Libyan civil war (2011)

Libyan Civil War
Part of 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests
● Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces ● Cities controlled by the opposition (supported by coalition forces) ● Ongoing fighting/unclear situation (situation as of 14 May 2011)
Date 15 February 2011 – present Location Libya Status Ongoing
Belligerents
National Transitional Council Free Libyan Army Free Libyan Air Force Anti-Gaddafi tribes UN member states enforcing UNSC Resolution 1973: NATO Jordan Qatar Sweden UAE al-Qaeda Template:Collapsible bulletlist	Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Libyan Armed Forces Libyan Army Libyan Air Force Libyan Navy Foreign mercenaries
Commanders and leaders
Mustafa Abdul Jalil Omar El-Hariri Abdul Fatah Younis Suleiman Mahmoud Khalifa Belqasim Haftar Khalid Shahmah Charles Bouchard	Muammar Gaddafi Saif al-Islam Gaddafi Saif al-Arab al-Gaddafi † Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr? Khamis al-Gaddafi
Strength
Approximately 17,000 volunteers by March 24 (1,000 trained men by March 23) International Forces: Numerous air and maritime forces (see here)	10,000–20,000+ soldiers, unknown number of militia
Casualties and losses
1,923-2,218 opposition fighters, activists and supporters killed (does not include ordinary civilians) (see here) 1 Royal Netherlands Navy Lynx captured during attempted extraction of a civilian 1 USAF F-15E Strike Eagle crashed (both pilots survived) 1 UAEAF F-16 Fighting Falcon damaged upon landing	1,104-1,148 soldiers killed (see here), 430 soldiers captured
Estimated total killed on both sides including civilians: 10,000[a]

The 2011 Libyan civil war (Arabic: الحرب الأهلية في ليبيا عام 2011) is an ongoing armed conflict in the North African state of Libya being fought between those seeking to depose the country's de facto ruler and dictator Muammar Gaddafi and hold democratic elections, and pro-Gaddafi forces. The situation began as a series of peaceful protests which Gaddafi's security services attempted to repress, beginning on 15 February 2011. Within a week, this uprising had spread across the country and Gaddafi was struggling to retain control. Gaddafi responded with military force and other such measures as censorship and blocking of communications.

The situation then escalated into armed conflict, with rebels establishing a coalition named the Transitional National Council based in Benghazi. The International Criminal Court warned Gaddafi that he and members of his government may have committed crimes against humanity. The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle, and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the actions of the government to the International Criminal Court for investigation. In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. A further U.N. resolution authorized member states to establish and enforce a no-fly zone over Libya. The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it.

Gaddafi's forces have shut down water systems and supply lines, forcing hundreds of thousands to go without food or water in Yafran and Misrata, with Misrata's port being the last lifeline for supplies in Misrata. No food or water is arriving in Yafran, putting thousands at further risk of death.

Background

Main article: History of Libya under Gaddafi

Leadership

Muammar Gaddafi has been the de-facto ruler of all Libya since the overthrow of King Idris I in 1969. WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables has revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering". While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skillfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.

Development: successes and corruption

Oil is the major resource of Libya.

Much of the state's income comes from its oil production, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world. Its petroleum revenues contributes up to 58% of Libya's GDP. Governments with resource curse revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently feel less pressure to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, they can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters. Libya's oil wealth being spread over a relatively small population has allowed for a relatively high living standard compared to neighbouring states. Gaddafi amassed a vast personal fortune during his 42-year rule.

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were better than in Egypt and Tunisia, whose revolutions preceded the outbreak of protests in Libya. Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educated and to have a high standard of living. This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).

Libya's corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighbouring states that had uprisings preceding Libya's.

According to The Economist, the eastern parts of the state, once a breadbasket of the ancient world, have fared badly. Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region at 21% (latest census), there was a consistent labour shortage with over a million migrant workers present on the market. These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning of hostilities.

The uprising has been viewed as a part of the 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests, which have already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt, with the initial protests all using similar slogans. Social media played an important role in organizing the opposition.

Human rights violations in Libya

File:Bengasi court tribune 0833.jpg

Tribune near the Benghazi court house, a central place for the Free Libya movement

Further information: Human rights in Libya and Human rights violations in 2011 Libyan civil war

The regime has executed opposition activists publicly and have rebroadcast the executions on state television channels. Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison. During late 1980s and early 1990s western languages were removed from the school curriculum. The government has reportedly paid for assassination of its critics around the world. As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for critics, including US$1 million for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.

According to the U.S. State Department, 10 to 20 per cent of Libyans are involved in domestic surveillance committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea. Dissent is illegal under Law 75 of 1973 and Gaddafi has asserted that anyone guilty of founding a political party would be executed. According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored state in the Middle East and North Africa.

Anti-Gaddafi movement, beginnings of National Transitional Council

Main article: Timeline of the 2011 Libyan civil war

The flag of the former Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions, has been used by many protesters as an opposition flag.

Beginnings of open protest

Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building. By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US$24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations. In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of the Jamahiriya, met with political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.

Uprising and civil war

A girl in Benghazi showing support for a united, democratic Libya, 23 February 2011

The protests, unrest and confrontations began in earnest on 15 February 2011. On the evening of 15 February, between 500 and 600 demonstrators protested in front of the police headquarters in Benghazi after the arrest of human rights lawyer Fathi Terbil. The protest was broken up violently by police, resulting in 38 injured, among them ten security personnel. The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests. In Al Bayda and Az Zintan, hundreds of protesters in each town called for an end of the Gaddafi regime and set fire to police and security buildings. In Az Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town centre. The protests continued the following day in Benghazi, Darnah and Al Bayda. Libyan security responded with lethal force. Four demonstrators were killed and three wounded. Hundreds gathered at Maydan al-Shajara in Benghazi, and authorities tried to disperse protesters with water cannons.

A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile was planned for 17 February. The National Conference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to the Gaddafi regime protests on 17 February, in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi five years earlier. The plans to protest were inspired by the 2010–2011 Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. Protests took place in Benghazi, Ajdabiya, Darnah, Az Zintan, and Al Bayda. Libyan security forces fired live ammunition into the protests, including .50 caliber sniper ammunition. Some of the gunfire came from helicopters. Protesters torched a number of government buildings, including a police station. In Tripoli, protesters managed to burn security buildings and the People's Hall.

