufacturing totals. Steady growth in the manufacturing GDP during the 1990s (1.2% annually) laid the foundation for 2002 and 2003, when the annual growth rate rose to 2.5%.<ref>
{{cite web
|url= http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Paraguay.pdf
|publisher= Lcweb2.loc.gov |title= Paraguay
|format= PDF |accessdate= 2 May 2010
}}
</ref>


English is the [[official language]],<ref name="Sierra Leone Overview">{{cite web |title =Sierra Leone Overview |publisher =United Nations Development Programme Sierra Leone |url =http://www.sl.undp.org/sloverview.htm |archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20110511080815/http://www.sl.undp.org/sloverview.htm |archivedate =11 May 2011 |accessdate =3 June 2008 |deadurl =yes |df =dmy-all }}</ref> spoken at schools, government administration and in the media. [[Krio language|Krio]] (derived from English and several indigenous African languages, and the language of the [[Sierra Leone Krio people]]) is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. As the Krio language is spoken by 90% of the country's population,<ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.language9.com/languages/translation/krio-translation.html |title=Krio Translation Services |publisher=Language9.com |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> it unites all the different [[ethnic group]]s, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.<ref name="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/181">{{Cite book |last = Oyètádé |first = B. Akíntúndé |last2 = Fashole-Luke |first2 = Victor|title = Language and National Identity in Africa |place = Oxford |publisher = Oxford University Press |chapter = Sierra Leone: Krio and the Quest for National Integration |pages = 122–140 |url = https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/181}}</ref>
===Social issues===
{{Update|section|date=April 2014}}
Various poverty estimates suggest that 30–50% of the population is poor.<ref>2003 Census Bureau Household Survey</ref> In rural areas, 41.20% of the people lack a monthly income to cover basic necessities, whereas in urban centers this figure is 27.6%. The top 10% of the population holds 43.8% of the national income, while the lowest 10% has 0.5%. The economic recession has worsened income inequality, notably in the rural areas, where the [[Gini coefficient]] has risen from 0.56 in 1995 to 0.66 in 1999.


According to the ''World Refugee Survey 2008'', published by the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Sierra Leone had a population of 8,700 [[refugees]] and asylum seekers at the end of 2007. Nearly 20,000 Liberian refugees voluntarily returned to [[Liberia]] over the course of 2007. Of the refugees remaining in Sierra Leone, nearly all were Liberian.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2008">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2008|publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants|date=19 June 2008|url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2008-world-refugee-survey.html|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228132236/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2008-world-refugee-survey.html|archivedate=28 December 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
More recent data (2009)<ref name="abc.com.py">{{cite web|author=${w.time} |url=http://www.abc.com.py/nota/en-paraguay-disminuyo-la-pobreza-entre-2003-y-2009/ |title=En Paraguay, disminuyó la pobreza entre 2003 y 2009 – ABC Color |publisher=Abc.com.py |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> show that 35% of the Paraguayan population is poor, 19% of which live in extreme poverty. Moreover, 71% of the latter live in rural areas of the country.


{{Largest cities of Sierra Leone}}
Similarly, land concentration in the Paraguayan countryside is one of the highest in the globe: 10% of the population controls 66% of the land, while 30% of the rural people are landless.<ref>{{cite web|author=Marió|year=2004|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEV/Resources/3177394-1168615404141/ParaguayCountrySocialAnalysis.pdf |title=''Paraguay: Social Development Issues for Poverty Alleviation''|publisher=World Bank report|accessdate=18 June 2007|display-authors=etal}}</ref> In the immediate aftermath of the 1989 overthrow of Stroessner, some 19,000 rural families occupied hundreds of thousands of acres of unused lands formerly held by the dictator and his associates by mid-1990, but many rural poor remained landless. This inequality has caused a great deal of tensions between the landless and land owners.<ref name="nagel">[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1921 Nagel, Beverly Y.(1999) "'Unleashing the Fury': The Cultural Discourse of Rural Violence and Land Rights in Paraguay"], in ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'', 1999, Vol. 41, Issue 1: 148–181. Cambridge University Press.</ref>


The populations quoted above for the five largest cities are from the 2004 census. Other figures are estimates from the source cited. Different sources give different estimates. Some claim that [[Magburaka]] should be included in the above list, but there is considerable difference among sources. One source estimates the population at 14,915,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://population-of.com/en/Sierra-Leone/02/Magburaka |title=Population of Magburaka |publisher=Population-of.com |accessdate=22 August 2010}}</ref> whilst another puts it as high as 85,313.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.exaf.eu/exaf/page.php?pid=210 |title=Exaf |publisher=Exaf.eu |accessdate=22 August 2010}}</ref> "Pandebu-Tokpombu" is presumably the extended town of Torgbonbu, which had a population of 10,716 in the 2004 census. "Gbendembu" had a larger population of 12,139 in that census. In the 2004 census, Waterloo had a population of 34,079.
====Social issues of the indigenous====
{{Clear}}
Literacy rates are extremely low among Paraguay's indigenous population, who have an illiteracy rate of 51% compared to the 7.1% rate of the general population.<ref name=paho>[http://www.paho.org/english/dd/ais/cp_600.htm "Paraguay."] ''Pan-American Health Organization''. (retrieved 12 July 2011)</ref>


=== Religion ===
Only 2.5% of Paraguay's indigenous population has access to clean drinking water and only 9.5% have electricity.<ref name=paho/>
{{main article|Religion in Sierra Leone}}


[[File:Pendemdu Mosque and Church.JPG|thumb|Mosque and church in Sierra Leone]]
==Demographics==
Sierra Leone is officially a [[secular state]], although [[Islam]] (78%) and [[Christianity]] (20.9%) are the two main religions in the country. The constitution of Sierra Leone provides for [[freedom of religion]] and the [[Government of Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone Government]] generally protects this right and does not tolerate its abuse. The Sierra Leone Government is constitutionally forbidden from establishing a [[state religion]].
{{Refimprove section|date=April 2014}}
{{Cite check|section|date=April 2014}}
{{Main article|Demographics of Paraguay|Immigration to Paraguay}}
{{See also|List of most common surnames in South America#Paraguay|l1=List of most common surnames in Paraguay}}
[[File:Paraguay population density.png|thumb|Paraguay population density (people per km<sup>2</sup>)]]
Paraguay's population is distributed unevenly through the country, with the vast majority of people living in the eastern region near the capital and largest city, [[Asunción]], which accounts for 10% of the country's population. The [[Gran Chaco]] region, which includes the [[Alto Paraguay Department|Alto Paraguay]], [[Boquerón Department|Boquerón]] and [[Presidente Hayes Department]], and accounts for about 60% of the territory, is home to less than 2% of the population. About 56% of Paraguayans live in urban areas, making Paraguay one of the least urbanized nations in South America.


Sierra Leone is a Muslim majority country; though with a significant Christian minority. According to a 2010 estimates by the [[Pew Research Center]][http://www.statesmansyearbook.com/entry?entry=countries_sl.RELIGION] 78% of Sierra Leone's population are [[Muslims]], mostly adherent to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] doctrine; 20.9 are [[Christians]], mostly [[Evangelical Protestants]]; and 1% belong to Traditional African Religion or other beliefs. The Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone, estimated that 77% of Sierra Leone's population are Muslims; 21% are Christians; and 2% are followers of traditional African religion.<ref>[https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/171636.pdf Sierra Leone]. state.gov</ref> Most of Sierra Leone's ethnic groups are Muslim majority, including the country's two largest ethnic groups, the [[Mende people|Mende]] and [[Temne people|Temne]].
For most of its history, Paraguay has been a recipient of immigrants, owing to its low population density, especially after the demographic collapse that resulted from the Paraguayan War. Small groups of ethnic Italians, Germans, Russians, [[Japanese Paraguayan|Japanese]], [[Koreans in Paraguay|Koreans]], Chinese, [[Lebanese migration to Paraguay|Arabs]], [[Ukrainians in Paraguay|Ukrainians]], [[Poles]], [[Jews]], Brazilians, and Argentines have also settled in Paraguay. Many of these communities have retained their languages and culture, particularly the [[Brazilian people|Brazilians]], who represent the largest and most prominent immigrant group, at around 400,000.<ref>[http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/countries/paraguay-facts/ Paraguay Information and History]. National Geographic.</ref> Many Brazilian Paraguayans are of German, Italian and Polish descent.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/12/world/12PARA.html?ex=1152849600&en=6a4520630e3b9860&ei=5070&pagewanted=1 San Alberto Journal: Awful Lot of Brazilians in Paraguay, Locals Say]. The New York Times. 12 June 2001.</ref> There are an estimated 63,000 [[Afro-Paraguayans]], comprising 1% of the population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?rop3=210548 |title=Afro-Paraguayan |accessdate=25 August 2008 |work=Joshua Project |publisher=U.S. Center for World Mission }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=April 2014}}


Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the most religiously tolerant countries in the world<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21603015-sierra-leone-bucks-west-african-trend-celebrating-its-religious-tolerance-all|title=All things happily to all men|last=|first=|date=|website=The Economist|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>{{Citation needed|reason = factual statement without mention of author|date=January 2017}}. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other peacefully. [[Religious violence]] is very rare in the country. Even the country's eleven-year civil war (1991–2002) had nothing to do with religion, and during the civil war people were never targeted because of their religion.
[[File:Caacupe5.jpg|thumb|left|A gathering in [[Caacupé]]]]
There is no official data on the ethnic composition of the Paraguayan population, as the Department of Statistics, Surveys and Censuses<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dgeec.gov.py/ |title=Dirección General de Estadísticas, Encuestas y Censos |publisher=Dgeec.gov.py |accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> of Paraguay does not ask about ''race'' and ''ethnicity'' in census surveys, although it does inquire about the indigenous population. According to the census of 2002, the indigenous people made up 1.7% of Paraguay's total population.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118042911/http://www.rlc.fao.org/es/desarrollo/mujer/docs/paraguay/par03.pdf CAPÍTULO III. Características Socio-Culturales y étnicas], pp. 39ff in ''Paraguay. Situación de las mujeres rurales'' (2008) [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]]</ref>


The country is home to the Sierra Leone Inter-Religious Council, which is made up of both Christian and Muslim religious leaders to promote peace and tolerance throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/2009_5743.html |title=Media Centre – In Sierra Leone, partnerships with religious leaders help combat child mortality |publisher=UNICEF |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religionsforpeaceinternational.org/what-we-do/stop-war/conflict-transformation |title=Conflict Transformation qqw|publisher=Religions for Peace International |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umcor/emergency/ircsl.stm |title=Interreligious Community Advocates for Peace in Sierra Leone with photos |publisher=Gbgm-umc.org |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> The Islamic holidays of [[Eid al-Fitr]], [[Eid al-Adha]] and [[Mawlid|Maulid-un-Nabi]] (Birthday of the Prophet [[Muhammad]]) are observed as [[Public holidays in Sierra Leone|national holidays in Sierra Leone]]; the Christian holidays of [[Christmas]], [[Boxing Day]], [[Good Friday]] and [[Easter]] are also [[Public holidays in Sierra Leone|national holidays in Sierra Leone]].
Traditionally, the majority of the Paraguayan population is considered mixed (''mestizo'' in Spanish). HLA-DRB1 polymorphism studies have shown the genetic distances between Paraguayans and Spanish populations were closer than between Paraguayans and Guaranis. Altogether these results suggest the predominance of the Spanish genetic in the Paraguayan population.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=11873625|year=2002|author1=Benitez|first1=O|title=Hispano-Indian admixture in Paraguay studied by analysis of HLA-DRB1 polymorphism|journal=Pathologie-biologie|volume=50|issue=1|pages=25–9|last2=Loiseau|first2=P|last3=Busson|first3=M|last4=Dehay|first4=C|last5=Hors|first5=J|last6=Calvo|first6=F|last7=Durand Mura|first7=M|last8=Charron|first8=D|doi=10.1016/s0369-8114(01)00263-2}}</ref>
According to the [[CIA World Factbook]], Paraguay has a population of 6,669,086, 95% of which are [[mestizo]] (mixed European and Amerindian) and 5% are labelled as "other",<ref name=CIA/> which includes members of indigenous tribal groups. They are divided into 17 distinct ethnolinguistic groupings, many of which are poorly documented.
Paraguay has one of the most prominent [[Germans in Paraguay|German]] communities in South America, with some 25,000 German-speaking [[Mennonite]]s living in the Paraguayan [[Gran Chaco|Chaco]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Antonio De La Cova |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/paraguay/mennonites.htm |title=Paraguay's Mennonites resent 'fast buck' outsiders |publisher=Latinamericanstudies.org |date=28 December 1999 |accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> German settlers founded several towns as [[Hohenau, Paraguay|Hohenau]], [[Filadelfia]], [[Neuland Colony|Neuland]], [[Obligado]] and [[Nueva Germania]]. Several websites that promote German immigration to Paraguay claim that 5–7% of the population is of German ancestry,{{Dubious|date=April 2014}} including 150,000 people of German-Brazilian descent.{{Better source|reason=Citations are from many German immigration promotion websites, there must be more objective sources for this|date=April 2014}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Jonathan Ross|url=http://www.magazin-paraguay.de/paraguay/allgemeines-paraguay.htm |title=Allgemeines über Paraguay |location=PY |publisher=Magazin-paraguay.de |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paraguay24.de/category/new-und-infos-zu-paraguay/information_um_und_zu_paraguay |title=Information um und zu Paraguay « Kategorie « Paraguay24 – Die Geschichte unserer Auswanderung |publisher=Paraguay24.de |date=23 September 2012 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Miran Blanco |url=http://www.auswandern-paraguay.org/ |title=Paraguay Auswandern Einwandern Immobilien Infos für Touristen, Auswanderer Asuncion Paraguay |publisher=Auswandern-paraguay.org |date=24 March 2007 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.my-paraguay.com/ |title=Paraguay – Immobilien – Auswandern – Immobilienschnδppchen, Hδuser, und Grundstόcke um Villarrica |publisher=My-paraguay.com |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paraguay1.de/ |title=Paraguay – Auswandern – Immobilien – Reisen |publisher=PARAGUAY1.DE |accessdate=19 October 2012}}</ref>


The vast majority of Sierra Leonean Muslims are adherent to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] tradition of Islam in practice. Significant portion of Sierra Leonean Muslims, at eight percent of Sierra Leone Muslim population, are adherent to the [[Ahmadiyya Islam|Ahmadiyya]] sect of Islam. [[Shia Muslims]] form a very small portion of Sierra Leone's Muslim population at closer to one percent of Sierra Leone Muslim population<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sierraleone365.com/feature-stories/ahmadiyya-movement-goes-mainstream-in-sierra-leone|title=Ahmadiyya Movement Goes Mainstream in Sierra Leone|last=Bah|first=Hadi|date=|website=sierraleone365.com|publisher=|access-date=6 December 2016}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160101131640/http://ahmadiyyatimes.blogspot.com/2010/03/bo-ahmadiya-muslim-secondary-school.html Sierra Leone: Bo Ahmadiya Muslim Secondary School Golden Jubilee, Former Principal and Secretary General Honoured]. ''Ahmadiyya Times'' (23 March 2010)</ref> The [[Maliki]] school is the most dominant Islamic madrasa school of thought across Sierra Leone and is based within Sunni Islam.
===Religion===
{{Main article|Religion in Paraguay}}
[[File:Concepción Catholic chapel.jpeg|thumb|upright|Main Catholic Chapel in [[Concepción, Paraguay]]]]
Christianity, particularly [[Roman Catholicism]], is the dominant religion in Paraguay.<ref>[http://www.prolades.com/ The Latin American Socio-Religious Studies Program / Programa Latinoamericano de Estudios Sociorreligiosos (PROLADES)] PROLADES Religion in America by country</ref> According to the 2002 census, 89.9% of the population is Catholic, 6.2% is [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical Protestant]], 1.1% identify with other Christian sects, and 0.6% practice indigenous religions. A U.S. State Department report on Religious Freedom names Roman Catholicism, evangelical Protestantism, mainline Protestantism, Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform), [[Mormonism]], and the [[Baha'i Faith]] as prominent religious groups. It also mentions a large Muslim community in [[Alto Paraná]] (as a result of Middle-Eastern immigration, especially from [[Lebanon]]) and a prominent Mennonite community in Boquerón.<ref name="state1">{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90263.htm |title=Paraguay religion |publisher=State.gov |date=14 September 2007 |accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref>


The United Council of Imams, is the highest ranking Islamic religious body in Sierra Leone, and is made up of [[imams]] and Muslim clerics across Sierra Leone. The president of the United Council of Imam is Sheikh [[Alhaji]] Muhammad Habib Sheriff.[https://cocorioko.net/sierra-leone-imams-present-new-president-to-hon-minister-responsible-for-religious-affairs/]. The two largest [[mosques]] in Sierra Leone are the [[Freetown Central Mosque]] and the [[Ghadafi Central Mosque]], both located in the capital [[Freetown]]. Among the most notable Sierra Leonean Muslim scholars and preachers are [[Sheikh]] Umarr S. Kanu, a Sunni Muslim, [[Sheikh]] [[Ahmad Tejan Sillah]], a Shia Muslim, and Sheikh Saeedu Rahman, an Ahmaddiyya Muslim<ref>[http://www.sierraexpressmedia.com/?p=54159 Shiite, Ahmadiyya and Sunni Under One Umbrella – Sierra Express Media]. Sierraexpressmedia.com. Retrieved on 24 February 2017.</ref>
===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Paraguay}}
Paraguay is a bilingual nation. Both Spanish and Guaraní are official languages. The Guarani language is a remarkable trace of the indigenous Guaraní culture that has endured in Paraguay, which is generally understood by 95% of the population. Guaraní claims its place as one of the last surviving and thriving of South American indigenous national languages. In 2015, Spanish was spoken by about 87% of the population, while Guaraní is spoken by more than 90%, or slightly more than 5.8 million speakers. 52% of rural Paraguayans are bilingual in Guaraní. While Guaraní is still widely spoken, Spanish is generally given a preferential treatment in government, business, media and education as one of South American [[lingua francas]].<ref name="ethnologue-list">[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/gug Paraguayan Guaraní], Ethnologue</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Paraguay |url=http://www.studycountry.com/guide/PY-language.htm |title=The Languages spoken in Paraguay |publisher=Studycountry.com |date= |accessdate=2017-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visitparaguay.net/paraguay-guide/languages-paraguay.html |title=Languages of Paraguay |publisher=VisitParaguay.net |date= |accessdate=2017-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=By SIMON ROMEROMARCH 12, 2012 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/12/world/americas/in-paraguay-indigenous-language-with-unique-staying-power.html |title=In Paraguay, Indigenous Language With Unique Staying Power - The New York Times |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2012-03-12 |accessdate=2017-04-21}}</ref>