Organization

Libyan Boy Scouts helping in the social services in Benghazi

See also: National Transitional Council

Many opposition participants called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition to multi-party democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil. In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a centre for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons.

The National Transitional Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي, al-Majlis al-Waṭanī al-'intaqālī) was established on 27 February in an effort to consolidate efforts for change in the rule of Libya. The main objectives of the group did not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world. The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya. The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website. Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister Mustafa Abdel Jalil said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months. On 29 March the political and international affairs committee of the Council presented its eight-point plan for Libya in The Guardian newspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections and draft a national constitution.

An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlled radio stations. Some of the rebels oppose tribalism and wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism". Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used in the past.

Composition of rebel forces

The rebels are composed primarily of civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, and oil workers, and a contingent of professional soldiers that defected from the Libyan Army and joined the rebels. Gaddafi's administration had repeatedly asserted that the rebels included al-Qaeda fighters. NATO commander Admiral Stavridis stated that intelligence reports suggested "flickers" of al-Qaeda activity were present among the rebels, but also added that there is not sufficient information to confirm there is any significant al-Qaeda or terrorist presence. Denials of al-Qaeda membership were issued by the rebels.

Gaddafi's response

Main articles: Muammar Gaddafi's response to the 2011 Libyan civil war and Timeline of the 2011 Libyan civil war

File:Muammar Gaddafi speech, 22 Feb 2011.png

Muammar Gaddafi vowing to hunt down and execute any opposition members who would not surrender

Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafé. He has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol. He later also claimed that the revolt against his rule is the result of a colonialist plot by foreign states, particularly blaming France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. Gaddafi referred to the protesters as "cockroaches" and "rats", and vowed not to step down and to cleanse Libya house by house until the insurrection was crushed. Gaddafi declared that people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live". Gaddafi called himself a "warrior", and vowed to fight on and die a "martyr", and urged his supporters to leave their homes and attack protesters "in their lairs". Gaddafi claimed that he had not yet ordered the use of force, and threatened that "everything will burn" when he did. Responding to demands that he step down, Gaddafi claimed that he could not step down, as he held a purely symbolic position like Queen Elizabeth, and that the people were in power.

A Swedish arms trafficking watchdog organization observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus, including visits to a dedicated Belorussian military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment. Pro-Gaddafi forces have allegedly used civilians to protect key sites, like the Bab al-Azizia compound in Tripoli, from air strikes.

Blocking of communications and media

See also: Iman al-Obeidi

Gaddafi shut down all Internet communications in Libya, and arrested Libyans who had given phone interviews to the media. International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government. On 21 February, The New York Times reported that Gaddafi had tried to impose a blackout on information from Libya. Several residents reported that cellphone service was down, and even landline phone service was sporadic.

A case of censorship that received widespread international and domestic attention was that of Libyan postgraduate student Iman al-Obeidi, who was detained by government soldiers for two days, and was repeatedly raped, beaten, and urinated and defecated upon. Following her release, Obeidi entered the restaurant area of the Rixos Hotel in Tripoli and told foreign journalists of her ordeal. Security forces arrested her and used violence against journalists who tried to intervene. She was held for another three days before being released.

International journalists who have attempted to cover the events have been attacked by Gaddafi's forces. A BBC News crew was beaten and then lined up against a wall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to a journalist's ear and laughed at them. A journalist working for The Guardian and another Brazilian journalist have been detained. An Al-Jazeera journalist Ali Hassan al-Jaber was murdered, and was apparently deliberately targeted. Gaddafi's soldiers held four New York Times journalists – Lynsey Addario, Anthony Shadid, Stephen Farrell and Tyler Hicks – in captivity for a week. Libyan citizen journalist Mohammed Nabbous was shot in the head by Gaddafi's soldiers soon after exposing the Gaddafi regime's false reports related to the cease-fire declaration.

Mercenaries

Soon after Gaddafi's government started to use force against demonstrators, it became apparent that some Libyan military units refused to shoot protesters, and Gaddafi had hired foreign mercenaries to do the job. Gaddafi's ambassador to India Ali al-Essawi confirmed that the defections of military units had indeed led to such a decision. Video footage of this started to leak out of the country. Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Misrahi stated in an interview with the Al Jazeera that Nigerien, Malian, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries are among foreign soldiers helping fight the uprising on behalf of Gaddafi. Defecting Libyan Deputy Ambassador Ibrahim Dabbashi called on African nations to stop sending mercenaries to defend the Gaddafi regime.

In Mali, members of the Tuareg tribe confirmed that a large number of men from the tribe went to Libya in late February. Locals in Mali said they were promised $10,000 upfront payment and compensation up to $1000 per day. Gaddafi has used Malian Tuaregs in his political projects before, sending them to fight in places like Chad, Sudan and Lebanon and recently they have fought against Niger government, a war which Gaddafi has allegedly sponsored. Malian government officials told BBC that it's hard to stop the flow of fighters from Mali to Libya. A recruitment center for Malian soldiers leaving to Libya was found in a Bamako hotel.

Reports from Ghana state that the men who went to Libya were offered as much as $2500 per day. Advertisements seeking mercenaries were seen in Nigeria. One group of mercenaries from Niger, who had been allegedly recruited from the streets with promises of money, included a soldier of just 13 years of age. The Daily Telegraph studied the case of a sixteen-year-old captured Chadian child soldier in Al-Bayda. The boy, who had previously been a shepherd in Chad, told that a Libyan man had offered him a job and a free flight to Tripoli, but in the end he had been airlifted to shoot opposition members in Eastern Libya.

The Serbian newspaper Alo! stated that Serbs were hired to help Gaddafi in the early days of the conflict. Rumors of Serbian pilots participating on the side of Gaddafi appeared early in the conflict. In response to these allegations, the Serbian Ministry of Defence denied that any of its active or retired personnel were participating in the events in Libya.