The large majority of Sierra Leonean Christians are [[Protestant]], of which the largest groups are the [[Wesleyan]]-[[Methodists]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=5794273&ct=6470237&notoc=1 |title=United Methodists elect bishop for Sierra Leone |publisher=UMC.org |date=22 December 2008 |accessdate=23 September 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506164251/http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=5794273&ct=6470237&notoc=1 |archivedate=6 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/methodist-church-sierra-leone |title=Methodist Church Sierra Leone — World Council of Churches |publisher=Oikoumene.org |date=28 January 2013 |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xpointumc.org/missions/report-of-sierra-leone/ |title=Crosspoint United Methodist Church – Welcome » Sierra Leone |publisher=Xpointumc.org |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.efsl.evang.org/about-efsl/our-history |title=The History of the Evangelical Fellowship of Sierra Leone |publisher=Efsl.evang.org |date=24 August 1959 |accessdate=23 September 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928003048/http://www.efsl.evang.org/about-efsl/our-history |archivedate=28 September 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tectsl.org/ |title=The Evangelical College of Theology Sierra Leone |publisher=Tectsl.org |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> Other Christian Protestant [[Christian denomination|denomination]]s with significant presence in the country include [[Presbyterian]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epc.org/sierra-leone-presbytery-organization-wo-486/ |title=Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Sierra Leone Presbytery Organization [WO-486&#93; |publisher=Epc.org |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> [[Baptist]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tmbcdetroit.org/ministries/evangelism/sierra-leone |title=Sierra Leone ::: A Place to Belong, Not Just Attend |publisher=Tmbcdetroit.org |date=23 July 2010 |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventist]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sdachurchsierraleone.org/ |title=Seventh-day Adventist Church, Sierra Leone – HOME |publisher=Sdachurchsierraleone.org |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> [[Anglicans]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anglicancommunion.org/tour/diocese.cfm?Idind=732 |title=West Africa-Freetown (Sierra Leone) |publisher=Anglican Communion |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> [[Lutheran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://elcsl.weebly.com/ |title=elcsl.weebly.com |publisher=elcsl.weebly.com |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elca.org/Who-We-Are/Our-Three-Expressions/Churchwide-Organization/Global-Mission/Where-We-Work/Africa/Sierra-Leone.aspx |title=Sierra Leone – Evangelical Lutheran Church in America |publisher=Elca.org |date=16 June 2010 |accessdate=23 September 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017051518/http://www.elca.org/Who-We-Are/Our-Three-Expressions/Churchwide-Organization/Global-Mission/Where-We-Work/Africa/Sierra-Leone.aspx |archivedate=17 October 2013}}</ref> and [[Pentecostals]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200524820.shtml |title=Sierra Leone Christians Preparing for PilgrFile: Sierra Leone News |publisher=News.sl |accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref> The Council of Churches is the Christian religious organisation that is made up of [[Protestant]] churches across Sierra Leone.
{{bar box
|title=Languages of Paraguay
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Languages
|right1=percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Guaraní language|Guaraní ]] |Orange|90}}
{{bar percent|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]|Blue| 87}}
{{bar percent|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|Green|10.7}}
}}


[[Nondenominational Christianity|Non-denominational Christians]] form a significant minority of Sierra Leone's Christian population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/news/headlines/index.cfm?storyid=11887 |title=Sierra Leone: in wake of brutal war, churches full: News Headlines |publisher=Catholic Culture |date=28 September 2011 |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> [[Catholics]] are the largest group of non-Protestant Christians in Sierra Leone, and they form about 8% of Sierra Leone's population; and 26 percent of the Christian population in Sierra Leone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicchurchsl.org/ |title=catholicchurchsl.org |publisher=catholicchurchsl.org |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> The [[Jehovah’s Witnesses]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/offices/sierra-leone/ |title=Visitors & Tours: Jehovahs Witnesses Office in Sierra Leone |publisher=Jw.org |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> and [[Mormons]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/facts-and-statistics/country/sierra-leone |title=Sierra Leone – LDS Statistics and Church Facts &#124; Total Church Membership |publisher=Mormonnewsroom.org |date=24 July 2007 |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Gerry Avant |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765616902/Historic-milestone-Sierra-Leone-stake-marks-LDS-Churchs-3000th.html?pg=all |title=Historic milestone: Sierra Leone stake marks LDS Church's 3,000th |publisher=Deseret News |date=2 December 2012 |accessdate=23 September 2013}}</ref> are the two most prominent [[Nontrinitarianism|non Trinitarian]] Christians in Sierra Leone, and they form a small but significant minority of the Christian population in Sierra Leone. A small community of [[Orthodox Christians]] resides in the capital Freetown.<ref>[http://world.greekreporter.com/2013/01/30/troubled-orthodox-mission-in-sierra-leone/ Troubled Orthodox Mission in Sierra Leone | News from Greeks in Africa, Asia, and South America]. World.greekreporter.com. Retrieved on 24 February 2017.</ref>
===Largest cities===
{{Largest cities of Paraguay}}


=== Ethnic groups ===
==Culture==
{{Further information|Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone}}
{{Main article|Music of Paraguay|Cinema of Paraguay}}
[[File:Sierra Leone ethnic groups.svg|thumb|350px|The distribution of [[Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone|major ethnic groups within Sierra Leone]].]]
Paraguay's cultural heritage can be traced to the extensive [[interracial marriage|intermarriage]] between the original male Spanish settlers and indigenous [[Guarani people|Guaraní]] women. Their culture is highly influenced by various European countries, including Spain. Therefore, Paraguayan culture is a fusion of two cultures and traditions; one European, the other, Southern Guaraní. More than 93% of Paraguayans are ''[[mestizos]]'', making Paraguay one of the most homogeneous countries in Latin America. A characteristic of this cultural fusion is the extensive bilingualism present to this day: more than 80% of Paraguayans speak both [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and the indigenous language, [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]]. [[Jopara]], a mixture of Guaraní and Spanish, is also widely spoken.{{Citation needed|date=May 2014}}


{|class="wikitable infobox" style="margin-right:0; margin-left:1em;"
[[File:Ovecha Ragué Festival Paraguay.jpg|thumb|Ovecha Ragué Festival]]
|-
This cultural fusion is expressed in arts such as embroidery (''ao po'í'') and [[Nanduti|lace making]] (''ñandutí''). The [[music of Paraguay]], which consists of lilting polkas, bouncy ''galopas,'' and languid ''[[Guarania (music)|guaranias]]'' is played on the native harp. Paraguay's culinary heritage is also deeply influenced by this cultural fusion. Several popular dishes contain [[manioc]], a local staple crop similar to the [[Cassava|yuca]] also known as Cassava root found in the [[Southwestern United States]] and [[Mexico]], as well as other indigenous ingredients. A popular dish is ''[[sopa paraguaya]]'', similar to a thick [[corn bread]]. Another notable food is ''[[chipa]]'', a [[bagel]]-like bread made from [[cornmeal]], manioc, and cheese. Many other dishes consist of different kinds of cheeses, onions, bell peppers, cottage cheese, cornmeal, milk, seasonings, butter, eggs and fresh corn kernels.
|'''Ethnic groups of Sierra Leone'''
|-
|[[Temne people|Temne]]
|-
|[[Mende people|Mende]]
|-
|[[Limba people (Sierra Leone)|Limba]]
|-
|[[Loko people|Loko]]
|-
|[[Fula people|Fula]]
|-
|[[Mandingo people of Sierra Leone|Mandingo]]
|-
|[[Sierra Leone Creole people|Creole]]
|-
|[[Sherbro people|Sherbro]]
|-
|[[Kuranko people|Kuranko]]
|-
|[[Kono people|Kono]]
|-
|[[Susu people|Susu]]
|-
|[[Kissi people|Kissi]]
|-
|[[Yalunka people|Yalunka]]
|-
|[[Vai people|Vai]]
|-
|[[Kru people|Kru]]
|}


Sierra Leone is home to about sixteen [[ethnic groups]], each with its own language. The largest and most influential are the [[Temne people|Temne]] at about 35%, and the [[Mende people|Mende]] at about 31%. The Temne predominate in the [[Northern Province, Sierra Leone|Northern Sierra Leone]] and the [[Western Area, Sierra Leone|areas around the capital of Sierra Leone]]. The Mende predominate in [[Southern Province, Sierra Leone|South]]-Eastern Sierra Leone (with the exception of [[Kono District]]).
The 1950s and 1960s were the time of the flowering of a new generation of Paraguayan novelists and poets such as [[José Ricardo Mazó]], [[Roque Vallejos]], and Nobel Prize nominee [[Augusto Roa Bastos]]. Several [[Cinema of Paraguay|Paraguayan films]] have been made.


The vast majority of Temne are Muslims; and with a small Christian minority. The Mende are also Muslim majority, though with a large Christian minority. Sierra Leone's national politics centres on the competition between the north-west, dominated by the Temne, and the south-east dominated by the Mende. The vast majority of the Mende support the [[Sierra Leone People's Party]] (SLPP); while the majority of the Temne support the [[All People's Congress]] (APC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewpeople.com/national-news/politics/item/1764-sierra-leone-the-temnes-and-the-politics-of-the-all-peoples%E2%80%99-congress-apc |title=Sierra Leone: The Temnes and the Politics of the All Peoples’ Congress (APC) |publisher=Thenewpeople.com |accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref>
Inside the family, conservative values predominate. In lower classes, godparents have a special relationship to the family, since usually, they are chosen because of their favorable social position, in order to provide extra security for the children. Particular respect is owed them, in return for which the family can expect protection and patronage.{{Citation needed|date=May 2014}}


The Mende, who are believed to be descendants of the [[Mane people|Mane]], originally occupied the Liberian hinterland. They began moving into Sierra Leone slowly and peacefully in the eighteenth century. The Temne are thought to have come from [[Futa Jallon]], which is in present-day [[Guinea]]. Sierra Leone's current president [[Ernest Bai Koroma]] is the first ethnic Temne to be elected to the office.
===Sports===
{{Main article|Sport in Paraguay}}


The third-largest ethnic group are the [[Limba people (Sierra Leone)|Limba]] at about 8% of the population. The Limba are [[indigenous peoples|native]] people of Sierra Leone. They have no tradition of origin, and it is believed that they have lived in Sierra Leone since before the European encounter. The Limba are primarily found in Northern Sierra Leone, particularly in [[Bombali District|Bombali]], [[Kambia District|Kambia]] and [[Koinadugu District]]. The Limba are about equally divided between Muslims and Christians. The Limba are close political allies of the neighbouring Temne.
==Education==
{{Main article|Education in Paraguay}}
{{See also|List of universities in Paraguay|List of schools in Paraguay}}
[[Literacy]] was about 93.6% and 87.7% of Paraguayans finish the 5th grade according to [[UNESCO]]'s last Educational Development Index 2008. Literacy does not differ much by gender.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org">{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_PRY.html |title=Human Development Report 2009 – Paraguay |publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org |accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> A more recent study<ref name="abc.com.py"/> reveals that attendance at primary school by children between 6 and 12 years old is about 98%. Primary education is free and mandatory and takes nine years. Secondary education takes three years.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org"/>
Paraguay's universities include:
* [[National University of Asunción]] (public and founded in 1889)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.una.py/ |title=::Una:: |publisher=Una.py |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref>
* [[Autonomous University of Asunción]] (private and founded in 1979)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uaa.edu.py/ |title=Universidad Autónoma de Asunción: Educación Superior en Paraguay |publisher=UAA |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref>
* [[Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción]] (private and run by the church).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uca.edu.py/ |title=Campus de Asunción – Universidad Católica "Nuestra Señora de la Asunción" |publisher=Uca.edu.py |date=25 September 2012 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref>
* [[Universidad Americana]] (private).
* [[Universidad del Pacífico]] (private and founded in 1991).


Since Independence, the Limba have traditionally been very influential in Sierra Leone's politics, along with the Mende. The vast majority of Limba support the All People's Congress (APC) political party. Sierra Leone's first and second presidents, [[Siaka Stevens]] and [[Joseph Saidu Momoh]], respectively, were both ethnic Limba. Sierra Leone's current [[Defense Minister]] [[Paolo Conteh|Alfred Paolo Conteh]] is an ethnic Limba.
The net primary enrollment rate was at 88% in 2005.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org"/> Public expenditure on education was about 4.3% of GDP in the early 2000s.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org"/>
The fourth largest ethnic group are the [[Fula people|Fula]] at around 7% of the population. Descendants of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century [[Fulani]] migrant settlers from the [[Fouta Djalon]] region of Guinea, they live primarily in the northeast and the western area of Sierra Leone. The Fula are virtually all Muslims. The Fula are primarily [[merchant|traders]], and many live in middle-class homes. Because of their trading, the Fulas are found in nearly all parts of the country.


The other ethnic groups are the [[Mandingo people of Sierra Leone|Mandingo]] (also known as [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]]). They are descendants of [[Merchant|traders]] from Guinea who migrated to Sierra Leone during the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. The Mandika are predominantly found in the east and the northern part of the country. They predominate in the large towns, most notably [[Karina, Sierra Leone|Karina]], in Bombali District in the north; [[Kabala, Sierra Leone|Kabala]] and [[Falaba]] in Koinadugu District in the north; and [[Yengema]], [[Kono District]] in the east of the country. Like the Fula, the Mandinka are virtually all Muslims. Sierra Leone's third president [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]], and Sierra Leone's first Vice-President [[Sorie Ibrahim Koroma]] were both ethnic Mandingo.
==Health==
{{main article|Health in Paraguay}}
Average life expectancy in Paraguay is rather high given its poverty: {{As of|2006|lc=y}}, it was 75 years,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/countries/pry/en/ |title=WHO &#124; Paraguay |publisher=Who.int |date=1 October 2012 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> equivalent to far wealthier Argentina, and the 8th highest in the Americas according to World Health Organization. Public expenditure on health is 2.6% of GDP, while private health expenditure is 5.1%.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org"/> Infant mortality was 20 per 1,000 births in 2005.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org"/> Maternal mortality was 150 per 100,000 live births in 2000.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org"/>
The [[World Bank]] has helped the Paraguayan government reduce the country's maternal and infant mortality. The ''Mother and Child Basic Health Insurance Project'' aimed to contribute to reducing mortality by increasing the use of selected life-saving services included in the country's Mother and Child Basic Health Insurance Program (MCBI) by women of child-bearing age, and children under age six in selected areas. To this end, the project also targeted improving the quality and efficiency of the health service network within certain areas, in addition to increasing the Ministry of Public Health and Social Welfare's (MSPBS) management.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P082056 "Paraguay Mother & Child Basic Health Insurance"]. The World Bank.</ref>


Next in proportion are the [[Kono people|Kono]], who live primarily in [[Kono District]] in Eastern Sierra Leone. The Kono are descendants of migrants from Guinea; today their workers are known primarily as diamond miners. The majority of the Kono ethnic group are Christians, though with an influential Muslim minority. Sierra Leone's current Vice-President [[Samuel Sam-Sumana|Alhaji Samuel Sam-Sumana]] is an ethnic Kono.
==See also==
{{Portal|Paraguay|Latin America}}
*[[Bibliography of Paraguay]]
*[[Index of Paraguay-related articles]]
*[[Outline of Paraguay]]


The small but significant [[Krio people]] (descendants of freed African American, [[West Indian]] and Liberated African slaves who settled in Freetown between 1787 and about 1885) make up about 3% of the population. They primarily occupy the capital city of [[Freetown]] and its surrounding [[Western Area]]. Krio culture reflects the Western culture and ideals within which many of their ancestors originated – they also had close ties with British officials and colonial administration during years of development.
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}


The Krio have traditionally dominated Sierra Leone's judiciacy and Freetown's elected city council. One of the first ethnic groups to become educated according to Western traditions, they have traditionally been appointed to positions in the civil service, beginning during the colonial years. They continue to be influential in the civil service. The vast majority of Krios are Christians, though with a significant Muslim minority.
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}


Other minority ethnic groups are the [[Kuranko people|Kuranko]], who are related to the Mandingo, and are largely Muslims. The Kuranko are believed to have begun arriving in Sierra Leone from Guinea in about 1600 and settled in the north, particularly in [[Koinadugu District]]. The Kuranko are primarily farmers; leaders among them have traditionally held several senior positions in the Military. Sierra Leone current Finance Minister [[Kaifala Marah]] is an ethnic Kuranko.
==External links==

{{Commons category|Paraguay}}
The [[Loko people|Loko]] in the north are native people of Sierra Leone, believed to have lived in Sierra Leone since the time of European encounter. Like the neighbouring Temne, the Loko are Muslim majority. The [[Susu people|Susu]] and their related [[Yalunka people|Yalunka]] are traders; both groups are primarily found in the far north in [[Kambia District|Kambia]] and Koinadugu District close to the border with Guinea. The Susu and Yalunka are both descendants of migrants from Guinea; and they are virtually all Muslims.
{{Wikinewscat}}

;Government
The [[Kissi people|Kissi]] live further inland in South-Eastern Sierra Leone. They predominate in the large town of [[Koindu]] and its surrounding areas in Kailahun District. The vast majority of Kissi are Christians. The much smaller [[Vai people|Vai]] and [[Kru people|Kru]] peoples are primarily found in [[Kailahun District|Kailahun]] and Pujehun Districts near the border with Liberia. The Kru predominate in the Kroubay neighbourhood in the capital Freetown. The Vai are largely Muslim, while the Kru are largely Christian.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100528053421/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-p/paraguay.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]

* [http://www.senatur.gov.py/ National Department of Tourism] {{es icon}}
On the coast in [[Bonthe District]] in the south are the [[Sherbro people|Sherbro]]. Native to Sierra Leone, they have occupied [[Sherbro Island]] since it was founded. The Sherbro are primarily [[fisherman]] and [[farmers]], and they are predominantly found in Bonthe District. The Sherbro are virtually all Christians, and their paramount chiefs had a history of intermarriage with British colonists and traders.
* [http://www.hacienda.gov.py/ Ministry of Finance with economic and Government information, available also in English] {{es icon}}

* [http://www.paraguaypostcards.com/ Paraguay Photos]
A small number of Sierra Leoneans are of partial or full [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] ancestry, descendants of traders who first came to the nation in the 19th century. They are locally known as Sierra Leonean-Lebanese. The Sierra Leonean-Lebanese community are primarily traders and they mostly live in middle-class households in the urban areas, primarily in [[Freetown]], [[Bo, Sierra Leone|Bo]], [[Kenema]], [[Koidu|Koidu Town]] and [[Makeni]].