A Belarusian told the Russian newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda that he and several hundred others from Belarus, had been recruited to advise Gaddafi's forces before the civil war and most of them left since then, but some preferred to stay. According to the newspaper report, published in early April, the Belarusian advisers are paid about $3,000 per month are not taking part in combat and were instrumental in crafting strategies for Tripoli's brigades to avoid decimation by the NATO-led coalition's air assault. Komsomolskaya Pravda reported.

On 7 April, Reuters reported that soldiers loyal to Gaddafi were sent into refugee camps to intimidate and bribe black African migrant workers into fighting for the regime during the war. Some of these "mercenaries" have been compelled to fight against their wishes, according to a source inside one of the refugee camps.

A person associated with Human Rights Watch reported in early March that he had not seen evidence of mercenary activity in the country. He verified earlier accounts that 156 Mercenaries were captured in El Bayda and discovered that all of them were black Libyans.

According to the EUobserver, Gaddafi's government hired between 300 and 500 mercenaries of European origin at high wages. These rumours are not confirmed by other sources.

According to numerous eyewitness accounts, mercenaries were more willing to kill demonstrators than Libyan forces were, and earned a reputation as among the most brutal forces employed by the regime. A doctor in Benghazi said of the mercenaries that "they know one thing: to kill whose in front of them. Nothing else. They're killing people in cold blood".

Treatment of protests

During the protests, security forces repeatedly fired into demonstrations and funeral processions. As the protests progressed, the Libyan government employed snipers, artillery, helicopter gunships, warplanes, anti-aircraft weaponry, and warships against demonstrations. A Scottish doctor reported that young children were deliberately targeted by security forces. Amnesty International reported that writers, intellectuals and other prominent opposition sympathizers disappeared during the early days of the conflict in cities controlled by Gaddafi, and that they may have been subjected to torture or execution. Amnesty International reported that security forces also targeted paramedics helping injured protesters. In multiple incidents, people also documented Gaddafi's forces using ambulances in their attacks. Injured demonstrators were sometimes denied access to hospitals and ambulance transport. The government also banned giving blood transfusions to people who had taken part in the demonstrations. Members of Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees stormed hospitals in Tripoli and summarily executed injured protesters. They then confiscated the bodies, possibly for cremation.

Military commanders summarily executed soldiers who refused to fire on protesters. The International Federation for Human Rights reported a case where 130 soldiers were executed. Some of the soldiers executed were burned alive.

Gaddafi suppressed the protests in Tripoli by distributing automobiles, money and weapons for hired followers to drive around Tripoli and attack people showing signs of dissent. Snipers, mercenaries, and combat aircraft were also used against demonstrations. The International Federation for Human Rights concluded that Gaddafi is implementing a strategy of scorched earth and seeks to eliminate and suppress Libyan citizens who stood up against his regime. In Tripoli, "death squads" of mercenaries and Revolutionary Committees members patrolled the streets, and shot people who tried to take the dead off the streets or gather in groups.

In late April, United States Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice alleged that soldiers loyal to Gaddafi were given the potency drug Viagra and encouraged to commit rapes in rebel-held or disputed areas. The United States has not provided evidence for this assertion, but human rights groups have previously reported rapes by loyalist fighters during the war, including the rape of children.

Paid protesters

Libyans studying in the US have received phone calls from the Libyan embassy urging them to take part in pro-Gaddafi demonstrations or lose government-funded scholarships. Gaddafi has a history of using paid demonstrators for public relations, including allegedly paying US$2,000 to each hired demonstrator in a pro-Gaddafi rally when he visited the United Nations headquarters in New York City in 2009.

Battles between Gaddafi and opposition

Main article: Timeline of the 2011 Libyan civil war

File:Libya Brega rebel fighters 10 March 2011 - VOA Ittner.jpg

Rebels on the outskirts of Brega

Active resistance to the Gaddafi regime began in Benghazi on 18 February, after three days of protests. Security forces had killed 14 protesters the previous day, and a funeral procession for one of those killed passed the Katiba compound, where clashes erupted. Demonstrators threw rocks at security forces, who used live ammunition, killing 24 protesters. Two of the policemen who had participated in the clash were caught and hanged by the opposition. Protesters around the city and in nearby al-Baida and Derna attacked and overwhelmed government forces, and some police and army units defected and joined the protesters. Security forces were overwhelmed and forced to withdraw. By the end of the day, the area was almost entirely in opposition hands, with the only place still housing a significant number of Gaddafi loyalists being the Katiba compound in Benghazi. On 19 February, another funeral procession passed the compound, and were again fired on. By this time, the Libyan government airlifted 325 African mercenaries to Benghazi and other eastern towns, but were met with retaliatory attacks by opposition forces. Fifty mercenaries were killed by protesters in al-Baida, with some being locked up in a police station which was then burned down, while 15 were lynched in front of the al-Baida courthouse. At least 236 others were captured alive. Meanwhile, opposition forces commandeered bulldozers and tried to breach the walls of the Katiba compound, but were met with withering fire. Protesters also used stones and crude bombs made of tin cans stuffed with gunpowder. As the fighting continued, a mob attacked an army base on the outskirts of Benghazi and disarmed the soldiers. Among the equipment confiscated was three small tanks, which were rammed into the compound. The fighting stopped on February 20, and another 30 people had been killed during the previous 24 hours of fighting. By this time, violent clashes also broke out in Misrata between pro-Gaddafi and anti-Gaddafi forces. A third funeral procession passed the compound, and under the cover of the funeral, a suicide car-bomber destroyed the compound's gates, and opposition fighters resumed their assault, bolstered by reinforcements from al-Baida and Derna. During the final assault, 42 people were killed. Libyan Interior Minister Abdul Fatah Younis showed up with a special forces squad to relieve the compound, but Younis defected to the opposition and announced safe passage for loyalists out of the city. Gaddafi's troops retreated after executing 130 soldiers who had refused to fire on the rebels. On 23 February, after five days of fighting, rebels also drove out government forces from Misrata. The following day, Gaddafi loyalists attempted to retake Misrata Airport, but were driven back. Officers from a nearby Air Force Academy also mutinied and helped the opposition attack an adjacent military airbase, then disabled fighter jets at the base.

By 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime - former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, resignations and defections of close allies, the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration" and other cities including Tobruk and Misrata reportedly falling with some reports that the government retained control of just a few pockets, mounting international isolation and pressure, and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his regime all but inevitable. By the end of February, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of Libya, including the major cities of Misrata and Benghazi, and the important harbours at Ra's Lanuf and Brega.

On 24 February, loyalist forces in Az Zawiyah fired on a mosque where protesters were holding a sit-in, and were fired on with automatic weapons and an anti-aircraft gun. Afterward's, thousands of people rallied in Martyr's Square. The same day, government forces, including tanks, launched a counterattack on Misrata airbase, engaging in battles with local residents and defecting military units, and managed to retake part of it. On 26 February, government forces fired on rebels and Egyptian migrant workers. By this point, security forces still controlled the outskirts, while rebels controlled the city. 24 rebels had been killed during the previous days of fighting. On 28 February, Gaddafi forces attacked the outskirts of the city, but were repelled, and lost 10 dead and 12-14 captured, of which eight joined the rebels. The town of Nalut, on the Tunisian border, also fell to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forces attempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreated to Ra's Lanuf. On the night on 2 March, rebels attacked government lines outside Az Zawiyah, killing two soldiers. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, the opposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale assault on Zawiyah, beginning with airstrikes and a fierce mortar, artillery, rocket, anti-aircraft, and heavy machine gun barrage, and attacked the city from two sides, and managed to push into the city towards the city center. The rebels lost 50 dead and about 300 wounded, while the loyalists lost 2 dead. On 5 March, government forces were beaten back when they attempted to take the city center. Loyalist forces launched a fresh assault starting with a mortar barrage, and then attacked the city with infantry and 20 tanks. Soldiers stormed numerous buildings and killed the people inside to secure the rooftops for snipers. The loyalists initially managed to take the central square, but were forced back by a rebel counterattack several hours later. During the battle, 25 rebels and 8 loyalists were killed. In the late afternoon, another government attack supported by an artillery barrage was stopped, but loyalists managed to secure the hospital. 10 loyalist soldiers were captured during the battle and later executed.

On 6 March, the rebel advance along the coastline was stopped by government forces in Bin Jawad. Government troops ambushed the rebel column and dozens of rebels were killed. The rebels were forced into a chaotic retreat, and were hit by airstrikes. When they regrouped, they moved up several multiple rocket launchers from Ra's Lanuf and engaged in an artillery duel. Rebel forces also managed to shoot down a loyalist helicopter. At the same time, loyalist airstrikes hit a rebel-held airbase in Ra's Lanuf, killing at least two and injuring 40. The rebels managed to establish their front line three kilometers from Bin Jawad. At the same time, Gaddafi's forces attempted an attack on Misrata and managed to get as far as the centre of the city before their attack was stopped and they retreated to the city's outskirts. A fourth attack against the Az Zawiyah city center was launched by government troops, but it too was repulsed. Three rebels and 26 loyalists were killed, and 11 loyalists were captured. On 9 March, rebels attempted to retake Bin Jawad, but were forced back by artillery and airstrikes.

Gaddafi counteroffensive

On 6 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counteroffensive, retaking Ra's Lanuf and Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and Benghazi. Government forces also attempted to take Misrata, sending infantry and armor into the city. The loyalist forces fell into a rebel ambush after they reached the city center. In the subsequent battle, 21 rebels and civilians and 22 government soldiers were killed. A fifth government attack against rebels in Az Zawiyah produced gains, and by 8 March, most of the city had been destroyed. During the night, rebels managed to retake the square, but the following day, they were met with a fifth counterattack. During the evening, a force of 60 rebels slipped out of the city to assault a military base, but none returned. Gaddafi remained in continuous control of Tripoli, Sirt, Zliten and Sabha, as well as several other towns. On 10 March, Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf were retaken by Gaddafi's forces. Some pockets of resistance remaining in Az Zawiyah were subsequently mopped up by loyalist troops. On 12 March, loyalist forces launched another attack against Misrata, and were led by the elite Khamis Brigade. The force reportedly managed to fight to within 10-15 kilometers from the city center. The attack stalled, however, after 32 soldiers, reportedly including a general, defected and joined the rebels. The next day, loyalist forces were still advancing fighting rebels on the outskirts, while tank shelling hit the city. On 13 March, regime forces attacked Brega and managed to retake most of the city. By 14 March, loyalists held the oil facilities and rebels held the residential disctricts. By 15 March, rebel forces had been cleared out and were retreating towards Ajdabiya. The rebels lost 7 killed during the battle, and claimed that loyalist casualties stood at 25 killed and 71 captured.

Ajdabiya, the last rebel-held city before Benghazi, had been subjected to loyalist airstrikes for three days. On 15 March, government forces launched a rolling artillery barrage coupled with airstrikes and naval shelling against the city, after which they attacked and broke through rebel defenses through a flanking maneuver. Most rebels had by then retreated from the city. After encircling the city, tanks were sent into the city center, and battled the remnants of rebel forces. Meanwhile, two Free Libyan Air Force jets attacked loyalist warships. According to independent sources, one ship was hit, but the rebels claimed that three warships were hit, two of which sank. After a few hours, the city was under government control, but armored forces pulled back to the outskirts to avoid surprise attacks, although the shelling continued. On 16 March, fighting continued, and government troops returning from the front said that rebel resistance was fierce. Rebel reinforcements from Benghazi managed to create a small corridor through the government blockade despite resistance by loyalist forces, while rebels also managed to take the southern entrance to the city. Three Free Libyan Air Force attack helicopters attacked government reinforcements from Sirt on the highway at the western entrance. The same day, a new artillery attack and round of fighting commenced in Misrata, during which rebels claimed to have captured 16 tanks and 20 soldiers. During the fighting, 18 rebels were killed and 20 wounded, and 60-80 government soldiers were killed. On 17 March, however, loyalists recaptured the southern entrance, and closed the corridor on the eastern side of the city. The city was once again firmly surrounded. Meanwhile, government forces launched an amphibious operation against Az Zuwaytinah, along the Ajdabiya-Benghazi road. Loyalist troops landing on the town's coastline quickly captured it. According to the rebels, the government forces were then surrounded by the rebels, and the next day, the rebels claimed that several of their fighters and a number of civilians were killed, and 20 government soldiers captured. On the night of 17 March, loyalist forces launched an artillery and tank attack against Misrata, and the attack continued well into the next day.