== Education ==
{{Main article|Education in Sierra Leone}}
[[File:Classroom at a seconday school in Pendembu Sierra Leone.jpg|thumb|250px|A secondary school class in [[Pendembu]], [[Kailahun District]].]]

Education in Sierra Leone is legally required for all children for six years at [[primary education|primary level]] (Class P1-P6) and three years in junior secondary education,<ref>{{Cite book |last =Wang |first =Lianqin |year = 2007 |title =Education in Sierra Leone: Present Challenges, Future Opportunities |publisher=World Bank Publications |page =2|isbn = 0-8213-6868-0}}</ref> but a shortage of schools and teachers has made implementation impossible.<ref name="ilab">{{cite web |url=http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/Sierra-leone.htm |title=Sierra Leone |work=2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor |publisher=[[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] |year=2002 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102020941/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/Sierra-leone.htm |archivedate=2 November 2013}} ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Two thirds of the adult population of the country are illiterate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/20.html |title=Human Development Report 2009 – Proportion of international migrant stocks residing in countries with very high levels of human development (%) |publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org |accessdate=22 August 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606071107/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/20.html |archivedate=6 June 2009}}</ref>

The [[Sierra Leone Civil War]] resulted in the destruction of 1,270 primary schools, and in 2001, 67% of all school-age children were out of school.<ref name="ilab"/> The situation has improved considerably since then with primary school enrolment doubling between 2001 and 2005 and the reconstruction of many schools since the end of the war.<ref>{{Cite book
|last =Wang
|first =Lianqin
|year = 2007
|title =Education in Sierra Leone: Present Challenges, Future Opportunities
|publisher=World Bank Publications
|page =1 and 3
|isbn = 0-8213-6868-0
}}</ref> Students at primary schools are usually 6 to 12 years old, and in secondary schools 13 to 18. Primary education is free and [[Compulsory education|compulsory]] in government-sponsored [[Public school (government funded)|public schools]].

The country has three universities: [[Fourah Bay College]], founded in 1827 (the oldest university in West Africa),<ref>{{Cite book
|editor=Jones-Parry, Rupert
|title = Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2007
|publisher=Nexus Strategic Partnerships Ltd
|year = 2006
|url = https://books.google.com/?id=ID5XqeV4q10C&pg=PT326
|isbn = 0-9549629-1-5
|accessdate = 17 June 2014}}</ref> University of Makeni (established initially in September 2005 as The Fatima Institute, the college was granted university status in August 2009, and assumed the name University of Makeni, or UNIMAK), and [[Njala University]], primarily located in [[Bo District]]. Njala University was established as the Njala Agricultural Experimental Station in 1910 and became a university in 2005.<ref>{{cite web
|date =July 2007
|title =Njala University College (Nuc)
|location =Sierra Leone
|publisher =Sierra Leone Encyclopedia
|url =http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_7njala.htm
|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20070311011418/http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_7njala.htm
|archivedate =11 March 2007
|accessdate =25 June 2008
|deadurl =yes
|df =dmy-all
}}</ref> Teacher training colleges and religious seminaries are found in many parts of the country.
[[Israel]] grants scholarships to Sierra Leone students as part of its international development cooperation program.<ref name="jpost.com">[http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Politics-And-Diplomacy/Envoys-from-five-countries-present-credentials-to-president-431856 Envoys from five countries present credentials to president], [[Jerusalem Post]]. Jpost.com (3 November 2015). Retrieved on 2017-02-24.</ref>

== Health ==
{{main article|Health in Sierra Leone}}

[[File:Guinea Liberia Sierra Leone Ebola Map August 8 2014.jpg|thumb|350px|A situation map of the [[2014 West Africa Ebola outbreak|Ebola outbreak]] as of 8 August 2014.]]
The CIA estimated average life expectancy in Sierra Leone was 57.39 years.<ref name=iuonoa>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook Life Expectancy|publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=25 June 2014}}</ref>

The prevalence of [[HIV/AIDS]] in the population is 1.6%, higher than the world average of 1% but lower than the average of 6.1% across [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref>{{cite web |title = 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic |publisher = UNAIDS |year = 2006 |url = http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/Default.asp |format = PDF |accessdate = 24 January 2008 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080117113818/http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/default.asp |archivedate = 17 January 2008 |df = dmy-all }}</ref>

Medical care is not readily accessible, with doctors and hospitals out of reach for many villagers. While free health care may be provided in some villages, the medical staff is poorly paid and sometimes charge for their services, taking advantage of the fact that the villagers are not aware of their right to free medical care.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wealth, but no health |author=Anne Jung |publisher=D+C Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu |date=December 2012 |url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/sierra-leones-health-services-do-not-deliver-official-promises |accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref>

A dialysis machine, the first of its kind in the country, was donated by [[Israel]].<ref name="jpost.com"/>

According to an [[Overseas Development Institute]] report, private health expenditure accounts for 85.7% of total spending on health.<ref>Marc DuBois and Caitlin Wake, with Scarlett Sturridge and Christina Bennett (2015) [http://www.odi.org/publications/9956-ebola-response-west-africa-exposing-politics-culture-international-aid The Ebola response in West Africa: Exposing the politics and culture of international aid] London: Overseas Development Institute</ref>

===Endemic and infectious diseases===
Sierra Leone suffers from [[epidemic]] outbreaks of diseases, including [[yellow fever]], [[cholera]], [[lassa fever]] and [[meningitis]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Donaldson, Ross|title=The Lassa Ward: One Man's Fight Against One Of The World's Deadliest Diseases|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=9781429987073|year=2009|pages=34–35}}</ref><ref name=PHChand>{{cite web |title = The Primary Health Care Hand Book Policing |publisher = Ministry of Health & Sanitation |date = 25 May 2007 |url = http://www.health.sl/drwebsite/publish/healthcare.shtml |format = doc |accessdate = 24 January 2008 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080217052144/http://www.health.sl/drwebsite/publish/healthcare.shtml |archivedate = 17 February 2008 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> [[Yellow fever]] and [[malaria]] are endemic to Sierra Leone.<ref name=PHChand/>

=== 2014 Ebola outbreak ===
{{Further information|Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone}}
Ebola is prevalent in Africa where social and economic inequalities are common. The central African countries are the most prevalent of EVD; like Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Uganda, and Gabon<ref>Agyepong I. A Systems View and Lesson from the Ongoing Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak in West Africa. Ghana Medical Journal [serial online]. September 2014;48(3):168–172. Available from: Academic Search Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed 28 October 2014.</ref>

In 2014 there was an outbreak of the [[2014 West Africa Ebola outbreak|Ebola virus in West Africa]]. As of 19 October 2014, there had been 3,706 cases of Ebola in Sierra Leone, and 1,259 deaths, including that of the leading physician trying to control the outbreak, [[Sheik Umar Khan]].<ref>[http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/137091/1/roadmapsitrep22Oct2014_eng.pdf EBOLA RESPONSE ROADMAP SITUATION REPORT]. WHO (22 October 2014)</ref><ref>[[Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone#cite note-Ebola WHO 22 oct-1]]</ref> In early August 2014 [[Guinea]] closed its borders to Sierra Leone to help contain the spreading of the virus, which originated in Guinea, as more new cases of the disease were being reported in Sierra Leone than in Guinea. Aside from the human cost, the outbreak was severely eroding the economy. By September 2014, with the closure of borders, the cancellation of airline flights, the evacuation of foreign workers and a collapse of cross-border trade, the national deficit of Sierra Leone and other affected countries was widening to the point where the IMF was considering expanding its financial support.<ref name="IMFebola">{{cite news|title=The economic impact of Ebola may kill more people than the virus itself|url=http://www.bignewsnetwork.com/index.php/sid/225466201|date=6 September 2014|accessdate=8 September 2014|publisher=''Big News Network.com''}}</ref>

=== Mental health ===
[[Mental health]]care in Sierra Leone is almost non-existent. Many sufferers try to cure themselves with the help of traditional healers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/programmes/unreported-world/episode-guide/series-2009/episode-4 |title=''Unreported World 2009'' series, ep.4: ''Sierra Leone: Insanity of War'' |publisher=Channel4.com |date=3 April 2009 |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> During the [[Sierra Leone Civil War|Civil War (1991–2002)]], many soldiers took part in atrocities and many children were forced to fight. This left them traumatised, with an estimated 400,000 people (by 2009) being mentally ill. Thousands of former child soldiers have fallen into substance abuse as they try to blunt their memories.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lisk|first=Radcliffe|title=Sierra Leone|journal=Practical Neurology|year=2007|volume=7|issue=3|pages=198–201|doi=10.1136/jnnp.2007.120089|pmid=17515600}}</ref>

=== Maternal and child health ===
According to 2010 estimates, Sierra Leone has the 5th highest [[maternal mortality]] rate in the world.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html COUNTRY COMPARISON :: MATERNAL MORTALITY RATE]. The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency.</ref> According to a 2013 UNICEF report,<ref name=UNICEF2013p27>[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013], p. 27.</ref> 88% of women in Sierra Leone have undergone [[female genital mutilation]]. {{As of|2014}}, Sierra Leone was estimated as having the 11th highest [[infant mortality]] rate in the world.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2091rank.html COUNTRY COMPARISON :: INFANT MORTALITY RATE]. The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency.</ref>

=== Drinking water supply ===
{{Main article|Water supply in Sierra Leone}}
Water supply in Sierra Leone is characterised by limited access to safe drinking water. Despite efforts by the government and numerous non-governmental organisations, access has not much improved since the end of the [[Sierra Leone Civil War]] in 2002, stagnating at about 50% and even declining in rural areas.<ref name="JMP water">WHO/UNICEF [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (updated March 2010) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226083443/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/SLE_wat.pdf |date=26 December 2011 |title=Estimates for the use of Improved Drinking-Water Sources, Sierra Leone }}</ref> It is hoped that a new dam in Orugu, for which China committed financing in 2009, will alleviate water scarcity.<ref name="Orugu">{{cite web|url=http://www.ooskanews.com/middle-east-africa/china-lends-288-million-usd-sierra-leone-orugu-dam |title=China Lends $28.8 Million USD to Sierra Leone for Orugu Dam |publisher=OOSKAnews |date=15 June 2009 |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

According to a national survey carried out in 2006, 84% of the urban population and 32% of the rural population had access to an [[improved water source]]. Those with access in rural areas were served almost exclusively by protected wells. The 68% of the rural population without access to an improved water source relied on surface water (50%), unprotected wells (9%) and unprotected springs (9%). Only 20% of the urban population and 1% of the rural population had access to piped drinking water in their home. Compared to the 2000 survey access has increased in urban areas, but has declined in rural areas, possibly because facilities have broken down because of a lack of maintenance.<ref name="JMP water"/><ref name="Pushak">{{cite web|title=Sierra Leone's Infrastructure. A Continental Perspective |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2011/06/29/000158349_20110629104032/Rendered/PDF/WPS5713.pdf |work=Policy Research Working Paper 571|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=6 August 2011|author=Nataliya Pushak|author2=Vivien Foster |pages=31–35|year=June 2011}}</ref>

With a new decentralisation policy, embodied in the Local Government Act of 2004, responsibility for water supply in areas outside the capital was passed from the central government to local councils. In Freetown the Guma Valley Water Company remains in charge of water supply.

== Culture ==
=== Polygamy ===
{{Further information|Polygamy in Sierra Leone}}

37 percent of married women in Sierra Leone were in polygamous marriages in 2008.<ref>[http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR225/FR225.pdf Sierra Leone Demographic and Health Survey 2008]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 24 February 2017.</ref>

=== Food and customs ===
{{Further information|Sierra Leonean cuisine}}
[[File:Sierra Leone rice farming.jpg|thumb|250px|Rice farming in Rolako.]]
Rice is the [[staple food]] of Sierra Leone and is consumed at virtually every meal daily. The rice is prepared in numerous ways, and topped with a variety of sauces made from some of Sierra Leone's favourite toppings, including [[potato]] leaves, [[cassava]] leaves, [[Corchorus|crain crain]], [[okra]] soup, [[fried fish]] and [[peanut|groundnut]] stew.<ref>{{cite book|last=Massaquoi|first=Rachel C. J.|title=Foods of Sierra Leone and Other West African Countries: A Cookbook|year=2011|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449081546|page=5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bKwN7Absx6AC|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref>

Along the streets of towns and cities across Sierra Leone one can find foods consisting of fruit, vegetables and snacks such as fresh [[mangoes]], oranges, pineapple, fried [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]], [[ginger beer]], fried potato, fried cassava with pepper sauce; small bags of popcorn or peanuts, bread, roasted corn, or skewers of grilled meat or shrimp.

Poyo is a popular Sierra Leonean drink. It is a sweet, lightly fermented [[palm wine]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Albala|first=Ken|title=Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313376276|page=165|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zG1H75z0EYYC&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref> and is found in bars in towns and villages across the country. Poyo bars are areas of lively informal debate about politics, [[Association football|football]], basketball, entertainment and other issues.

=== Media ===
{{Main article|Media of Sierra Leone}}

[[File:Radio listener in Sierra Leone.jpg|thumb|A radio listener in [[Kailahun]].]]
Media in Sierra Leone began with the introduction of the first [[printing press]] in Africa at the start of the 19th century. A strong free journalistic tradition developed with the creation of a number of newspapers. In the 1860s, the country became a journalist hub for Africa, with professionals travelling to the country from across the continent. At the end of the 19th century, the industry went into decline, and when radio was introduced in the 1930s, it became the primary communication media in the country.

The [[Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service]] (SLBS) was created by the colonial government in 1934 making it the earliest English language radio broadcaster service in West Africa. The service began broadcasting television in 1963, with coverage extended to all the districts in the country in 1978. In April 2010, the SLBS merged with the [[United Nations]] peacekeeping radio station in Sierra Leone to form the [[Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icfj.org/node/37444 |title=At Long Last, Recruitment Begins at Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation &#124; ICFJ – International Center for Journalists |publisher=ICFJ |date=17 March 2011 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slbc.sl/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/SLBC-REPORT-Final-Copy.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811043953/http://www.slbc.sl/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/SLBC-REPORT-Final-Copy.pdf |archivedate=11 August 2013 |title=Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC) Maiden Report 2010-2011}}</ref> the government-owned current national broadcaster in Sierra Leone.

The Sierra Leone constitution guarantees [[freedom of speech]], and [[freedom of the press]]; however, the government maintains strong control of media, and at times restricts these rights in practice.<ref>{{cite web|author=Thomson Reuters Foundation |url=http://www.trust.org/item/20131024140514-sg47u/ |title=Sierra Leone – Editorial criticizing president prompts multiple proceedings |publisher=Trust.org |date=24 October 2013 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/sierra-leone-editors-arrested-after-publishing-article-comparing-president-to-a-rat/2013/10/21/168d8172-3a53-11e3-b0e7-716179a2c2c7_story.html ]{{Dead link|date=March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Greenslade |first=Roy |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/greenslade/2013/oct/25/press-freedom-sierraleone |title=Editor arrested for comparing Sierra Leone president to a rat &#124; Media |publisher=theguardian.com |date=25 October 2013 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/10/21/sierra-leone-editors-arrested-after-publishing-article-comparing-president-to/ |title=Sierra Leone editors arrested after publishing article comparing president to a rat |publisher=Fox News |date=21 October 2013 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africareview.com/News/Sierra-Leone-intensifies-media-crackdown/-/979180/2043834/-/u0oloaz/-/index.html |title=Sierra Leone intensifies media crackdown – News |publisher=africareview.com |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201310250762.html |title=Sierra Leone: In Sierra Leone, Journalists Held On Libel, Sedition Charges |publisher=allAfrica.com |date=24 October 2013 |accessdate=20 March 2014}}</ref> Some subjects are seen as taboo by society and members of the political elite; imprisonment and violence have been used by the political establishment against journalists.<ref>{{cite web
|last =Wilson
|first =Harry
|year =2005
|title =Press Freedoms and Human Rights:2005 Year End Press Freedom Brief
|publisher =Commonwealth Press Union
|url =http://www.cpu.org.uk/pf_2005_review.html
|accessdate =20 April 2008
|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20071124131843/http://www.cpu.org.uk/pf_2005_review.html
|archivedate =24 November 2007
|deadurl =yes
|df =dmy-all
}}</ref><ref name="Annual06"/>

Under legislation enacted in 1980, all newspapers must register with the Ministry of Information and pay sizeable registration fees. The Criminal [[Libel]] Law, including Seditious Libel Law of 1965, is used to control what is published in the media.<ref name="Annual06">{{cite web
|year =2006
|title =Sierra Leone – Annual report 2006
|publisher =Reporters without Borders:For Press Freedom
|url =http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=17400
|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20090614032911/http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=17400
|archivedate =14 June 2009
|accessdate =20 April 2008
|deadurl =yes
|df =dmy-all
}}</ref> In 2006, President [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]] committed to reforming the laws governing the press and media to create a freer system for journalists to work in.<ref name="Annual06"/> {{As of|2013}} Sierra Leone is ranked 61st (up two slots from 63rd in 2012) out of 179 countries on Reporters Without Borders' [[Press Freedom Index]].<ref>{{cite web|year=2013 |title =Press Freedom Index 2013 |publisher=Reporters without Borders |url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2013,1054.html |accessdate =2 July 2013}}</ref>

[[Print media]] is not widely read in Sierra Leone, especially outside [[Freetown]] and other major cities, partially due to the low levels of [[literacy]] in the country.<ref name="BBC"/> In 2007 there were 15 daily newspapers in the country, as well as those published weekly.<ref name="Jalloh">{{cite web |last =Jalloh |first =Tanu |date =28 December 2007 |title =Sierra Leone: Newspaper Development |publication-place =Freetown, Sierra Leone |publisher=Concord Times |url =http://allafrica.com/stories/200712310637.html |accessdate =19 April 2008}}</ref> Among newspaper readership, young people are likely to read newspapers weekly and older people daily. The majority of newspapers are privately run and are often critical of the government. The standard of print journalism tends to be low owing to lack of training, and people trust the information published in newspapers less than that found on the radio.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |date =June 2007 |title =Media use, and attitudes towards media in Sierra Leone:A comprehensive baseline study |publisher=BBC World Service Trust and Search for Common Ground |url =http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/pdf/media_report_2007.pdf |accessdate =19 April 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Isata Mahoi radio editor and actress.jpg|thumb|[[Isata Mahoi]] shown editing radio programmes in Talking Drum studio [[Freetown]]; she is also an actress in Sierra Leone radio soap opera [[Atunda Ayenda]].]]
Radio is the most-popular and most-trusted media in Sierra Leone, with 85% of people having access to a radio and 72% of people in the country listening to the radio daily.<ref name="BBC"/> These levels do vary between areas of the country, with the [[Western Area]] having the highest levels and [[Kailahun]] the lowest. Stations mainly consist of local commercial stations with a limited broadcast range, combined with a few stations with national coverage – [[Capital Radio Sierra Leone]] being the largest of the commercial stations.