United Nations intervention

On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to impose a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace. As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi's government declared an immediate ceasefire, but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reported that government forces were still battling rebels. Even after the government-declared ceasefire, artillery attacks on Misrata and Ajdabiya continued, and government forces continued approaching Benghazi.

Government forces entered Benghazi with tanks on 19 March from the west and south while hundreds fled the fighting. Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city. Opposition forces managed to beat back the assault after several hours of fighting, claiming to have inflicted losses, including on heavy armor, but confirmed that they suffered 27 casualties. The same day, a Mig-23BN belonging to the Free Libyan Air Force was shot down over Benghazi, after being engaged by rebel ground forces in error. The Libyan government subsequently argued that the rebels had violated the no-fly-zone resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces. At the same time, loyalist forces bombarded Az Zintan, and tanks continued advancing towards the city.

The Libyan government was widely reported to have cut off water and electricity supplies and communications in the rebel-held city of Misrata, forcing residents to rely on wells and a desalination plant. The government denied the claims, claiming that supplies were disrupted due to the fighting. The city was also reportedly subjected to artillery bombardment and sniper fire.

Coalition operations begin

Main article: 2011 military intervention in Libya

See also: Operation Ellamy, Operation Odyssey Dawn, Opération Harmattan, Operation Mobile, and Operation Unified Protector

Libyan Army Palmaria howitzers destroyed by the French Air Force near Benghazi on March 19, 2011

A French Navy rescue helicopter, from the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle, lands aboard the American command ship USS Mount Whitney.

On 19 March, nineteen French Air Force aircraft entered Libyan airspace to begin reconnaissance missions, and flew over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel-controlled city. Italian Air Force planes reportedly also began surveillance operations over Libya. In the evening, a French jet carried out the first Coalition airstrike, destroying a government vehicle , and followed up shortly afterward with a second airstrike that destroyed four tanks southwest of Benghazi. US and British naval vessels fired at least 114 Tomahawk cruise missiles at twenty Libyan integrated air and ground defense systems. Three United States B-2 Spirit stealth bombers flew non-stop from the United States to drop forty bombs on a major Libyan airfield, while other US aircraft searched for Libyan ground forces to attack. Twenty-five coalition naval vessels, including three US submarines, began operating in the area.

Libyan State TV reported that government forces had shot down a French warplane over Tripoli on 19 March, a claim denied by France.

On 20 March, several Storm Shadow missiles were launched against Libyan targets by British jets. Nineteen U.S. jets also conducted strikes against Libyan government forces. A loyalist convoy south of Benghazi was targeted. At least seventy vehicles were destroyed, and loyalist ground troops sustained multiple casualties. Strikes also took place on the Bab al-Aziziya compound in Tripoli from late March 20 to early March 21.

By 21 March 2011, the Libyan government's SA-2, SA-3, and SA-5 air defense systems had been completely neutralized, while further strikes took place on targets Tripoli, and according to the Libyan government, in Sabha and Sirt.

On 22 March, Coalition strikes continued, and a Libyan aircraft flying towards Benghazi was attacked. An American F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet on a bombing mission crashed after experiencing equipment failure. The pilot and weapons officer ejected and were recovered by a US rescue team inserted by helicopter. Six civilians were shot during the evacuation as they rushed to greet the troops.

On 23 March, Coalition aircraft flew at least two sorties against government forces in Misrata. Later in the day, it was announced that all government forces and equipment, with the exception of individual snipers, had retreated from the city or were destroyed. In the early morning hours, four Canadian CF-18 jets supported by two CC-150 Polaris tankers bombed a government ammunition depot in Misrata, marking the first time Canadian jets bombed Libya since the campaign began.

On 24 March, a loyalist Soko G-2 Galeb that violated the no-fly zone was shot down by a French Dassault Rafale as it attempted to land near Misrata. Another five Galebs in the area were destroyed on the ground by a French airstrike the following day. The same day, a British submarine fired multiple Libyan government air defense system. Coalition aircraft also bombed Sabha Air Base.

On 25 March, NATO announced that it would be taking over the command of the no-fly-zone operations, after several days of heated debate over who should control operations in Libya. The US had continuously reiterated that it wished to hand over command to an international organization. Airstrikes continued during the day. Two Royal Norwegian Air Force F-16s destroyed a number of Libyan government tanks. French Air Force jets destroyed a government artillery battery outside Ajdabiya, and British and French jets carried out a joint mission outside Ajdabiya, destroying seven government tanks.

On 26 March, Norwegian F-16s bombed an airfield in Libya during the night. Canadian CF-18s bombed government electronic warfare sites near Misrata. French aircraft destroyed at least five loyalist Soko G-2 Galeb and two Mi-35 military helicopters. British jets destroyed five armored vehicles with Brimstone missiles, and Royal Danish Air Force F-16s destroyed numerous loyalist self-propelled rocket launchers and tanks.

On 27 March, Danish aircraft destroyed government artillery south of Tripoli, while Canadian jets destroyed ammunition bunkers south of Misrata. French jets knocked out a command center south of Tripoli, and conducted joint patrols with Qatari aircraft.

On 28 March, Coalition forces fought their first naval engagement when the USS Barry, supported by a P-3 Orion patrol aircraft and A-10 Thunderbolt attack aircraft, engaged the Libyan Coast Guard vessel Vittoria and two smaller craft, after the vessels began firing indiscriminately at merchant vessels in the port of Misrata. The Vittoria was disabled and forced to beach, another vessel was sunk, and the third abandoned. The same day, British jets destroyed two tanks and two armored vehicles near Misrata, and ammunition bunkers in the Sabha area.

On 29 March, U.S. aircraft fired on another Libyan Coast Guard vessel after it opened fire on merchant ships in the port of Misrata, forcing it to limp to shore. Coalition airstrikes continued to hit loyalist ground forces and military targets throughout Libya, with U.S. aircraft employing tankbuster missiles. The following day, French and British jets conducted strikes on loyalist armor and air defenses.