The United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) ran one of the most popular stations in the country, broadcasting programs in a range of languages. The UN mission were restructured in 2008 and it was decided that the UN Radio would be merged with SLBS to form the new Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC). This merger eventually happened in 2011 after the necessary legislation was enacted. SLBC transmits radio on [[FM broadcasting|FM]] and has two television services, one of which is uplinked by satellite for international consumption. FM relays of [[BBC World Service]] (in Freetown, Bo, Kenema and Makeni), [[Radio France Internationale]] (Freetown only) and [[Voice of America]] (Freetown only) are also broadcast.

Outside the capital Freetown and other major cities, television is not watched by a great many people, although Bo, Kenema and Makeni are served by their own relays of the main SLBC service. There are two free terrestrial television stations in Sierra Leone, one run by the government SLBC and the other a private station in Freetown, Star TV which is run by the owner of the Standard Times newspaper. There are a number of religious funded TV stations that operate intermittently. Two other commercial TV operators (ABC and AIT) closed after they were not profitable. In 2007, a pay-per-view service was also introduced by GTV as part of a pan-African television service in addition to the nine-year-old sub-Saharan Digital satellite television service (DStv) originating from Multichoice Africa in South Africa. GTV subsequently went out of business, leaving DStv as the only provider of pay-per-view television in the country. A number of organisations are competing for the rights to operate digital TV services, with Multichoice's Go TV having built infrastructure ahead of getting a licence.

Internet access in Sierra Leone has been sparse but is on the increase, especially since the introduction of 3G cellular phone services across the country. There are several main [[internet service providers]] (ISPs) operating in the country. Freetown has [[internet cafés]] and other businesses offering internet access. Problems experienced with access to the Internet include an intermittent electricity supply and a slow connection speed in the country outside Freetown.

=== Arts ===
{{Further information|Art in Sierra Leone|Music of Sierra Leone}}
[[File:Temne. Ode-Lay Mask Brooklyn Museum.jpg|thumb|Odelay mask by [[Temne people]]. [[Brooklyn Museum]].]]
[[File:Sierra Leone Koindu dance.jpg|thumb|The [[Koindu]] dance]]
The arts in Sierra Leone are a mixture of tradition and hybrid African and western styles.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Banham|first = Martin |title = A history of theatre in Africa|publisher =Cambridge University Press |year =2004|page = 171|url =https://books.google.com/?id=RZXtk9bCZ-8C&pg=PA171|isbn=978-0-521-80813-2|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last =Conteh |first = Prince Sorie |title = Traditionalists, Muslims, and Christians in Africa: interreligious encounters and dialogue|publisher =Cambria Press |year =2009|pages = 23–24|url =https://books.google.com/?id=HpAuyiMRTDcC&pg=PA23|isbn=978-1-60497-596-3|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last =Manson |first =Katrina |author2=James Knight |title = Sierra Leone|publisher = Bradt Travel Guides|year =2009|pages = 42–45|url =https://books.google.com/?id=VxRcEzkFs-wC&pg=PA43|isbn=978-1-84162-222-4|accessdate=17 June 2014}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main article|Sport in Sierra Leone}}
[[File:Sierra Leone National Stadium.jpg|thumb|250px|Sierra Leone National Stadium]]

[[Association football|Football]] is by far the most popular sport in Sierra Leone. Children, youth and adult are frequently seen playing [[street football]] across Sierra Leone. There are organised youth and adult football tournaments across the country, and there are various primary and secondary schools with football teams across Sierra Leone.

The Sierra Leone national football team, popularly known as the [[Leone Stars]], represents the country in international competitions. It has never qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]] but participated in the [[1994 African Cup of Nations|1994]] and [[1996 African Cup of Nations]]. When the national football team, the Leone Stars, have a match, Sierra Leoneans across the country come together united in support of the national team and people rush to their local radio and television stations to follow the live match. The country's national television network, The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC) broadcasts the national football team live match, along with many local radio stations across the country.

When the Leone Stars win an important match, many youth across the county rush to the street to celebrate. Many of the Sierra Leone national team footballers play for teams based in Europe although virtually all of them started professional football in the [[Sierra Leone National Premier League]]. Many of the national team footballers are celebrities across Sierra Leone and they are often well known by the general population. Some of Sierra Leonean international footballers include [[Mohamed Kallon]], [[Mohamed Bangura (footballer)|Mohamed Bangura]], [[Rodney Strasser]], [[Kei Kamara]], [[Ibrahim Teteh Bangura]], [[Mustapha Dumbuya]], [[Christian Caulker]], [[Al Bangura|Alhassan Bangura]], [[Sheriff Suma]], [[Mohamed Kamara]], [[Umaru Bangura]] and [[Julius Wobay|Julius Gibrilla Woobay]].

The [[Sierra Leone National Premier League]] is the top professional football league in Sierra Leone and is controlled by the [[Sierra Leone Football Association]]. Fourteen clubs from across the country compete in the Sierra Leone Premier League. The two biggest and most successful football clubs are [[East End Lions]] and [[Mighty Blackpool]]. East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool have an intense rivalry and when they play each other the national stadium in Freetown is often sold out and supporters of both clubs often clash with each other before and after the game. There is a huge police presence inside and outside the national stadium during a match between the two great rivals to prevent a clash. Many Sierra Leonean youth follow the local football league.

Many Sierra Leonean youth, children and adults follow the major football leagues in Europe, particularly the English [[Premier League]], Italian [[Serie A]], Spanish [[La Liga]], German [[Fußball-Bundesliga|Bundesliga]] and French [[Ligue 1]].
The [[Sierra Leone cricket team]] represents Sierra Leone in international cricket competitions, and is among the best in West Africa. It became an affiliate member of the [[International Cricket Council]] in 2002. It made its international debut at the 2004 African Affiliates Championship, where it finished last of eight teams. But at the equivalent tournament in 2006, Division Three of the African region of the World Cricket League, it finished as runner-up to [[Mozambique]], and just missed a promotion to Division Two.

In 2009 the Sierra Leone Under-19 team finished second in the African Under-19 Championship in Zambia, thus qualifying for the Under-19 World Cup qualifying tournament with nine other teams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/other/content/story/403002.html |title=Cricinfo article Uganda and Sierra Leone Win Through |publisher=Cricinfo.com |date=5 May 2009 |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> However, the team was unable to obtain Canadian visas to play in the tournament, which was held in Toronto.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/other/content/story/423890.html |title=Visa Issues End Sierra Leone's World Cup Dream |publisher=Cricinfo article |date=7 September 2009 |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

Basketball is not a very popular sport in Sierra Leone. The Sierra Leone national basketball team represents Sierra Leone in international men's basketball competitions and is controlled by the Sierra Leone Basketball Federation.

The [[National Basketball Association]] (NBA) is popular among a small portion of the youth population. NBA superstars [[LeBron James]], [[Kobe Bryant]] and [[Kevin Durant]] are popular among Sierra Leone's youthful population. Former NBA stars, in particular [[Michael Jordan]], [[Shaquille O'Neal]], [[Allen Iverson]] and [[Magic Johnson]] are popular in the country. Michael Jordan in particular is the most famous basketball player in the country and he is very popular among the general population. Current NBA youngstar [[Victor Oladipo]] is of Sierra Leonean descent, as his father is a native of Sierra Leone.<ref>{{cite web|author=&nbsp;Last Update: 01:03 AM 20 March 2014 |url=http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-03-26/sports/38042288_1_dematha-gym-dunk-contest/2 |title=Washington Post: Breaking News, World, US, DC News & Analysis |publisher=Articles.washingtonpost.com |date=12 September 2013 |accessdate=20 March 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203070617/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-03-26/sports/38042288_1_dematha-gym-dunk-contest/2 |archivedate=3 December 2013}}</ref>

Although tennis is not very popular in the country, up-and-coming American player [[Frances Tiafoe]] is the son of two Sierra Leoneans who emigrated to the United States.

== See also ==
{{portal|Sierra Leone|Africa|Commonwealth realms}}
*[[Index of Sierra Leone-related articles]]
*[[Outline of Sierra Leone]]
*[[2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone]]
*{{Books-inline|Sierra Leone}}
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
===Further reading===
*Acemoglu, Daron, Tristan Reed, and James A. Robinson. "Chiefs: Economic Development and Elite Control of Civil Society in Sierra Leone," ''Journal of Political Economy'' (2014) 122#2 pp.&nbsp;319–368 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/674988 in JSTOR]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=5j61GUfpX5YC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19 Imodale Caulker-Burnett, ''The Caulkers of Sierra Leone: The Story of a Ruling Family and Their Times''] (Xlibris, 2010)
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=B5RxmwC6aNwC&dq=Political+Change+in+a+West+African+State:+A+Study+of+the+Modernization+Process+in+Sierra+Leone&source=gbs_navlinks_s Harris, David. ''Civil War and Democracy in West Africa: Conflict Resolution, Elections and Justice in Sierra Leone and Liberia''], I.B. Tauris, 2012
*{{Cite book|title=Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone |url=https://books.google.com/?id=SEz1PCvILHUC&printsec=frontcover|author=Keen, David|publisher=Oxford: James Currey |year= 2005 |isbn=0-85255-883-X |accessdate=17 June 2014}}
*{{Cite book|author=Kup, Alexander Peter|title= A History of Sierra Leone, 1400–1787|year= 1961|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge|isbn= 0-7864-1814-1}}
*{{Cite book|author=Sillinger, Brett|title= Sierra Leone: Current Issues and Background|year= 2003|publisher=Nova Science Publishers |location= New York|isbn= 1-59033-662-3}}
*{{Cite book|ref=Utting|author=Utting, Francis A|title= The Story of Sierra Leone|year= 1931|publisher=Ayer Company Publishers |isbn= 0-8369-6704-6}}
*{{cite book|title=TRC Report |url=http://www.sierraleonetrc.org/index.php/view-the-final-report/download-table-of-contents |author=Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission|accessdate=14 May 2016}}

==Fiction and memoir==
*[http://bluindaco.org/en/documentary/life-does-not-lose-its-value-documentary-film/ Massucco W. ''Life does not lose its value/La Vita non perde valore''], documentary, Bluindaco Productions, 2012. [[La vita non perde valore|Link: La vita non perde valore]]
*[http://www.franceinter.fr/player/reecouter?play=296145 Bonnet, Laurent. ''Salone, a novel en Terre Krio''], Vents d'Ailleurs, 2012
*Beah, Ishmael. ''A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier'' (2007). Sarah Crichton Books: New York. [[A Long Way Gone|Link: A Long Way Gone]]

=== Secondary sources ===
*{{Cite book|author=Levinson, Robby|title= Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook|year= 1998|publisher=Oryx Press |location= Phoenix|isbn= 1-57356-019-7}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Sierra Leone|voy=Sierra Leone}}
; Government
*[http://www.statehouse.gov.sl/ The Republic of Sierra Leone] official government site
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/SL.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
*[http://www.slminerals.org/ Ministry of Mineral Resources] official government minerals site
*[http://www.thepatrioticvanguard.com/spip.php?article4158 thepatrioticvanguard.com ''The Patriotic Vanguard''] – official government newspaper


;General information
;General information
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1061561.stm Country Profile], [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Paraguay Paraguay] from the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* {{CIA World Factbook link|pa|Paraguay}}
*{{CIA World Factbook link|sl|Sierra Leone}}
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/paraguay.htm Paraguay] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/sierraleone.htm Sierra Leone], ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{dmoz|Regional/South_America/Paraguay}}
*{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Sierra_Leone}}
*{{wikiatlas|Sierra Leone}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1222081.stm Paraguay profile] from the [[BBC News]]
*[http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=SL Key Development Forecasts for Sierra Leone], [[International Futures]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Paraguay}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|287077}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=PY Key Development Forecasts for Paraguay] from [[International Futures]]


;News media
;News media
*[http://news.sl/ ''Awareness Times''] Newspaper
* [http://www.larueda.com.py/ La Rueda – Weekly reviews] {{es icon}}
* [http://www.abc.com.py/ ABC Color] {{es icon}}
*[http://www.thenewpeople.com/ ''The New People''], Newspaper
* [http://www.ultimahora.com.py/ Última Hora] {{es icon}}
*[http://allafrica.com/sierraleone/ News headline links], [[AllAfrica.com]]
* [http://www.lanacion.com.py/ La Nación] {{es icon}}
*[http://www.my-sierra-leone-life.com/ Sierra Leone News & Blog], Current Sierra Leone News & Blog
* [http://www.paraguay.com/ Paraguay.com] {{es icon}}
* [http://www.nanduti.com.py/ Ñanduti] {{es icon}}
;Trade
;Trade
*[http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/PRY/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Paraguay]
*[http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/SLE/Year/2002/Summary Sierra Leone 2002 Summary Trade Statistics]
; Tourism
;Travel
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101229113813/http://www.sierraleonetourism.sl/ National Tourist Board of Sierra Leone] official site
* [http://www.asu-cvb.org.py/servicios/lacuidad_en.html Paraguay Convention & Visitor's Bureau]
* [http://www.Paraguay.com/ Paraguay.com: Tradition, Culture, Maps, Tourism]
* {{Wikivoyage-inline}}
* [http://www.turismo.com.py/ Tourism in Paraguay, information, pictures and more. Turismo.com.py] {{es icon}}


; Telecommunication
{{Paraguay topics|state=expanded}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100313072928/http://www.alosmart.com/Sierra-Leone-calling-card-191.asp Sierra Leone], telecom

;Other
*[http://www.sierraleoneforum.com/ Sierra Leone Forum]
*[http://fosalone.org/ Friends of Sierra Leone]
*[http://www.schoolsforsalone.org/ Schools for Salone], non-profit dedicated to rebuilding schools
*[http://www.enciss-sl.org/ ENCISS] civil society and governance
*[http://auradicals.com/ The Auradicals Club], Student Club in Fourah Bay College
*[http://www.sierra-leone.org/ Sierra Leone Web]
*[http://sweetsalonefilm.blogspot.nl/ ''Sweet Salone''], 2008 film on new music in Sierra Leone
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080501184018/http://www.sc-sl.org/ War Crimes Trials in Sierra Leone]
*[http://www.hurrarc.org/ Hurrarc – Human Rights Respect Awareness Raising Campaigners], Sierra Leone NGO
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081010165129/http://www.ejfoundation.org/page370.html Environmental Justice Foundation's report on pirate fishing in Sierra Leone]
*[http://www.storiesfromlakkabeach.com/ ''Stories from Lakka Beach''], 2011 documentary about life in a post-conflict beach town

{{Sierra Leone topics}}
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Revision as of 15:35, 15 August 2017

8°30′N 11°30′W / 8.500°N 11.500°W / 8.500; -11.500

Yes
Motto: "Big weenie"
Anthem: Ooga booga look at the cripple fat man
File:National Anthem of Sierra Leone by US Navy Band.ogg
Location of Paraguay (dark blue) – in Africa (light blue & dark grey) – in the African Union (light blue)  –  [Legend]
Location of Paraguay (dark blue)

– in Africa (light blue & dark grey)
– in the African Union (light blue)  –  [Legend]

Location of Sierra Leone
Capital
and largest city
Freetown
8°29.067′N 13°14.067′W / 8.484450°N 13.234450°W / 8.484450; -13.234450
Official languagesEnglish[1]
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups
(2008)
Demonym(s)Sierra Leonean
GovernmentUnitary presidential constitutional republic
• President
Ernest Bai Koroma (APC)
Victor Bockarie Foh (APC)
S.B.B. Dumbuya (APC)
Abdulai Hamid Charm
LegislatureParliament
Independence
• from the United Kingdom
27 April 1961
• Republic declared
19 April 1971
Area
• Total
71,840 km2 (27,740 sq mi) (119th)
• Water (%)
1.1
Population
• 2015 census
7,075,641[2]
• Density
79.4/km2 (205.6/sq mi) (114tha)
GDP (PPP)2017 estimate
• Total
$11.551 billion[3]
• Per capita
$1,760[3]
GDP (nominal)2017 estimate
• Total
$4.088 billion[3]
• Per capita
$623[3]
Gini (2011)35.4[4]
medium inequality
HDI (2015)Decrease 0.420[5]
low (179th)
CurrencyLeone (SLL)
Time zoneUTC+0 (GMT)
Drives onRightb
Calling code+232
ISO 3166 codeSL
Internet TLD.sl
  1. Rank based on 2007 figures.
  2. Since 1 March 1971.

Sierra Leone (/sˈɛərə lˈn, -lˈn/ ),[6] officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north-east, Liberia to the south-east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south-west. Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests. The country has a total area of 71,740 km2 (27,699 sq mi)[7] and a population of 7,075,641 (based on 2015 national census).[2] It is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature.

Sierra Leone is made up of four administrative regions: the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area, which are subdivided into fourteen districts. Each district has its own directly elected local government, though with limited power, as most of the power are held by the central government in Freetown. Freetown (population 1,050,301), located in the Western Area, is Sierra Leone's capital, largest city and its economic centre. Kenema (population 200,354) is Sierra Leone second largest city, and is about 200 miles from Freetown, in the Eastern province of the country, Other major cities in Sierra Leone are Bo, Koidu Town and Makeni.

Sierra Leone became independent from the United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 led by Sir Milton Margai. The current constitution of Sierra Leone was adopted in 1991, though it has been amended several times. Since independence to present, Sierra Leonean politics has been dominated by two major political parties; the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) and the All People's Congress (APC).

From 1991 to 2002, the Sierra Leone civil war was fought and devastated the country. The proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the country's infrastructure destroyed, and over two million Sierra Leoneans displaced as refugees in neighbouring countries. In January 2002, then Sierra Leone's president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, fulfilled his campaign promise by ending the civil war, with help by the British Government, ECOWAS and the United Nations. More recently, the 2014 Ebola outbreak overburdened the weak healthcare infrastructure, leading to more deaths from medical neglect than Ebola itself. It created a humanitarian crisis situation and heavily impacted economic growth. The country has an extremely low life expectancy relative to other countries, at 57.8 years.[1]

About sixteen ethnic groups inhabit Sierra Leone, each with its own language and customs. The two largest and most influential are the Temne and the Mende people. The Temne are predominantly found in the north of the country, while the Mende are predominant in the southeast. Sierra Leone has a significant minority of the Krio people, who are descendants of freed African American and West Indian slaves.