On 31 March, NATO took command of Coalition air operations in Libya. Subsequent operations were carried out as part of Operation Unified Protector. Daily Coalition air and cruise missile strikes continued to target Libyan government ground forces, air defenses, artillery, rocket launchers, command-and-control centers, military bases, bunkers, ammunition storage sites, logistical targets, and missile storage sites. These strikes took place all over the country, including Tripoli, where the Bab al-Aziziya compound was also targeted. The strikes caused numerous material losses and casualties among government forces.

On 23 April, the U.S. carried out its first UAV strike, when two RQ-1 Predator drones destroyed a Multiple rocket launcher near Misrata.

On May 4, NATO Secretary-General Anders Fogh Rasmussen claimed that the Libyan government's military capabilities had been significantly degraded since the operation started, stating that "every week, every day we make new progress, hit important targets. But I'm not able to quantify the degree to which we have degraded Muammar Gaddafi's military capabilities, but definetely it is much weaker now than when our operation started".

NATO claimed that it was enforcing the no-fly zone on rebels as well as on government forces. However, an unidentified rebel pilot and an air traffic controller claimed that NATO agreed to let them attack government targets after approving a request by the rebel military council. On 8 May, NATO claimed to have carried out its first interception when it escorted a Free Libyan Air Force MiG-23 back to base, while the unidentified pilot claimed that he had been allowed to take off and destroyed a fuel truck and two other vehicles.

Intelligence operations in Libya

Shortly after air and naval operations began, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) inserted small groups of clandestine operatives into Libya to gather intelligence on loyalist military targets and troop positions for airstrikes. The agents also met with rebels to fill in gaps in understanding their leaders and allegiances. U.S. officials denied, however, that they were assisting rebels. In addition, dozens of British MI6 operatives and special forces soldiers were inserted into Libya to direct RAF airstrikes and gather intelligence on the whereabouts of Libyan government tank columns, artillery positions, and missile installations. In addition, the U.S. Air Force utilized U-2 spy planes, JSTAR aircraft, and a high-altitude Global Hawk drone to monitor government forces.

Aid to rebels

On April 19, the United Kingdom announced that it was sending military advisors to Libya to help the rebels improve their organization and communications, but not to train or arm them. The British government also supplied the rebels with telecommunications equipment and body armor.

On April 20, the United States announced a $25 million aid package to the Libyan rebels, which consisted of fuel trucks and fuel containers, ambulances, medical equipment, protective vests, binoculars, food, and non-secure radios. The first aid shipment arrived in Benghazi on May 10. In addition, Italy and France were reported to be sending military advisors to aid Libyan rebels.

Qatar supplied MILAN anti-tank missiles, pickup trucks, and uniforms to the rebels. The Libyan government claimed that Qatar also sent 20 military trainers to Benghazi to train over 700 rebel fighters. In addition, Qatar assisted a rebel satellite television operation in broadcasting from Doha. On 27 March, Qatar and the Libyan opposition signed an oil export deal, which would see the National Transitional Council exporting oil to Qatar from rebel-held areas in exchange for money to finance the rebel cause. Qatar also supplied petroleum products to the rebels.

Second opposition advance

Main article: Late March 2011 Libyan rebel offensive

On 20 March, Free Libyan Air Force pilot Muhammad Mukhtar Osman carried out a suicide attack by crashing his plane into the Bab al-Aziziya barracks in Tripoli. Khamis al-Gaddafi was allegedly killed in the attack although the Gaddafi regime denied the reports.

The same day, as airstrikes were being carried out on loyalist armored and supply columns, rebel forces began a renewed offensive from Benghazi towards Tripoli. They advanced 240 kilometres (150 mi) along the coast of the Gulf of Sidra. The first objective was Ajdabiya, which the rebels reached on 21 March after taking Zuteinia along the way. Rebel forces attempted to attack Ajdabiya and relieve rebels inside the city, but were repulsed by government troops using tanks and multiple rocket launchers, and retreated to a checkpoint 12 miles from the city. That night, U.S. airstrikes hit loyalist positions reportedly shelling the city. On 22 March, loyalist shelling of rebel positions and Coalition airstrikes against loyalist forces continued. Hussein El Warfali, the commander of a Libyan Army Brigade stationed near Tripoli, was reportedly killed during the strikes. Rebel in Ajdabiya claimed that three government tanks were destroyed. On 24 March, government troops still held the main east and west gate areas and most of the city, except the city center, and managed to hold off advancing rebels with the help of mortar and artillery fire. Some rebel reinforcements managed to slip inside the city, and the situation became fluid, with large parts of Ajdabiya changing sides. During the night, British jets attacked government armor. By the following day, Gaddafi forces controlled the western and central parts of the city, while rebels controlled the eastern part. During the afternoon, four rebel multiple rocket launchers shelled loyalist positions as part of a counteroffensive, and government artillery returned fire. The rebel attack was halted after loyalist armored units repelled an advance by rebel forward units. During the night, some rebel reinforcements managed to slip into Ajdabiya, and British aircraft destroyed seven loyalist tanks. On 26 March, the rebels were in full control after loyalist forces withdrew from the city. Rebels subsequently took Brega, Ra's Lanuf, and Bin Jawad. On 28 March, heavy fighting took place near Sirt, where government troops managed to halt the rebel advance. Although coalition airstrikes continued to target loyalist vehicles, Gaddafi forces adapted to airstrikes by replacing armor with civilian vehicles fitted with weapons. Government forces launched a counteroffensive on 29 March, forcing the rebels into a retreat from Bin Jawad toward Ra's Lanuf. On 30 March, the rebels said that they were pulling out of Ras Lanuf due to heavy tank and artillery fire from loyalist forces. Following a government counter-offensive, Gadaffi forces took control of the town of Brega. Clashes continued between rebel and government troops in the area between Brega and Ajdabiya.