Although English is the official language spoken at schools and government administration, the Krio language, an English-based creole, is the most widely spoken language across Sierra Leone and is spoken by 97% of the country's population. The Krio language unites all the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and social interaction with each other.

Sierra Leone is a Muslim majority country, with the overall Muslim population at 78% of the population,[8][9][10] though there is an influential Christian minority at about 21%.[1] Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the most religiously tolerant nations in the world. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other very peacefully. Religious violence is very rare in the country. The major Muslim holidays of Eid al fitr (end of Ramadan), Eid Al Adha, and Mawlid Al Nabi (commemorate the birth of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad) are officially celebrated as national holidays in Sierra Leone. The major Christian holidays of Christmas, Easter, Boxing Day and Good Friday are also officially celebrated as national holidays in Sierra Leone. In politics, the overwhelming majority of Sierra Leoneans vote for a candidate without regard to whether the candidate is a Muslim or a Christian.[11][12]

Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. It is also among the largest producers of titanium and bauxite, a major producer of gold and has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile. Sierra Leone is home to the third-largest natural harbour in the world. Despite exploitation of this natural wealth, 70% of its population live in poverty.[13]

Sierra Leone is a member of many international organisations, including the United Nations, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Mano River Union, the Commonwealth of Nations, the African Development Bank and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

History

Early history

Fragments of prehistoric pottery from Kamabai Rock Shelter
An 1835 illustration of liberated Africans arriving in Sierra Leone.
The colony of Freetown in 1856
Houses at Sierra-Leone (May 1853, X, p.55)[14]

Archaeological finds show that Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years,[15] populated successively by societies who migrated from other parts of Africa.[16] The people adopted the use of iron by the 9th century and by 1000 AD agriculture was being practised along the coast.[17] The climate changed considerably and boundaries among different ecological zones changed as well, affecting migration and conquest.[18]

Sierra Leone's dense tropical rainforest and swampy environment was considered impenetrable; it was also host to the tsetse fly, which carried a disease fatal to horses and the zebu cattle used by the Mande people. This environmental factor protected its people from conquests by the Mande and other African empires.[18][19] This also reduced the Islamic influence of the Mali Empire but Islam, introduced by Susu traders, merchants and migrants from the north and east, became widely adopted in the 18th century.[20]

European trading

European contacts within Sierra Leone were among the first in West Africa. In 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped the hills surrounding what is now Freetown Harbour, naming the shaped formation Serra da Leoa or "Serra Leoa" (Portuguese for Lioness Mountains).[21] The Spanish rendering of this geographic formation is Sierra Leona, which later was adapted and, misspelled, became the country's current name. Although according to the professor C. Magbaily Fyle this could have been a misinterpretation of historians: according to him, there has been evidence of travellers calling the region Serra Lyoa well before 1462, the year when de Sintra first arrived. This would imply that the identity of the person who named Sierra Leone still remains unclear.[22]

Soon after Sintra's expedition, Portuguese traders arrived at the harbour. By 1495 they had built a fortified trading post.[23] The Dutch and French also set up trade here, and each nation used Sierra Leone as a trading point for slaves brought by African traders from interior areas.[24] In 1562, the English initiated the Triangle Trade when Sir John Hawkins transported 300 enslaved Africans – acquired "by the sword and partly by other means" – to the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo in the Caribbean, where he sold them.[25]

Early colonies

Following the American Revolutionary War, the British evacuated thousands of freed African-American slaves and resettled them in Canadian and Caribbean colonies and London which gave them new lives. In 1787 the British Crown founded a settlement in Sierra Leone in what was called the "Province of Freedom". It intended to resettle some of the "Black Poor of London," mostly African Americans freed by the British during the war. About 400 blacks and 60 whites reached Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787. The group also included some West Indians of African descent from London. After they established Granville Town, most of the first group of colonists died, owing to disease and warfare with the indigenous African peoples (Temne and Mende), who resisted their encroachment. The 64 remaining colonists established a second Granville Town.[26]

Following the Revolution, more than 3,000 Black Loyalists had also been settled in Nova Scotia, where they were finally granted land. They founded Birchtown, Nova Scotia, but faced harsh winters and racial discrimination from nearby Shelburne, Nova Scotia. Thomas Peters pressed British authorities for relief and more aid; together with British abolitionist John Clarkson, the Sierra Leone Company was established to relocate Black Loyalists who wanted to take their chances in West Africa. In 1792 nearly 1200 persons from Nova Scotia crossed the Atlantic to build the second (and only permanent) Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown on 11 March 1792. In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotian Settlers, the Nova Scotians, or the Settlers.

The Settlers built Freetown in the styles they knew from their lives in the American South; they also continued American fashion and American manners. In addition, many continued to practice Methodism in Freetown. The initial process of society-building in Freetown, however, was a harsh struggle. The Crown did not supply enough basic supplies and provisions, and the Settlers were continually threatened by illegal slave trading and the risk of re-enslavement.[27] In the 1790s, the Settlers, including adult women, voted for the first time in elections.[28] The Sierra Leone Company, controlled by London investors, refused to allow the settlers to take freehold of the land. In 1799 some of the Settlers revolted. The Crown subdued the revolt by bringing in forces of more than 500 Jamaican Maroon people, whom they transported from Trelawny Town via Nova Scotia in 1800.

On 1 January 1808, Thomas Ludlam, the Governor of the Sierra Leone Company and a leading abolitionist, surrendered the Company's charter. This ended its 16 years of running the Colony. The British Crown reorganised the Sierra Leone Company as the African Institution; it was directed to improve the local economy. Its members represented both British who hoped to inspire local entrepreneurs and those with interest in the Macauley & Babington Company, which held the (British) monopoly on Sierra Leone trade.[29]

At about the same time (following the abolition of the slave trade in 1807), British crews delivered thousands of formerly enslaved Africans to Freetown, after liberating them from illegal slave ships. These Liberated Africans or recaptives were sold for $20 a head as apprentices to the white settlers, Nova Scotian Settlers, and the Jamaican Maroons. Some of the recaptives who were not sold as apprentices were forced to join the Navy. Though this apprentice system was not slavery, many recaptives were treated poorly and even abused because some of the original settlers considered them their property. Cut off from their various homelands and traditions, the Liberated Africans were forced to assimilate to the Western styles of Settlers and Maroons. For example, some of the recaptives were forced to change their name to a more Western sounding names. Though some people happily embraced these changes because they considered it as being part of the community, some were not happy with these changes and wanted to keep their own identity. Many recaptives were so unhappy that they risked the possibility of being sold back into slavery by leaving Sierra Leone and going back to their original villages.[30] They built a flourishing trade in flowers and beads on the West African coast.

These returned Africans were from many areas of Africa, but principally the west coast. During the 19th century, freed black Americans, some Americo Liberian 'refugees', and particularly West Indians, also immigrated and settled in Freetown. Together these peoples created a new creole ethnicity called the Krio people (initially called Creoles) and a trading language, Krio, which became commonly used among many of the ethnicities in the country.

Colonial era (1800–1960)

The settlement of Sierra Leone in the 1800s was unique in that the population was composed of displaced Africans who were brought to the colony after the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807. Upon arrival in Sierra Leone, each “recaptive” was given a registration number, and information on their physical qualities would be entered into the Register of Liberated Africans. However, oftentimes the documentations of the recaptives would be overwhelmingly subjective and would result in inaccurate entries on the recaptives and would make them difficult to track. In addition, differences between the Register of Liberated Africans of 1808 and the List of Captured Negroes of 1812 (which emulated the 1808 document) revealed some disparities in the entries of the recaptives, specifically in the names; many recaptives decided to change their given names to a more anglicised version which contributed to the difficulty in tracking the recaptives after they arrived in Sierra Leone.

According to the British Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1807, the recaptives could be subject to apprenticeships led by British colonists in Sierra Leone and the males enlisted into the Army or Navy. In many instances, the recaptives who were assigned to apprenticeships were sold for $20, giving the apprenticeship system qualities similar to slavery.[31] It is documented that the recaptive apprentices were unpaid and the settlers who they were appointed to had devices which could be used to discipline them, namely sticks. According to Suzanne Schwartz, a historian on colonial Sierra Leone, in June 1808 a group of 21 men and women ran away to the nearby native settlement of Robiss and upon recapture were imprisoned by the settlers in Sierra Leone, thus contributing to the slavery-like qualities of the apprenticeship system.[31]

Bai Bureh, Temne leader of the Hut Tax War of 1898 against British rule.

In the early 19th century, Freetown served as the residence of the British colonial governor of the region, who also administered the Gold Coast (now Ghana) and the Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone developed as the educational centre of British West Africa. The British established Fourah Bay College here in 1827, which rapidly became a magnet for English-speaking Africans on the West Coast. For more than a century, it was the only European-style university in western Sub-Saharan Africa.

Temne leader Bai Bureh seen here in 1898 after his surrender, sitting relaxed in his traditional dress with a handkerchief in his hands, while a Sierra Leonean Royal West African Frontier soldier stands guard next to him

The British interacted mostly with the Krios in Freetown, who did most of the trading with the indigenous peoples of the interior. In addition, educated Krios held numerous positions in the colonial government, giving them status and good-paying positions.

Following the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, the UK decided that it needed to establish more dominion over the inland areas, to satisfy what was described by the European powers as "effective occupation" of territories. In 1896 it annexed these areas, declaring them the Sierra Leone Protectorate.[32] With this change, the British began to expand their administration in the region, recruiting British citizens to posts, and pushing Krios out of positions in government and even the desirable residential areas in Freetown.[32]

In addition, the British annexation of the Protectorate interfered with the sovereignty of indigenous chiefs. They designated chiefs as units of local government, rather than dealing with them individually as had been previous practice. They did not maintain relationships even with longtime allies, such as Bai Bureh, chief of Kasseh, a community on the Small Scarcies River. He was later unfairly portrayed as a prime instigator of the Hut Tax war in 1898.[33]

Colonel Frederic Cardew, military governor of the Protectorate, in 1898 established a new tax on dwellings and demanded that the chiefs use their peoples to maintain roads. The taxes were often higher than the value of the dwellings, and 24 chiefs signed a petition to Cardew, telling how destructive this was; their people could not afford to take time off from their subsistence agriculture. They resisted payment of taxes. Tensions over the new colonial requirements, and administration suspicions about the chiefs, led to the Hut Tax war of 1898, also called the Temne-Mende War. The British fired first. The Northern front of majority Temne people was led by Bai Bureh. The Southern front, consisting mostly of Mende people, entered conflict somewhat later and for different reasons.

For several months, Bureh's fighters had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British forces. Both the British troops and Bureh's warriors suffered hundreds of fatalities each.[34] Bai Bureh finally surrendered on 11 November 1898 to end the destruction of his people's territory and dwellings. Although the British government recommended leniency, Cardew insisted on sending the chief and two allies into exile in the Gold Coast;[33] his government hanged 96 of the chief's warriors. Bai Bureh was allowed to return in 1905, when he resumed his chieftaincy of Kasseh.[33]

Moa River Bridge, Sierra Leone. Lisk-Carew Brothers, Freetown, Sierra Leone
British West African Campaign troops in Freetown, c. 1914–1916. Published caption: "British expeditionary force preparing to embark at Freetown to attack the German Cameroons, the main object of the attack being the port of Duala. Auxiliary native troops were freely used in African warfare."
African Naval ratings march past the Governor of Sierra Leone, Sir Hubert Stevenson.

The defeat of the Temne and Mende in the Hut Tax war ended large-scale organised resistance to the Protectorate and colonial government. But resistance continued throughout the colonial period in the form of intermittent, wide-scale rioting and chaotic labour disturbances. For instance, riots in 1955 and 1956 involved "many tens of thousands" of natives in the protectorate.[35]

Domestic slavery, which continued to be practised by local African elites, was abolished in 1928.[36] One notable event in 1935 was the granting of a monopoly on mineral mining to the Sierra Leone Selection Trust, run by De Beers. The monopoly was scheduled to last 98 years. Mining of diamonds in the east and other minerals expanded, drawing labourers there from other parts of the country.

In 1924, the UK government divided Sierra Leone into a Colony and a Protectorate, with separate and different political systems constitutionally defined for each. The Colony was Freetown and its coastal area; the Protectorate was defined as inland areas dominated by tribal chiefs. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate in 1947, when proposals were introduced to provide for a single political system for both the Colony and the Protectorate. Most of the proposals came from leaders of the Protectorate, whose population far outnumbered that in the colony. The Creoles (Krios), led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, opposed the proposals, as they would have resulted in reducing the political power of the Krios in the Colony.

In 1951, the educated protectorate leaders from across different ethnic groups, including Sir Milton Margai, Lamina Sankoh, Siaka Stevens, Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, John Karefa-Smart, Kande Bureh, Sir Albert Margai, Amadu Wurie and Sir Banja Tejan-Sie joined together united with the powerful paramount chiefs in the protectorate to form the Sierra Leone People's Party or SLPP as the party of the protectorate. The SLPP leadership, led by Sir Milton Margai, negotiated with the British and the educated Krio-dominated colony based in Freetown to achieve independence [2].

Owing to the astute politics of Sir Milton Margai, an ethnic Mende, the educated Protectorate elite was won over to join forces with the paramount chiefs in the face of Krio intransigence. Later, Sir Milton used the same skills to win over opposition leaders and moderate Krio elements to achieve independence from the UK.[37]

In November 1951, Margai oversaw the drafting of a new constitution, which united the separate Colonial and Protectorate legislatures and – most importantly – provided a framework for decolonisation.[38] In 1953, Sierra Leone was granted local ministerial powers, and Sir Milton Margai was elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone.[38] The new constitution ensured Sierra Leone a parliamentary system within the Commonwealth of Nations.[38]

In May 1957, Sierra Leone held its first parliamentary election. The Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), which was then the most popular political party in the colony of Sierra Leone and was supported by the powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, won the most seats in Parliament, and Margai was re-elected as Chief Minister by a landslide.

1960 Independence Conference

On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai led a twenty four member Sierra Leonean delegation at constitutional conferences that were held with Queen Elizabeth II and British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod in negotiations for independence held in London.[39][40]

On the conclusion of talks in London on 4 May 1960, the United Kingdom agreed to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961.[39][40]

Independence (1961) and Sir Milton Margai Administration (1961–1964)

On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai led Sierra Leone to independence from Great Britain and became the country's first Prime Minister. Thousands of Sierra Leoneans took to the streets in celebration. Sierra Leone retained a parliamentary system of government and was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The leader of the main opposition All People's Congress (APC), Siaka Stevens, along with Isaac Wallace-Johnson, another outspoken critic of the SLPP government, were arrested and placed under house arrest in Freetown, along with sixteen others charged with disrupting the independence celebration.[41]

In May 1962, Sierra Leone held its first general election as an Independent nation. The Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) won a plurality of seats in parliament, and Sir Milton Margai was re-elected as prime minister.

Sir Milton was very popular among Sierra Leoneans during his time in power. Sir Milton was known for his self-effacement. He was neither corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of his power or status.[citation needed] He based the government on the rule of law and the separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly viable representative structures. Margai used his conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials to represent various ethnic groups. Margai employed a brokerage style of politics, by sharing political power among political parties and interest groups; and with the powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, most of whom were key allies of his government .[citation needed]

Final years of democracy (1964–1967)

Upon Sir Milton's unexpected death in 1964, his half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, was appointed as Prime Minister by parliament. Sir Albert's leadership was briefly challenged by Sierra Leone's Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who questioned Sir Albert's succession to the SLPP leadership position. Karefa-Smart lead a prominent small minority faction within the SLPP party in opposition of Albert Margai as Prime Minister. However, Kareefa-Smart failed to receive strong support within the SLPP and the SLPP dominated members of parliament in his attempt to have Albert Margai stripped of as the leader of the SLPP and prime minister of the country. The large majority of SLPP members backed Albert Margai over Kareefa-Smart. Soon after Albert Margai was sworn in as Prime Minister, he immediately dismissed several senior government officials who had served under his elder brother Sir Milton's government, as he viewed them as a threat to his administration, including Kareefa-Smart.

Sir Albert resorted to increasingly authoritarian actions in response to protests and enacted several laws against the opposition All People's Congress (APC), whilst attempting to establish a one-party state.[citation needed] Sir Albert was opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing executive powers to the Paramount Chiefs, many of whom had been key allies of his late brother Sir Milton. Accordingly, they began to consider Sir Albert as a threat to the ruling houses across the country. Margai appointed many non ethnic Creole to the country's civil service in Freetown, in an overal diversity of the civil service in the capital, which was previously dominated by members of the Creole ethnic group, as a result Albert Margai became unpopular in the Creole community, many of whom had supported his older brother Sir Milton. Margai was accused of favoring members of his own Mende ethnic group for prominent positions.

In 1967, riots broke out in Freetown against Sir Albert's policies; in response Margai declared a state of emergency across the country. Sir Albert was accused of corruption and of a policy of affirmative action in favour of his own Mende ethnic group.[42] Although Sir Albert had the full backing of the country's security forces, he called for free and fair elections.

Military coups (1967–1968)

The APC, with its leader Siaka Stevens, narrowly won a small majority of seats in Parliament over the SLPP in a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election. Stevens was sworn in as Prime Minister on 21 March 1967.

Within hours after taking office, Stevens was ousted in a bloodless military coup led by Brigadier General David Lansana, the commander of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces. He was a close ally of Sir Albert Margai, who had appointed him to the position in 1964. Brigadier Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest in Freetown and insisted that the determination of the Prime Minister should await the election of the tribal representatives to the House. Upon his released, Stevens went into exiled in Guinea.

On 23 March 1967, a group of military officers in the Sierra Leone Army led by Brigadier General Andrew Juxon-Smith, overrode this action by a coup d'état; they seized control of the government, arresting Brigadier Lansana, and suspending the constitution. The group set up the National Reformation Council (NRC), with Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith as its chairman and Head of State of the country.[43]

On 18 April 1968 a group of Corporals in the Sierra Leone Army who called themselves the Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM), led by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura, overthrew the NRC junta. The ACRM junta arrested many senior NRC members. They reinstated the constitution and returned power to Stevens, who at last assumed the office of Prime Minister.[44]

One-party state (1968–1991)

An APC political rally in the northern town of Kabala outside the home of supporters of the rival SLPP in 1968.

Stevens assumed power again in 1968 with a great deal of hope and ambition. Much trust was placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens had campaigned on a platform of bringing the tribes together under socialist principles. During his first decade or so in power, Stevens renegotiated some of what he called "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by his predecessors, both Albert Margai of the SLPP and Juxon-Smith of the NRC. Some of these policies by the SLPP and the NRC were said to have left the country in an economically deprived state.