Stalemate

Main articles: Third Battle of Brega, Battle of Brega-Ajdabiya road, and Battle of Misrata

File:FreeLibyaAF Mi25.jpg

A Free Libyan Air Force attack helicopter over Ajdabiya

Rebels attempted a counter-attack to retake Brega. For eight days, loyalists and rebels battled for Brega. In the end, government troops repelled numerous rebel attacks on the city and managed to force the rebels out of Brega by 7 April, despite continued NATO strikes. During the battles, an airstrike hit rebel forces, destroying three tanks, damaging five, and killing 27 rebels. It was suspected of being either NATO friendly fire or a strike by a loyalist jet too small to be picked up on radar and thus able to defy the no-fly zone. During the battle, 46-49 rebels and 28 loyalists were killed. Rebel forces retreated, fleeing in several different directions. The rebels regrouped in Ajdabiya. Following the rebel retreat, government troops consolidated their control over Brega and prepared to advance on Ajdabiya. On 9 April, rebel forces attacked Brega, but only managed to reach the University before being forced back by intense shelling by loyalist forces. Government forces then shelled Ajdabiya and invaded the city from the north, west and south and managed to reach the heart of the town by the following afternoon, shooting down a rebel attack helicopter. They were later forced back by a rebel counterattack that came after rebel reinforcements arrived. Government troops managed to retain control of the western part of the city. During the night, street battles took place along the city's main street, and in the southern part of Ajdabiya. On 10 April, loyalist forces managed to push closer the city center. The following day, rebels managed to completely push loyalist forces out of the city, but fighting continued west of Ajdabiya. The front line then stagnated outside of the city, 40 km down the road to Brega. There were exchanges of artillery and mortar fire throughout the following days. On 15 April, a rebel column tried to advance on Brega from Ajdabiya following a rocket barrage, but were stopped when Gaddafi forces carried out a hit-and-run attack one kilometer outside Brega, killing one rebel and wounding two.

Rebels during street fighting in Misrata

Street battles broke out in Misrata in mid-April with loyalist forces shelling the town. Migrant workers trapped in Misrata began protesting their conditions, demanding repatriation from the city, which led to several cases of rebels opening fire on them, causing deaths. By 22 April, rebels managed to drive loyalist forces from several locations near the city center with NATO air support. The Deputy Foreign Minister of Libya subsequently pledged that the Libyan Army would withdraw from Misrata. On 23 April, government forces withdrew from Misrata, but continued to shell the city. On 26 April, a loyalist force attempted to retake Misrata, but was stopped by a NATO airstrike.

Government troops launched an artillery bombardment against rebel-held areas in the Al Jabal al Gharbi district in the Nafusa Mountains, leaving 110 rebels and civilians dead.

On 24 April, loyalist forces shelled the border crossing at Wazzin, and fired Grad rockets into Zintan, causing casualties. The following day, two rebels were killed and three wounded in fighting near Nalut. The rebels claimed to have killed 45 government troops and captured 17.

Rebel forces captured Wazzin after overcoming fierce resistance from government troops. Gaddafi's forces became trapped between the town and the border with Tunisia and as a result 105 government soldiers crossed the border and surrendered to Tunisian officials. On 28 April, loyalist forces recaptured the Wazzin border crossing with Tunisia after a swift advance during which they pushed the rebels into Tunisia. Fighting continued on the edge of the Tunisian border town of Dehiba. The rebels counterattacked, but were repulsed. On April 29, elements of the Tunisian army and border police clashed with loyalist forces.

On 30 April 2011, a NATO airstrike hit the home of Saif al-Arab al-Gaddafi, Muammar Gaddafi's youngest son. Libyan officials reported that Saif and three of Muammar Gaddafi's grandchildren were killed in the strike. The government also claimed Muammar Gaddafi was there, but "escaped". On April 26, 2011, British Defence Minister, Liam Fox, and U.S. Defense Secretary, Robert Gates, had told reporters at the Pentagon that NATO planes were not targeting Gaddafi specifically but would continue to attack his command centers. Within the United Nations Security Council, Russia and China voiced concerns that NATO has gone beyond the UN resolution's authorisation to take "all necessary measures" to protect civilians. Russia expressed "increasing concern" regarding reports of civilian casualties, and doubted claims that the attacks did not deliberately target Gadaffi and his family. Following the attacks, angry mobs of Gaddafi loyalists burned and vandalized the British and Italian embassies, a U.S. consulate, and a UN office, prompting the UN to pull its staff out of Tripoli.

The strike came shortly after Muammar Gaddafi called for a mutual cease-fire and negotiations with NATO. A NATO official said before Saturday's strike that the alliance would keep up pressure until the U.N. Security Council mandate on Libya was fulfilled. The NATO official noted that Gaddafi's forces had attacked Misrata hours before his speech. Opposition leaders have called the cease-fire offers publicity stunts. "We don't believe that there is a solution that includes him or any member of his family. So it is well past any discussions. The only solution is for him to depart," said rebel spokesperson Jalal al-Galal.

Following the strike, loyalist forces stepped up their artillery attacks on Misrata, and continued to shell Wazzin. Government troops in Misrata were reported to be seen wearing gas masks, sparking fears that Gaddafi would use chemical weapons to retaliate for his son's death.

On May 1, NATO carried out 60 airstrikes throughout Libya, targeting ammunition storage sites, military vehicles, a communications facility, and an anti-aircraft gun. The following day, government tanks tried to enter the city from the al-Ghiran suburb. Six people were killed and several dozen wounded. Misrata was still subjected to continuous rocket fire from government forces, with a spokesperson claiming that the shelling had not stopped for 36 hours. Government forces halted their shelling of Misrata at about midday following NATO strikes, but the port remained closed, having been bombarded earlier in the day. Meanwhile, two of the three mines that were laid by loyalist forces in the port of Misrata that were preventing aid from being shipped in were destroyed, with NATO minesweepers searching for the third.

On May 3, loyalist forces started shelling Misrata. The attack stopped briefly when a NATO plane flew overhead, but resumed shortly afterward. NATO aircraft conducted 62 airstrikes against loyalist targets near Misrata, Ra's Lanuf, Sirt, Brega, and Zintan.

On 4 May, a ship chartered to deliver humanitarian aid and evacuate migrant workers, journalists, and wounded Libyans was able to dock in the port of Misrata after being guided in by tugboat to avoid hitting a mine. Gaddafi forces shelled the area, hitting a camp for stranded migrant workers and causing deaths and injuries. Loyalists also stepped up their attacks in the Nafusa Mountains, shelling two towns and a key supply route.