Stevens reorganised the country's refinery, the government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, and a cement factory. He cancelled Juxon-Smith's construction of a church and mosque on the grounds of Victoria Park (since mid 2017 Freetown Amusement Park). Stevens began efforts that would later bridge the distance between the provinces and the city. Roads and hospitals were constructed in the provinces, and Paramount Chiefs and provincial peoples became a prominent force in Freetown.

Under pressure of several coup attempts, real or perceived, Stevens' rule grew more and more authoritarian, and his relationship with some of his ardent supporters deteriorated. He removed the SLPP party from competitive politics in general elections, some believed, through the use of violence and intimidation. To maintain the support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as the head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.

After the return to civilian rule, by-elections were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed. Calm was not completely restored. In November 1968, unrest in the provinces led Stevens to declare a state of emergency across the country. Many senior officers in the Sierra Leone Army were greatly disappointed with Stevens' policies and his handling of the Sierra Leone Military; but none could confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who had reinstated Stevens as Prime Minister, was widely considered the only person who could put the brakes on Stevens. The army was devoted to Bangura, and this made him potentially dangerous to Stevens. In January 1970, Bangura was arrested and charged with conspiracy and plotting to commit a coup against the Stevens government. After a trial that lasted a few months, Bangura was convicted and sentenced to death. On 29 March 1970, Brigadier Bangura was executed by hanging in Freetown.

After the execution of Brigadier Bangura, a group of soldiers loyal to the executed Brigadier Bangura held a mutiny in the capital Freetown and in some other parts of the country in opposition of Stevens' government. Dozens of soldiers were arrested and convicted by a court martial in the capital Freetown for their participation in the mutiny against president Stevens; and among the soldiers arrested was a little known army Corporal Foday Sankoh, a strong supporter of the executed Brigadier Bangura. Corporal Sankoh was convicted and jailed for seven years at the Pademba Road Prison in Freetown.

In April 1971, a new republican constitution was adopted under which Stevens became President. In the 1972 by-elections the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and procedural obstruction by the APC and militia. These problems became so severe that the SLPP boycotted the 1973 general election; as a result the APC won 84 of the 85 elected seats.[45]

An alleged plot to overthrow president Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed. In mid 1974, Guinean soldiers, requested by Stevens, were in the country to help maintain his hold on power. As Stevens was a close ally of then Guinean president Ahmed Sekou Toure. In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition for a second five-year term as president. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army and government officials including Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Mohamed Sorie Forna (father of writer Aminatta Forna), Brigadier General Ibrahim Bash Taqi and Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara were executed after being convicted of allegedly attempting a coup to topple president Stevens' government.

In 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against the government disrupted Sierra Leone politics. The demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens' own personal Special Security Division (SSD) force, a heavily armed paramilitary force he had created to protect him and to maintain his hold on power.[46] The SSD officers were very loyal to Stevens and were deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or protest against Stevens' government. A general election was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15. In 1978, the APC-dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state. The 1978 constitution made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.[47]

This move led to another major demonstration against the government in many parts of the country but again it was put down by the army and Stevens' SSD forces. Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but on a positive note, he kept the country stable and from going into civil war. He built several government institutions that are still in use today. Stevens also reduced ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominant APC government.

Siaka Stevens retired from politics in November 1985 after being in power for eighteen years. The APC named a new presidential candidate to succeed Stevens at their last delegate conference held in Freetown in November 1985. He was Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh, the head of the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces and Stevens' own choice to succeed him. As head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces, Major General Momoh was very loyal to Stevens, who had appointed him to the position. Like Stevens, Momoh was also a member of the minority Limba ethnic group.

Momoh was elected President as the only contesting candidate, without any opposition, and was sworn in as Sierra Leone's second president on 28 November 1985 in Freetown. A one-party parliamentary election between APC members was held in May 1986. President Momoh appointed his former military colleague and key ally, Major General Mohamed Tarawalie to succeed him as the head of the Sierra Leone Military. Major General Tarawalie was also a strong loyalist and key supporter of president Momoh. President Momoh named James Bambay Kamara as the head of the Sierra Leone Police. Bambay Kamara was a key loyalist and strong supporter of President Momoh. Momoh broke away from former president Siaka Stevens, by integrating the powerful SSD into the Sierra Leone Police as a special paramilitary force of the Sierra Leone Police. Previously under President Stevens, the SSD was a personal force of Stevens to maintain his hold on power, and the SSD was very powerful and was independent from the Sierra Leone Military and Sierra Leone Police Force, and the SSD was directly under the control of President Stevens. The Sierra Leone Police under Bambay Kamara leadership, was accused of physical violence, arrest and intimidation against critics of President Momoh's government.

President Momoh's strong links with the army and his verbal attacks on corruption earned him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. With the lack of new faces in the new APC cabinet under president Momoh and the return of many of the old faces from Stevens' government, criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens.

The next couple of years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise his war against corruption, President Momoh announced a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders and Public Servants." After an alleged attempt to overthrow President Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice President Francis Minah, who was removed from office, convicted of plotting the coup, and executed by hanging in 1989 along with 5 others.

Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002)

A school in Koindu destroyed during the Civil War; in total 1,270 primary schools were destroyed in the War.[48]

In October 1990, owing to mounting pressure from both within and outside the country for political and economic reform, president Momoh set up a constitutional review commission to assess the 1978 one-party constitution. Based on the commission's recommendations a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system was approved by the exclusive APC Parliament by a 60% majority vote, becoming effective on 1 October 1991. There was great suspicion that president Momoh was not serious about his promise of political reform, as APC rule continued to be increasingly marked by abuses of power.

The brutal civil war that was going on in neighbouring Liberia played a significant role in the outbreak of fighting in Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor – then leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia – reportedly helped form the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under the command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Saybana Sankoh, an ethnic Temne from Tonkolili District in Northern Sierra Leone. Sankoh was a British trained former army corporal who had also undergone guerrilla training in Libya. Taylor's aim was for the RUF to attack the bases of Nigerian dominated peacekeeping troops in Sierra Leone who were opposed to his rebel movement in Liberia.

On 29 April 1992, a group of young soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army, and lead by its seven coup ring leaders consisting of Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Captain Valentine Strasser, Sargent Solomon Musa, Captain Komba Mondeh, Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, Captain Julius Maada Bio and Captain Komba Kambo[49] that launched a military coup, which sent president Momoh into exile in Guinea and the young soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) with twenty five year old Captain Valentine Strasser as its chairman and Head of State of the country.[50]

Sargent Solomon Musa, a childhood friend of Strasser, became the deputy chairman and deputy leader of the NPRC junta government. Strasser became the world's youngest Head of State when he seized power just three days after his 25th birthday. The NPRC junta established the National Supreme Council of State as the military highest command and final authority in all matters, and was exclusively made up of the highest ranking NPRC soldiers, included Strasser himself and the original soldiers who toppled president Momoh.[50]

One of the highest ranking soldiers of the NPRC Junta, Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, a trusted ally of Strasser, was assassinated, allegedly by Major S.I.M. Turay, a key loyalist of ousted president Momoh. A heavily armed military manhunt took place across the country to find Lieutenant Sandy's killer, however, the main suspect Major S.I.M Turay went into hiding and fled the country to Guinea, fearing for his life. Dozens of soldiers loyal to the ousted president Momoh were arrested including colonel Kahota M Dumbuya and Major Yayah Turay. Lieutenant Sandy' was given a state funeral and his funeral prayers service at the cathedral church in Freetown was attended by many high ranking soldiers of the NPRC junta including Strasser himself and NPRC deputy leader Sergeant Solomom Musa

The NPRC Junta immediately suspended the constitution, banned all political parties, limited freedom of speech and freedom of the press and enacted a rule-by-decree policy, in which soldiers were granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial, and challenges against such detentions in court were precluded.

The NPRC Junta maintained relations with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and strengthened support for Sierra Leone-based ECOMOG troops fighting in Liberia. On 28 December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against the NPRC government of Strasser, aimed at freeing the detained Colonel Yahya Kanu, Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya and former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara was foiled. Several Junior army officers lead by Seargen Mohamed Lamin Bangura were identified as being behind the coup plot. The coup plot led to the firing squad execution of seventeen soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army including Colonel Kahota M Dumbuya, Major Yayah Kanu and Seargent Mohamed Lamin Bangura. Several prominent members of the Momoh government who had been in detention at the Pa Demba Road prison, including former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara were also executed.[51]

On 5 July 1994 the deputy NPRC leader Seargent Solomon Musu, who was very popular with the general population, particularly in Freetown, was arrested and sent into exile after he was accused of planning a coup to topple Strasser. An accusation Seargent Musa denied. Strasser replaced Musa as deputy NPRC chairman with Captain Julius Maada Bio, who was instantly promoted by Strasser to Brigadier.

The NPRC proved to be nearly as ineffectual as the Momoh-led APC government in repelling the RUF. More and more of the country fell to RUF fighters, and by 1994 they held much of the diamond-rich Eastern Province and were at the edge of Freetown. In response, the NPRC hired several hundred mercenaries from the private firm Executive Outcomes. Within a month they had driven RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone's borders, and cleared the RUF from the Kono diamond producing areas of Sierra Leone.

With Strasser's two most senior NPRC allies and commanders Lieutenant Sahr Sandy and Lieutenant Solomon Musa no longer around to defend him, Strasser's leadership within the NPRC Supreme Council of State was not considered much stronger. On 16 January 1996, after about four years in power, Strasser was arrested in a palace coup at the Defence Headquarter in Freetown by his fellow NPRC soldiers[52] Strasser was immediately flown into exile in a military helicopter to Conakry, Guinea.

In his first public broadcast to the nation following the 1996 coup, Brigadier Bio stated that his support for returning Sierra Leone to a democratically elected civilian government and his commitment to ending the civil war were his motivations for the coup.[53] Promises of a return to civilian rule were fulfilled by Bio, who handed power over to Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), after the conclusion of elections in early 1996. President Kabbah took power with a great promise of ending the civil war. President Kabbah opened dialogue with the RUF and invited RUF leader Foday Sankoh for peace negotiations.

On 25 May 1997, seventeen soldiers in the Sierra Leone army led by Corporal Tamba Gborie, loyal to the detained Major General Johnny Paul Koroma, launched a military coup which sent President Kabbah into exile in Guinea and they established the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC). Corporal Gborie quickly went to the SLBS FM 99.9 headquarters in Freetown to announce the coup to a shocked nation and to alert all soldiers across the country to report for guard duty. The soldiers immediately released Koroma from prison and installed him as their chairman and Head of State.

Koroma suspended the constitution, banned demonstrations, shut down all private radio stations in the country and invited the RUF to join the new junta government, with its leader Foday Sankoh as the Vice-Chairman of the new AFRC-RUF coalition junta government. Within days, Freetown was overwhelmed by the presence of the RUF combatants who came to the city in thousands. The Kamajors, a group of traditional fighters mostly from the Mende ethnic group under the command of deputy Defence Minister Samuel Hinga Norman, remained loyal to President Kabbah and defended the Southern part of Sierra Leone from the soldiers.

Kabbah's government and the end of civil war (2002–2014)

After 9 months in office, the junta was overthrown by the Nigerian-led ECOMOG forces, and the democratically elected government of president Kabbah was reinstated in February 1998. On 19 October 1998 twenty-four soldiers in the Sierra Leone army were executed by firing squad after they were convicted at a court martial in Freetown, some for orchestrating the 1997 coup that overthrew President Kabbah and others for failure to reverse the mutiny.[54]

In October 1999, the United Nations agreed to send peacekeepers to help restore order and disarm the rebels. The first of the 6,000-member force began arriving in December, and the UN Security Council voted in February 2000 to increase the force to 11,000, and later to 13,000. But in May, when nearly all Nigerian forces had left and UN forces were trying to disarm the RUF in eastern Sierra Leone, Sankoh's forces clashed with the UN troops, and some 500 peacekeepers were taken hostage as the peace accord effectively collapsed. The hostage crisis resulted in more fighting between the RUF and the government as UN troops launched Operation Khukri to end the siege. The Operation was successful with Indian and British Special Forces being the main contingents.

The situation in the country deteriorated to such an extent that British troops were deployed in Operation Palliser, originally simply to evacuate foreign nationals. However, the British exceeded their original mandate, and took full military action to finally defeat the rebels and restore order. The British were the catalyst for the ceasefire that ended the civil war. Elements of the British Army, together with administrators and politicians, remain in Sierra Leone to this day, helping train the armed forces, improve the infrastructure of the country and administer financial and material aid. Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Britain at the time of the British intervention, is regarded as a hero by the people of Sierra Leone, many of whom are keen for more British involvement.[citation needed] Sierra Leoneans have been described as "The World's Most Resilient People".[55]

Between 1991 and 2001, about 50,000 people were killed in Sierra Leone's civil war. Hundreds of thousands of people were forced from their homes and many became refugees in Guinea and Liberia. In 2001, UN forces moved into rebel-held areas and began to disarm rebel soldiers. By January 2002, the war was declared over. In May 2002, Kabbah was re-elected president by a landslide. By 2004, the disarmament process was complete. Also in 2004, a UN-backed war crimes court began holding trials of senior leaders from both sides of the war. In December 2005, UN peacekeeping forces pulled out of Sierra Leone.

In August 2007, Sierra Leone held presidential and parliamentary elections. However, no presidential candidate won the 50% plus one vote majority stipulated in the constitution on the first round of voting. A runoff election was held in September 2007, and Ernest Bai Koroma, the candidate of the main opposition APC, was elected president. Koroma was re-elected president for a second (and final) term in November 2012.

Struggle with epidemic (2014–present)

In 2014 an Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone began, which had widespread impact on the country,[56] including forcing Sierra Leone to declare a state of emergency.[57] By the end of 2014 there were nearly 3000 deaths and 10 thousand cases of the disease in Sierra Leone.[56] The epidemic also led to the Ouse to Ouse Tock in September 2014, a nationwide three-day quarantine.[58] The epidemic occurred as part of the wider Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. In early August 2014 Sierra Leone cancelled league football (soccer) matches because of the Ebola epidemic.[59]

Geography and climate

A map of Sierra Leone.
Sierra Leone map of Köppen climate classification.

Sierra Leone is located on the west coast of Africa, lying mostly between latitudes and 10°N (a small area is south of 7°), and longitudes 10° and 14°W. The country is bordered by Guinea to the north and northeast, Liberia to the south and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.[60]

Sierra Leone has a total area of 71,740 km2 (27,699 sq mi), divided into a land area of 71,620 km2 (27,653 sq mi) and water of 120 km2 (46 sq mi).[61] The country has four distinct geographical regions. In eastern Sierra Leone the plateau is interspersed with high mountains, where Mount Bintumani reaches 1,948 m (6,391 ft), the highest point in the country. The upper part of the drainage basin of the Moa River is located in the south of this region.

The centre of the country is a region of lowland plains, containing forests, bush and farmland,[60] that occupies about 43% of Sierra Leone's land area. The northern section of this has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic ecoregion, while the south is rain-forested plains and farmland.

In the west, Sierra Leone has some 400 km (249 mi) of Atlantic coastline, giving it both bountiful marine resources and attractive tourist potential. The coast has areas of low-lying Guinean mangroves swamp. The national capital Freetown sits on a coastal peninsula, situated next to the Sierra Leone Harbour, the world's third largest natural harbour.

The climate is tropical, with two seasons determining the agricultural cycle: the rainy season from May to November, and a dry season from December to May, which includes harmattan, when cool, dry winds blow in off the Sahara Desert and the night-time temperature can be as low as 16 °C (60.8 °F). The average temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and varies from around 26 to 36 °C (78.8 to 96.8 °F) during the year.[62][63]

Environment

Human activities claimed to be responsible or contributing to land degradation in Sierra Leone include unsustainable agricultural land use, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation, removal of natural vegetation, fuelwood consumption and to a lesser extent overgrazing and urbanisation.[64]

Deforestation, both for commercial timber and to make room for agriculture, is the major concern and represents an enormous loss of natural economic wealth to the nation.[64] Mining and slash and burn for land conversion – such as cattle grazing – dramatically diminished forested land in Sierra Leone since the 1980s. It is listed among countries of concern for emissions, as having Low Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD).[65]

There are concerns that heavy logging continues in the Tama-Tonkoli Forest Reserve in the north. Loggers have extended their operations to Nimini, Kono District, Eastern Province; Jui, Western Rural District, Western Area; Loma Mountains National Park, Koinadougu, Northern Province; and with plans to start operations in the Kambui Forest reserve in the Kenema District, Eastern Province.[65]

Habitat degradation for the African wild dog, Lycaon pictus, has been increased, such that this canid is deemed to have been extirpated in Sierra Leone.[66]

Until 2002, Sierra Leone lacked a forest management system because of the civil war that caused tens of thousands of deaths. Deforestation rates have increased 7.3% since the end of the civil war.[67] On paper, 55 protected areas covered 4.5% of Sierra Leone as of 2003. The country has 2,090 known species of higher plants, 147 mammals, 626 birds, 67 reptiles, 35 amphibians, and 99 fish species.[67]

The Environmental Justice Foundation has documented how the number of illegal fishing vessels in Sierra Leone's waters has multiplied in recent years. The amount of illegal fishing has significantly depleted fish stocks, depriving local fishing communities of an important resource for survival. The situation is particularly serious as fishing provides the only source of income for many communities in a country still recovering from over a decade of civil war.[68]

In June 2005, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and BirdLife International agreed to support a conservation-sustainable development project in the Gola Forest in south eastern Sierra Leone,[69] an important surviving fragment of rainforest in Sierra Leone.

Government and politics

Ernest Bai Koroma, current president of Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. The current system of national government in Sierra Leone, established under the 1991 Constitution, is modelled on the following structure of government: the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary.[70]

Within the confines of the 1991 Constitution, supreme legislative powers are vested in Parliament, which is the law making body of the nation. Supreme executive authority rests in the president and members of his cabinet and judicial power with the judiciary of which the Chief Justice is head.

The president is the head of state, the head of government and the commander-in-chief of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces and the Sierra Leone Police. The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers, which must be approved by the Parliament. The president is elected by popular vote to a maximum of two five-year terms. The president is the highest and most influential position within the government of Sierra Leone.

To be elected president of Sierra Leone, a candidate must gain at least 55% of the vote. If no candidate gets 55%, there is a second-round runoff between the top two candidates.

The current president of Sierra Leone is Ernest Bai Koroma, who was sworn in on 17 September 2007. The first person of Temne ancestry to be elected president, he won a tense run-off election, defeating incumbent Vice-president, Solomon Berewa of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP).[71]

Koroma was re-elected as President for his second and final term, on 23 November 2012, with 58.7%, in the 2012 Sierra Leone Presidential election, defeating his main opponent, Retired Brigadier Julius Maada Bio of the main opposition Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), who got 37.4%[72][73][74][75]

Koroma was sworn in as President for his second and final term by Chief Justice Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh at State House in Freetown; the same day he was declared the winner of the election.[76]

Next to the president is the Vice-president, who is the second-highest ranking government official in the executive branch of the Sierra Leone Government. As designated by the Sierra Leone Constitution, the vice-president is to become the new president of Sierra Leone upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president by parliament and to assume the Presidency temporarily while the president is otherwise temporarily unable to fulfil his or her duties. The vice-president is elected jointly with the president as his or her running mate. Sierra Leone's current vice-president is Victor Bockarie Foh, who was sworn in on 19 March 2015 [3][4][5].

Parliament

The Sierra Leone Supreme Court in the capital Freetown, the highest and most powerful court in the country

The Parliament of Sierra Leone is unicameral, with 124 seats. Each of the country's fourteen districts is represented in parliament. 112 members are elected concurrently with the presidential elections; the other 12 seats are filled by paramount chiefs from each of the country's 12 administrative districts. The Sierra Leone parliament is led by the Speaker of Parliament, who is the overall leader of Parliament and is directly elected by sitting members of parliament. The current speaker of the Sierra Leone parliament is Sheku Badara Bashiru Dumbuya, who was elected by members of parliament on 21 January 2014.

The current members of Parliament of Sierra Leone were elected in the 2012 Sierra Leone parliamentary election. The All People's Congress (APC) currently has 70 of the 112 elected parliamentary seats and the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) has 42 of the elected 112 parliamentary seats. Sierra Leone's two most dominant parties, the APC and the SLPP, collectively won every elected seats in Parliament in the 2012 Sierra Leone parliamentary election. To be qualified as Member of Parliament, the person must be a citizen of Sierra Leone, must be at least 21 years old, must be able to speak, read and write the English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him to actively take part in proceedings in Parliament; and must not have any criminal conviction.[70]

Since independence in 1961, Sierra Leone's politics has been dominated by two major political parties: the SLPP and the ruling APC. Other minor political parties have also existed but with no significant support.[77]

Judiciary

The judicial power of Sierra Leone is vested in the judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice and comprising the Sierra Leone Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the country and its ruling therefore cannot be appealed; the High Court of Justice; the Court of Appeal; the magistrate courts; and traditional courts in rural villages. The president appoints and parliament approves Justices for the three courts. The Judiciary have jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters throughout the country. The current acting Chief Justice of Sierra Leone is Valicious Thomas [6]

Foreign relations

Embassy of Sierra Leone in Washington, D.C.

The Sierra Leone Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation is responsible for foreign policy of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone has diplomatic relations that include China, Russia,[78] Libya, Iran, and Cuba. Sierra Leone has good relations with the West, including the United States, and has maintained historical ties with the United Kingdom and other former British colonies through membership in the Commonwealth of Nations.[79] The United Kingdom has played a major role in providing aid to the former colony, together with administrative help and military training since intervening to end the Civil War in 2000.

Former President Siaka Stevens' government had sought closer relations with other West African countries under the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) a policy continued by the current government. Sierra Leone, along with Liberia and Guinea, form the Mano River Union (MRU). It is primarily designed to implement development projects and promote regional economic integration between the three countries.[80]

Sierra Leone is also a member of the United Nations and its specialised agencies, the African Union, the African Development Bank (AFDB), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).[81] Sierra Leone is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US military (as covered under Article 98).

Administrative divisions

The 12 districts and 2 areas of Sierra Leone.

The Republic of Sierra Leone is composed of four regions: the Northern Province, Southern Province, the Eastern Province, and the Western Area. The first three provinces are further divided into 12 districts.

The districts are divided into 149 chiefdoms, which have traditionally been led by paramount chiefs, recognised by the British administration in 1896 at the time of organising the Protectorate of Sierra Leone. The Paramount Chiefs are very influential, particularly in villages and small rural towns.[82] Each chiefdom has ruling families that were recognised at that time; the Tribal Authority, made up of local notables, elects the paramount chief from the ruling families.[82] Typically, chiefs have the power to "raise taxes, control the judicial system, and allocate land, the most important resource in rural areas."[83]

Sierra Leone also designates units of government called localities. To broaden representative government, each has a directly elected local district council to exercise authority and carry out functions at a local level.[84][85] There are 13 district councils, one for each of the 12 districts and one for the Western Area Rural. Six municipalities also have elected local councils: Freetown, Bo, Bonthe, Kenema, Koidu, and Makeni.[84]

District Capital Area km2 Province Population
(2004 census)[86]
Population
(2015 census)[87]
Bombali District Makeni 7,985 Northern
Province
408,390 606,183[88]
Koinadugu District Kabala 12,121 265,758 408,097[89]
Port Loko District Port Loko 5,719 453,746 614,063[89]
Tonkolili District Magburaka 7,003 347,197 530,776[90]
Kambia District Kambia 3,108 270,462 343,686[91]
Kenema District Kenema 6,053 Eastern
Province
497,948 609,873[92]
Kono District Koidu Town 5,641 335,401 505,767[93]
Kailahun District Kailahun 3,859 358,190 525,372[93]
Bo District Bo 5,219 Southern
Province
463,668 574,201[94]
Bonthe District Mattru Jong 3,468 139,687 200,730[95]
Pujehun District Pujehun 4,105 228,392 345,577
Moyamba District Moyamba 6,902 260,910 318,064
Western Area Urban District Freetown 13 Western
Area
772,873 1,050,301
Western Area Rural District Waterloo 544 174,249 442,951

Military

The Military of Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces (RSLAF), are the unified armed forces of Sierra Leone responsible for the territorial security of Sierra Leone's border and defending the national interests of Sierra Leone within the framework of its international obligations. The armed forces were formed after independence in 1961, on the basis of elements of the former British Royal West African Frontier Force present in the country. The Sierra Leone Armed Forces consists of around 15,500 personnel, comprising the largest Sierra Leone Army,[96] the Sierra Leone Navy and the Sierra Leone Air Wing.[97]

The president of Sierra Leone is the Commander in Chief of the military, with the Minister of Defence responsible for defence policy and the formulation of the armed forces. The current Sierra Leone Defence Minister is retired Major Alfred Paolo Conteh. The Military of Sierra Leone also has a Chief of the Defence Staff who is a uniformed military official responsible for the administration and the operational control of the Sierra Leone military.[98] Brigadier General Alfred Nelson-Williams who was appointed by president Koroma succeeded the retired Major General Edward Sam M’boma on 12 September 2008 as the Chief of Defence Staff of the Military.[99]

Before Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961, the military was known as the Royal Sierra Leone Military Force. The military seized control in 1968, bringing the National Reformation Council into power. On 19 April 1971, when Sierra Leone became a republic, the Royal Sierra Leone Military Forces were renamed the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force (RSLMF).[100] The RSLMF remained a single-service organisation until 1979, when the Sierra Leone Navy was established. In 1995 Defence Headquarters was established, and the Sierra Leone Air Wing formed. The RSLMF was renamed as the Armed Forces of the Republic of Sierra Leone (AFRSL).

Law enforcement

Law enforcement in Sierra Leone is primarily the responsibility of the Sierra Leone Police (SLP). Sierra Leone Police was established by the British colony in 1894; it is one of the oldest police forces in West Africa. It works to prevent crime, protect life and property, detect and prosecute offenders, maintain public order, ensure safety and security, and enhance access to justice. The Sierra Leone Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police, the professional head of the Sierra Leone Police force, who is appointed by the President of Sierra Leone.

Each one of Sierra Leone's 14 districts is headed by a district police commissioner who is the professional head of their respective district. These Police Commissioners report directly to the Inspector General of Police at the Sierra Leone Police headquarters in Freetown. The current Inspector General of Police is Brima Acha Kamara, who was appointed to the position by former president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah.

Economy

A proportional representation of Sierra Leone's exports.

By the 1990s economic activity was declining and economic infrastructure had become seriously degraded. Over the next decade much of the formal economy was destroyed in the country's civil war. Since the end of hostilities in January 2002, massive infusions of outside assistance have helped Sierra Leone begin to recover.

Much of the recovery will depend on the success of the government's efforts to limit corruption by officials, which many feel was the chief cause for the civil war. A key indicator of success will be the effectiveness of government management of its diamond sector.

There is high unemployment, particularly among the youth and ex-combatants. Authorities have been slow to implement reforms in the civil service, and the pace of the privatisation programme is also slackening and donors have urged its advancement.

The currency is the leone. The central bank is the Bank of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone operates a floating exchange rate system, and foreign currencies can be exchanged at any of the commercial banks, recognised foreign exchange bureaux and most hotels. Credit card use is limited in Sierra Leone, though they may be used at some hotels and restaurants. There are a few internationally linked automated teller machines that accept Visa cards in Freetown operated by ProCredit Bank.

Agriculture

A farmer with his rice harvest in Sierra Leone. Two-thirds of Sierra Leone's population are directly involved in subsistence agriculture.[101]

Two-thirds of the population of Sierra Leone are directly involved in subsistence agriculture.[101] Agriculture accounted for 58 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2007.[102]

Agriculture is the largest employer with 80 percent of the population working in the sector.[103] Rice is the most important staple crop in Sierra Leone with 85 percent of farmers cultivating rice during the rainy season[104] and an annual consumption of 76 kg per person.[105]

Mining

Rich in minerals, Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. The country is among the top ten diamond producing nations. Mineral exports remain the main currency earner. Sierra Leone is a major producer of gem-quality diamonds. Though rich in diamonds, it has historically struggled to manage their exploitation and export.

Sierra Leone is known for its blood diamonds that were mined and sold to diamond conglomerates during the civil war, to buy the weapons that fuelled its atrocities.[106] In the 1970s and early 1980s, economic growth rate slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasing corruption among government officials.

Percentage of GDP by sector (2007)[102]
Rank Sector Percentage
of GDP
1 Agriculture 58.5
2 Other services 10.4
3 Trade and tourism 9.5
4 Wholesale and retail trade 9.0
5 Mining and quarrying 4.5
6 Government Services 4.0
7 Manufacturing and handicrafts 2.0
8 Construction 1.7
9 Electricity and water 0.4

Annual production of Sierra Leone's diamond estimates range between US$250 million–$300 million. Some of that is smuggled, where it is possibly used for money laundering or financing illicit activities. Formal exports have dramatically improved since the civil war, with efforts to improve the management of them having some success. In October 2000, a UN-approved certification system for exporting diamonds from the country was put in place and led to a dramatic increase in legal exports. In 2001, the government created a mining community development fund (DACDF), which returns a portion of diamond export taxes to diamond mining communities. The fund was created to raise local communities' stake in the legal diamond trade.

Sierra Leone has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile, a titanium ore used as paint pigment and welding rod coatings.

Transport infrastructure

The road from Kenema to Kailahun District.

There are a number of systems of transport in Sierra Leone, which has a road, air and water infrastructure, including a network of highways and several airports. There are 11,300 kilometres (7,000 miles) of highways in Sierra Leone, of which 904 km (562 mi)[61] are paved (about 8% of the roads). Sierra Leone highways are linked to Conakry, Guinea, and Monrovia, Liberia.

Sierra Leone has the largest natural harbour on the African continent, allowing international shipping through the Queen Elizabeth II Quay in the Cline Town area of eastern Freetown or through Government Wharf in central Freetown. There are 800 km (497 mi) of waterways in Sierra Leone, of which 600 km (373 mi) are navigable year-round. Major port cities are Bonthe, Freetown, Sherbro Island and Pepel.

There are ten regional airports in Sierra Leone, and one international airport. The Lungi International Airport located in the coastal town of Lungi in Northern Sierra Leone is the primary airport for domestic and international travel to or from Sierra Leone. Passengers cross the river to Aberdeen Heliports in Freetown by hovercraft, ferry or a helicopter. Helicopters are also available from the airport to other major cities in the country. The airport has paved runways longer than 3,047 metres (9,997 feet). The other airports have unpaved runways, and seven have runways from 914 to 1,523 metres (2,999 to 4,997 feet) long; the remaining two have shorter runways.

Sierra Leone appears on the EU list of prohibited countries with regard to the certification of airlines. This means that no airline registered in Sierra Leone may operate services of any kind within the European Union. This is due to substandard safety standards.[107]

As of May 2014 the country's only international airport had regularly scheduled direct flights to London, Paris, Brussels and most major cities in West Africa.

In September 2014 there were many Districts with travel restrictions including Kailahun, Kenema, Bombali, Tonkolili, and Port Loko because of Ebola.[108]

Society

Demographics

Sierra Leone's total population, from 1961 to 2003.

In 2013 Sierra Leone had an officially projected population of 6,190,280[2] and a growth rate of 2.216% a year.[61] The country's population is mostly young, with an estimated 41.7% under 15, and rural, with an estimated 62% of people living outside the cities.[61] As a result of migration to cities, the population is becoming more urban with an estimated rate of urbanisation growth of 2.9% a year.[61][109]

Population density varies greatly within Sierra Leone. The Western Area Urban District, including Freetown, the capital and largest city, has a population density of 1,224 persons per square km. The largest district geographically, Koinadugu, has a much lower density of 21.4 persons per square km.[109]

English is the official language,[110] spoken at schools, government administration and in the media. Krio (derived from English and several indigenous African languages, and the language of the Sierra Leone Krio people) is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. As the Krio language is spoken by 90% of the country's population,[61][111] it unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[112]

According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Sierra Leone had a population of 8,700 refugees and asylum seekers at the end of 2007. Nearly 20,000 Liberian refugees voluntarily returned to Liberia over the course of 2007. Of the refugees remaining in Sierra Leone, nearly all were Liberian.[113]

Template:Largest cities of Sierra Leone

The populations quoted above for the five largest cities are from the 2004 census. Other figures are estimates from the source cited. Different sources give different estimates. Some claim that Magburaka should be included in the above list, but there is considerable difference among sources. One source estimates the population at 14,915,[114] whilst another puts it as high as 85,313.[115] "Pandebu-Tokpombu" is presumably the extended town of Torgbonbu, which had a population of 10,716 in the 2004 census. "Gbendembu" had a larger population of 12,139 in that census. In the 2004 census, Waterloo had a population of 34,079.

Religion

Mosque and church in Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone is officially a secular state, although Islam (78%) and Christianity (20.9%) are the two main religions in the country. The constitution of Sierra Leone provides for freedom of religion and the Sierra Leone Government generally protects this right and does not tolerate its abuse. The Sierra Leone Government is constitutionally forbidden from establishing a state religion.

Sierra Leone is a Muslim majority country; though with a significant Christian minority. According to a 2010 estimates by the Pew Research Center[7] 78% of Sierra Leone's population are Muslims, mostly adherent to the Sunni doctrine; 20.9 are Christians, mostly Evangelical Protestants; and 1% belong to Traditional African Religion or other beliefs. The Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone, estimated that 77% of Sierra Leone's population are Muslims; 21% are Christians; and 2% are followers of traditional African religion.[116] Most of Sierra Leone's ethnic groups are Muslim majority, including the country's two largest ethnic groups, the Mende and Temne.

Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the most religiously tolerant countries in the world[117][citation needed]. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other peacefully. Religious violence is very rare in the country. Even the country's eleven-year civil war (1991–2002) had nothing to do with religion, and during the civil war people were never targeted because of their religion.

The country is home to the Sierra Leone Inter-Religious Council, which is made up of both Christian and Muslim religious leaders to promote peace and tolerance throughout the country.[118][119][120] The Islamic holidays of Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha and Maulid-un-Nabi (Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad) are observed as national holidays in Sierra Leone; the Christian holidays of Christmas, Boxing Day, Good Friday and Easter are also national holidays in Sierra Leone.

The vast majority of Sierra Leonean Muslims are adherent to the Sunni tradition of Islam in practice. Significant portion of Sierra Leonean Muslims, at eight percent of Sierra Leone Muslim population, are adherent to the Ahmadiyya sect of Islam. Shia Muslims form a very small portion of Sierra Leone's Muslim population at closer to one percent of Sierra Leone Muslim population[121][122] The Maliki school is the most dominant Islamic madrasa school of thought across Sierra Leone and is based within Sunni Islam.

The United Council of Imams, is the highest ranking Islamic religious body in Sierra Leone, and is made up of imams and Muslim clerics across Sierra Leone. The president of the United Council of Imam is Sheikh Alhaji Muhammad Habib Sheriff.[8]. The two largest mosques in Sierra Leone are the Freetown Central Mosque and the Ghadafi Central Mosque, both located in the capital Freetown. Among the most notable Sierra Leonean Muslim scholars and preachers are Sheikh Umarr S. Kanu, a Sunni Muslim, Sheikh Ahmad Tejan Sillah, a Shia Muslim, and Sheikh Saeedu Rahman, an Ahmaddiyya Muslim[123]

The large majority of Sierra Leonean Christians are Protestant, of which the largest groups are the Wesleyan-Methodists.[124][125][126][127][128] Other Christian Protestant denominations with significant presence in the country include Presbyterian,[129] Baptist,[130] Seventh-day Adventist[131] Anglicans,[132] Lutheran.[133][134] and Pentecostals.[135] The Council of Churches is the Christian religious organisation that is made up of Protestant churches across Sierra Leone.

Non-denominational Christians form a significant minority of Sierra Leone's Christian population.[136] Catholics are the largest group of non-Protestant Christians in Sierra Leone, and they form about 8% of Sierra Leone's population; and 26 percent of the Christian population in Sierra Leone.[137] The Jehovah’s Witnesses[138] and Mormons[139][140] are the two most prominent non Trinitarian Christians in Sierra Leone, and they form a small but significant minority of the Christian population in Sierra Leone. A small community of Orthodox Christians resides in the capital Freetown.[141]

Ethnic groups

The distribution of major ethnic groups within Sierra Leone.
Ethnic groups of Sierra Leone
Temne
Mende
Limba
Loko
Fula
Mandingo
Creole
Sherbro
Kuranko
Kono
Susu
Kissi
Yalunka
Vai
Kru

Sierra Leone is home to about sixteen ethnic groups, each with its own language. The largest and most influential are the Temne at about 35%, and the Mende at about 31%. The Temne predominate in the Northern Sierra Leone and the areas around the capital of Sierra Leone. The Mende predominate in South-Eastern Sierra Leone (with the exception of Kono District).

The vast majority of Temne are Muslims; and with a small Christian minority. The Mende are also Muslim majority, though with a large Christian minority. Sierra Leone's national politics centres on the competition between the north-west, dominated by the Temne, and the south-east dominated by the Mende. The vast majority of the Mende support the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP); while the majority of the Temne support the All People's Congress (APC).[142]

The Mende, who are believed to be descendants of the Mane, originally occupied the Liberian hinterland. They began moving into Sierra Leone slowly and peacefully in the eighteenth century. The Temne are thought to have come from Futa Jallon, which is in present-day Guinea. Sierra Leone's current president Ernest Bai Koroma is the first ethnic Temne to be elected to the office.

The third-largest ethnic group are the Limba at about 8% of the population. The Limba are native people of Sierra Leone. They have no tradition of origin, and it is believed that they have lived in Sierra Leone since before the European encounter. The Limba are primarily found in Northern Sierra Leone, particularly in Bombali, Kambia and Koinadugu District. The Limba are about equally divided between Muslims and Christians. The Limba are close political allies of the neighbouring Temne.

Since Independence, the Limba have traditionally been very influential in Sierra Leone's politics, along with the Mende. The vast majority of Limba support the All People's Congress (APC) political party. Sierra Leone's first and second presidents, Siaka Stevens and Joseph Saidu Momoh, respectively, were both ethnic Limba. Sierra Leone's current Defense Minister Alfred Paolo Conteh is an ethnic Limba.

The fourth largest ethnic group are the Fula at around 7% of the population. Descendants of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Fulani migrant settlers from the Fouta Djalon region of Guinea, they live primarily in the northeast and the western area of Sierra Leone. The Fula are virtually all Muslims. The Fula are primarily traders, and many live in middle-class homes. Because of their trading, the Fulas are found in nearly all parts of the country.

The other ethnic groups are the Mandingo (also known as Mandinka). They are descendants of traders from Guinea who migrated to Sierra Leone during the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. The Mandika are predominantly found in the east and the northern part of the country. They predominate in the large towns, most notably Karina, in Bombali District in the north; Kabala and Falaba in Koinadugu District in the north; and Yengema, Kono District in the east of the country. Like the Fula, the Mandinka are virtually all Muslims. Sierra Leone's third president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, and Sierra Leone's first Vice-President Sorie Ibrahim Koroma were both ethnic Mandingo.

Next in proportion are the Kono, who live primarily in Kono District in Eastern Sierra Leone. The Kono are descendants of migrants from Guinea; today their workers are known primarily as diamond miners. The majority of the Kono ethnic group are Christians, though with an influential Muslim minority. Sierra Leone's current Vice-President Alhaji Samuel Sam-Sumana is an ethnic Kono.

The small but significant Krio people (descendants of freed African American, West Indian and Liberated African slaves who settled in Freetown between 1787 and about 1885) make up about 3% of the population. They primarily occupy the capital city of Freetown and its surrounding Western Area. Krio culture reflects the Western culture and ideals within which many of their ancestors originated – they also had close ties with British officials and colonial administration during years of development.

The Krio have traditionally dominated Sierra Leone's judiciacy and Freetown's elected city council. One of the first ethnic groups to become educated according to Western traditions, they have traditionally been appointed to positions in the civil service, beginning during the colonial years. They continue to be influential in the civil service. The vast majority of Krios are Christians, though with a significant Muslim minority.

Other minority ethnic groups are the Kuranko, who are related to the Mandingo, and are largely Muslims. The Kuranko are believed to have begun arriving in Sierra Leone from Guinea in about 1600 and settled in the north, particularly in Koinadugu District. The Kuranko are primarily farmers; leaders among them have traditionally held several senior positions in the Military. Sierra Leone current Finance Minister Kaifala Marah is an ethnic Kuranko.

The Loko in the north are native people of Sierra Leone, believed to have lived in Sierra Leone since the time of European encounter. Like the neighbouring Temne, the Loko are Muslim majority. The Susu and their related Yalunka are traders; both groups are primarily found in the far north in Kambia and Koinadugu District close to the border with Guinea. The Susu and Yalunka are both descendants of migrants from Guinea; and they are virtually all Muslims.

The Kissi live further inland in South-Eastern Sierra Leone. They predominate in the large town of Koindu and its surrounding areas in Kailahun District. The vast majority of Kissi are Christians. The much smaller Vai and Kru peoples are primarily found in Kailahun and Pujehun Districts near the border with Liberia. The Kru predominate in the Kroubay neighbourhood in the capital Freetown. The Vai are largely Muslim, while the Kru are largely Christian.

On the coast in Bonthe District in the south are the Sherbro. Native to Sierra Leone, they have occupied Sherbro Island since it was founded. The Sherbro are primarily fisherman and farmers, and they are predominantly found in Bonthe District. The Sherbro are virtually all Christians, and their paramount chiefs had a history of intermarriage with British colonists and traders.

A small number of Sierra Leoneans are of partial or full Lebanese ancestry, descendants of traders who first came to the nation in the 19th century. They are locally known as Sierra Leonean-Lebanese. The Sierra Leonean-Lebanese community are primarily traders and they mostly live in middle-class households in the urban areas, primarily in Freetown, Bo, Kenema, Koidu Town and Makeni.

Education

A secondary school class in Pendembu, Kailahun District.

Education in Sierra Leone is legally required for all children for six years at primary level (Class P1-P6) and three years in junior secondary education,[143] but a shortage of schools and teachers has made implementation impossible.[48] Two thirds of the adult population of the country are illiterate.[144]

The Sierra Leone Civil War resulted in the destruction of 1,270 primary schools, and in 2001, 67% of all school-age children were out of school.[48] The situation has improved considerably since then with primary school enrolment doubling between 2001 and 2005 and the reconstruction of many schools since the end of the war.[145] Students at primary schools are usually 6 to 12 years old, and in secondary schools 13 to 18. Primary education is free and compulsory in government-sponsored public schools.

The country has three universities: Fourah Bay College, founded in 1827 (the oldest university in West Africa),[146] University of Makeni (established initially in September 2005 as The Fatima Institute, the college was granted university status in August 2009, and assumed the name University of Makeni, or UNIMAK), and Njala University, primarily located in Bo District. Njala University was established as the Njala Agricultural Experimental Station in 1910 and became a university in 2005.[147] Teacher training colleges and religious seminaries are found in many parts of the country. Israel grants scholarships to Sierra Leone students as part of its international development cooperation program.[148]

Health

A situation map of the Ebola outbreak as of 8 August 2014.

The CIA estimated average life expectancy in Sierra Leone was 57.39 years.[149]

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the population is 1.6%, higher than the world average of 1% but lower than the average of 6.1% across Sub-Saharan Africa.[150]

Medical care is not readily accessible, with doctors and hospitals out of reach for many villagers. While free health care may be provided in some villages, the medical staff is poorly paid and sometimes charge for their services, taking advantage of the fact that the villagers are not aware of their right to free medical care.[151]

A dialysis machine, the first of its kind in the country, was donated by Israel.[148]

According to an Overseas Development Institute report, private health expenditure accounts for 85.7% of total spending on health.[152]

Endemic and infectious diseases

Sierra Leone suffers from epidemic outbreaks of diseases, including yellow fever, cholera, lassa fever and meningitis.[153][154] Yellow fever and malaria are endemic to Sierra Leone.[154]

2014 Ebola outbreak

Ebola is prevalent in Africa where social and economic inequalities are common. The central African countries are the most prevalent of EVD; like Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Uganda, and Gabon[155]

In 2014 there was an outbreak of the Ebola virus in West Africa. As of 19 October 2014, there had been 3,706 cases of Ebola in Sierra Leone, and 1,259 deaths, including that of the leading physician trying to control the outbreak, Sheik Umar Khan.[156][157] In early August 2014 Guinea closed its borders to Sierra Leone to help contain the spreading of the virus, which originated in Guinea, as more new cases of the disease were being reported in Sierra Leone than in Guinea. Aside from the human cost, the outbreak was severely eroding the economy. By September 2014, with the closure of borders, the cancellation of airline flights, the evacuation of foreign workers and a collapse of cross-border trade, the national deficit of Sierra Leone and other affected countries was widening to the point where the IMF was considering expanding its financial support.[158]

Mental health

Mental healthcare in Sierra Leone is almost non-existent. Many sufferers try to cure themselves with the help of traditional healers.[159] During the Civil War (1991–2002), many soldiers took part in atrocities and many children were forced to fight. This left them traumatised, with an estimated 400,000 people (by 2009) being mentally ill. Thousands of former child soldiers have fallen into substance abuse as they try to blunt their memories.[160]

Maternal and child health

According to 2010 estimates, Sierra Leone has the 5th highest maternal mortality rate in the world.[161] According to a 2013 UNICEF report,[162] 88% of women in Sierra Leone have undergone female genital mutilation. As of 2014, Sierra Leone was estimated as having the 11th highest infant mortality rate in the world.[163]

Drinking water supply

Water supply in Sierra Leone is characterised by limited access to safe drinking water. Despite efforts by the government and numerous non-governmental organisations, access has not much improved since the end of the Sierra Leone Civil War in 2002, stagnating at about 50% and even declining in rural areas.[164] It is hoped that a new dam in Orugu, for which China committed financing in 2009, will alleviate water scarcity.[165]

According to a national survey carried out in 2006, 84% of the urban population and 32% of the rural population had access to an improved water source. Those with access in rural areas were served almost exclusively by protected wells. The 68% of the rural population without access to an improved water source relied on surface water (50%), unprotected wells (9%) and unprotected springs (9%). Only 20% of the urban population and 1% of the rural population had access to piped drinking water in their home. Compared to the 2000 survey access has increased in urban areas, but has declined in rural areas, possibly because facilities have broken down because of a lack of maintenance.[164][166]

With a new decentralisation policy, embodied in the Local Government Act of 2004, responsibility for water supply in areas outside the capital was passed from the central government to local councils. In Freetown the Guma Valley Water Company remains in charge of water supply.

Culture

Polygamy

37 percent of married women in Sierra Leone were in polygamous marriages in 2008.[167]

Food and customs

Rice farming in Rolako.

Rice is the staple food of Sierra Leone and is consumed at virtually every meal daily. The rice is prepared in numerous ways, and topped with a variety of sauces made from some of Sierra Leone's favourite toppings, including potato leaves, cassava leaves, crain crain, okra soup, fried fish and groundnut stew.[168]

Along the streets of towns and cities across Sierra Leone one can find foods consisting of fruit, vegetables and snacks such as fresh mangoes, oranges, pineapple, fried plantains, ginger beer, fried potato, fried cassava with pepper sauce; small bags of popcorn or peanuts, bread, roasted corn, or skewers of grilled meat or shrimp.

Poyo is a popular Sierra Leonean drink. It is a sweet, lightly fermented palm wine,[169] and is found in bars in towns and villages across the country. Poyo bars are areas of lively informal debate about politics, football, basketball, entertainment and other issues.

Media

A radio listener in Kailahun.

Media in Sierra Leone began with the introduction of the first printing press in Africa at the start of the 19th century. A strong free journalistic tradition developed with the creation of a number of newspapers. In the 1860s, the country became a journalist hub for Africa, with professionals travelling to the country from across the continent. At the end of the 19th century, the industry went into decline, and when radio was introduced in the 1930s, it became the primary communication media in the country.

The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) was created by the colonial government in 1934 making it the earliest English language radio broadcaster service in West Africa. The service began broadcasting television in 1963, with coverage extended to all the districts in the country in 1978. In April 2010, the SLBS merged with the United Nations peacekeeping radio station in Sierra Leone to form the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation,[170][171] the government-owned current national broadcaster in Sierra Leone.

The Sierra Leone constitution guarantees freedom of speech, and freedom of the press; however, the government maintains strong control of media, and at times restricts these rights in practice.[172][173][174][175][176][177] Some subjects are seen as taboo by society and members of the political elite; imprisonment and violence have been used by the political establishment against journalists.[178][179]

Under legislation enacted in 1980, all newspapers must register with the Ministry of Information and pay sizeable registration fees. The Criminal Libel Law, including Seditious Libel Law of 1965, is used to control what is published in the media.[179] In 2006, President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah committed to reforming the laws governing the press and media to create a freer system for journalists to work in.[179] As of 2013 Sierra Leone is ranked 61st (up two slots from 63rd in 2012) out of 179 countries on Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index.[180]

Print media is not widely read in Sierra Leone, especially outside Freetown and other major cities, partially due to the low levels of literacy in the country.[181] In 2007 there were 15 daily newspapers in the country, as well as those published weekly.[182] Among newspaper readership, young people are likely to read newspapers weekly and older people daily. The majority of newspapers are privately run and are often critical of the government. The standard of print journalism tends to be low owing to lack of training, and people trust the information published in newspapers less than that found on the radio.[181]

Isata Mahoi shown editing radio programmes in Talking Drum studio Freetown; she is also an actress in Sierra Leone radio soap opera Atunda Ayenda.

Radio is the most-popular and most-trusted media in Sierra Leone, with 85% of people having access to a radio and 72% of people in the country listening to the radio daily.[181] These levels do vary between areas of the country, with the Western Area having the highest levels and Kailahun the lowest. Stations mainly consist of local commercial stations with a limited broadcast range, combined with a few stations with national coverage – Capital Radio Sierra Leone being the largest of the commercial stations.

The United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) ran one of the most popular stations in the country, broadcasting programs in a range of languages. The UN mission were restructured in 2008 and it was decided that the UN Radio would be merged with SLBS to form the new Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC). This merger eventually happened in 2011 after the necessary legislation was enacted. SLBC transmits radio on FM and has two television services, one of which is uplinked by satellite for international consumption. FM relays of BBC World Service (in Freetown, Bo, Kenema and Makeni), Radio France Internationale (Freetown only) and Voice of America (Freetown only) are also broadcast.

Outside the capital Freetown and other major cities, television is not watched by a great many people, although Bo, Kenema and Makeni are served by their own relays of the main SLBC service. There are two free terrestrial television stations in Sierra Leone, one run by the government SLBC and the other a private station in Freetown, Star TV which is run by the owner of the Standard Times newspaper. There are a number of religious funded TV stations that operate intermittently. Two other commercial TV operators (ABC and AIT) closed after they were not profitable. In 2007, a pay-per-view service was also introduced by GTV as part of a pan-African television service in addition to the nine-year-old sub-Saharan Digital satellite television service (DStv) originating from Multichoice Africa in South Africa. GTV subsequently went out of business, leaving DStv as the only provider of pay-per-view television in the country. A number of organisations are competing for the rights to operate digital TV services, with Multichoice's Go TV having built infrastructure ahead of getting a licence.

Internet access in Sierra Leone has been sparse but is on the increase, especially since the introduction of 3G cellular phone services across the country. There are several main internet service providers (ISPs) operating in the country. Freetown has internet cafés and other businesses offering internet access. Problems experienced with access to the Internet include an intermittent electricity supply and a slow connection speed in the country outside Freetown.

Arts

Odelay mask by Temne people. Brooklyn Museum.
The Koindu dance

The arts in Sierra Leone are a mixture of tradition and hybrid African and western styles.[183][184][185]

Sports

Sierra Leone National Stadium

Football is by far the most popular sport in Sierra Leone. Children, youth and adult are frequently seen playing street football across Sierra Leone. There are organised youth and adult football tournaments across the country, and there are various primary and secondary schools with football teams across Sierra Leone.

The Sierra Leone national football team, popularly known as the Leone Stars, represents the country in international competitions. It has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup but participated in the 1994 and 1996 African Cup of Nations. When the national football team, the Leone Stars, have a match, Sierra Leoneans across the country come together united in support of the national team and people rush to their local radio and television stations to follow the live match. The country's national television network, The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC) broadcasts the national football team live match, along with many local radio stations across the country.

When the Leone Stars win an important match, many youth across the county rush to the street to celebrate. Many of the Sierra Leone national team footballers play for teams based in Europe although virtually all of them started professional football in the Sierra Leone National Premier League. Many of the national team footballers are celebrities across Sierra Leone and they are often well known by the general population. Some of Sierra Leonean international footballers include Mohamed Kallon, Mohamed Bangura, Rodney Strasser, Kei Kamara, Ibrahim Teteh Bangura, Mustapha Dumbuya, Christian Caulker, Alhassan Bangura, Sheriff Suma, Mohamed Kamara, Umaru Bangura and Julius Gibrilla Woobay.

The Sierra Leone National Premier League is the top professional football league in Sierra Leone and is controlled by the Sierra Leone Football Association. Fourteen clubs from across the country compete in the Sierra Leone Premier League. The two biggest and most successful football clubs are East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool. East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool have an intense rivalry and when they play each other the national stadium in Freetown is often sold out and supporters of both clubs often clash with each other before and after the game. There is a huge police presence inside and outside the national stadium during a match between the two great rivals to prevent a clash. Many Sierra Leonean youth follow the local football league.

Many Sierra Leonean youth, children and adults follow the major football leagues in Europe, particularly the English Premier League, Italian Serie A, Spanish La Liga, German Bundesliga and French Ligue 1. The Sierra Leone cricket team represents Sierra Leone in international cricket competitions, and is among the best in West Africa. It became an affiliate member of the International Cricket Council in 2002. It made its international debut at the 2004 African Affiliates Championship, where it finished last of eight teams. But at the equivalent tournament in 2006, Division Three of the African region of the World Cricket League, it finished as runner-up to Mozambique, and just missed a promotion to Division Two.

In 2009 the Sierra Leone Under-19 team finished second in the African Under-19 Championship in Zambia, thus qualifying for the Under-19 World Cup qualifying tournament with nine other teams.[186] However, the team was unable to obtain Canadian visas to play in the tournament, which was held in Toronto.[187]

Basketball is not a very popular sport in Sierra Leone. The Sierra Leone national basketball team represents Sierra Leone in international men's basketball competitions and is controlled by the Sierra Leone Basketball Federation.

The National Basketball Association (NBA) is popular among a small portion of the youth population. NBA superstars LeBron James, Kobe Bryant and Kevin Durant are popular among Sierra Leone's youthful population. Former NBA stars, in particular Michael Jordan, Shaquille O'Neal, Allen Iverson and Magic Johnson are popular in the country. Michael Jordan in particular is the most famous basketball player in the country and he is very popular among the general population. Current NBA youngstar Victor Oladipo is of Sierra Leonean descent, as his father is a native of Sierra Leone.[188]

Although tennis is not very popular in the country, up-and-coming American player Frances Tiafoe is the son of two Sierra Leoneans who emigrated to the United States.

See also

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Bibliography

Further reading

Fiction and memoir

Secondary sources

  • Levinson, Robby (1998). Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook. Phoenix: Oryx Press. ISBN 1-57356-019-7.
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