On 5 May, the Royal Navy mine clearance vessel HMS Brocklesby located and destroyed the final mine at the entrance to the port of Misrata. NATO aircraft conducted numerous airstrikes against loyalist forces near Misrata and Ajdabiya, and military targets in Tripoli.

On 6 May, NATO conducted 57 airstrikes against loyalist military targets throughout Libya, while opposition forces gained full control of Al Kufra and Abu Rawayah after Gaddafi forces stationed there surrendered. Loyalists attacked the town of Jalu, but were repulsed by rebel resistance and a Coalition airstrike.

On 7 May, Gaddafi forces continued shelling the port of Misrata, hitting a large fuel tank. Government forces also used small crop-dusters to bomb four fuel tanks. The attacks started a fire, which spread to four more fuel tanks. Loyalist artillery and mortar fire also hit Tunisia after renewed clashes broke out at the Wazzin border crossing. Clashes also took place in Zintan and Yefren, and in the area between. The area between Zintan and Yefren was being secured, but Yefren was still under siege. Rebel casualties were 11 killed and at least 50 wounded.

On 8 May, heavy fighting took place near Misrata Airport, and the city came under renewed attack by Gaddafi forces. Meanwhile, NATO strikes hit numerous government targets in the vicinity of Misrata, Zintan, Ajdabiya, Houn, and Brega.

On 9 May, the shelling of Misrata by Gaddafi forces continued to choke off humanitarian supplies to the city, while fighting continued near Misrata Airport. Meanwhile, Coalition strikes hit two targets in Tripoli.

On 10 May, rebels from Misrata and Zlitan joined up and engaged in close combat that rendered loyalist long-range rockets useless. The rebels managed to drive loyalist forces on the west side of Misrata out of rocket range, and to push loyalist troops from Misrata Airport, burning their tanks as they retreated. Rebels also claimed to have made gains near Jalu, and the area between Ajdabiya and Brega in fierce fighting. The same day, a NATO strike hit a government command center in Tripoli. Rebels subsequently began an advance towards Zliten.

NATO attacks intensify

On 11 May, NATO aircraft fired four rockets at Gaddafi's compound in Tripoli, killing at least two people. Strikes also hit government military targets throughout the country.

On 12 May, NATO carried out 52 strikes against loyalist targets. Loyalist forces fired at least three rockets into Ajdabiya. Loyalist forces also launched an attack on Misrata port, using a number of small boats, but were forced to abandon their attack after NATO warships intervened. Regime forces onshore covered their retreat with artillery and anti-aircraft fire directed at the warships. The warships HMCS Charlottetown and HMS Liverpool returned fire while rebels continued to advance from Misrata towards Zliten.

On 13 May, NATO carried out 44 airstrikes. According to the Libyan government, a strike in the vicinity of Brega killed 11 Islamic clerics and wounded 45 civilians. In Tripoli, shortages of food and fuel were worsening, along with increasing NATO attacks. According to an activist, a wave of anti-government protests took place in several Tripoli neighborhoods throughout the week. According to Italian Foreign Minister Franco Frattini said that Gaddafi was probably wounded in a NATO airstrike, and had left Tripoli. The Libyan government dismissed the claim as "nonsense", and state television broadcast a brief audio recording of what it said was Gaddafi, taunting NATO as a cowardly crusader, and claiming to be in a place where NATO could not reach him.

On 15 May, NATO conducted 48 airstrikes against loyalist targets. British jets and missiles hit two intelligence facilities. NATO also hacked into Libyan Army frequencies, and broadcast claims of atrocities and appeals to stop fighting, telling them to either "build a peaceful Libya for the benefit of your family and a better future for your country" or face continued airstrikes.

On 16 May, NATO conducted 46 airstrikes on loyalist targets. Among the targets hit was a training base used by the bodyguards of members of Gaddafi's inner circle, which was hit by British jets. At least four Grad rockets fired from Libya landed in Tunisian territory. Libyan government forces used two rigid-hull inflatable boats laden with explosives in an attempt to hinder aid shipments to the port of Misrata, but the vessels were intercepted by NATO warships and helicopters. One boat escaped at high speed, but the second was captured, and destroyed by a NATO warship using small-arms fire. The following day, NATO carried out 53 strikes.

On 18 May, NATO conducted 53 airstrikes, and another 60 strikes the next day. On 20 May, British jets attacked Libyan government naval facilities in Tripoli, Khoms, and Sirt, hitting eight warships and a facility used to manufacture inflatable speedboats. Meanwhile, loyalist forces again started shelling Misrata, killing one rebel and wounding 10.

Humanitarian situation

Migrant workers fleeing the violence at Choucha refugee camp, Tunisia.

Medical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in Libya. On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6,400,000 to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in Libya. On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 refugees were crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks – as well as Libyans. By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya. By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.

With a migrant population of about two million, states that border Libya, especially Egypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping the violence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis. According to the International Organization for Migration, as of 7 March, 115,399 migrants had arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the rest from various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 in Niger (1,865 Nigerians) and 5,448 in Algeria.

At the end of February Al Jazeera reported that African migrant workers were being attacked, injured and perhaps killed by anti-government mobs according to witnesses. "We were being attacked by local people who said that we were mercenaries killing people. Let me say that they did not want to see black people," Julius Kiluu, a sixty-year-old building supervisor, told Reuters. "Our camp was burnt down, and we were assisted by the Kenyan embassy and our company to get to the airport," he said.

On 2 March, the Royal Navy destroyer HMS York had arrived in Benghazi carrying medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. The medical supplies, a donation to the Benghazi Medical Centre, were supposed to have been flown direct to Benghazi airport but when the airport was closed down, they were diverted to Malta. They were transferred from the airport to the frigate at short notice by the Armed Forces of Malta. On 8 March, a convoy of trucks from the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) had entered Libya and was due to arrive in the eastern port city of Benghazi on the same day, the WFP said in a statement. A convoy carrying seventy metric tonnes of high-energy date bars crossed the Egyptian border overnight on its way to the eastern port. On 7 March, U.N. aid coordinator Valerie Amos stated that fighting across Libya meant that more than a million people fleeing or inside the country needed humanitarian aid. Islamic Relief and World Food Programme World Food Programme (WFP) are also coordinating a shipment of humanitarian supplies to Misrata.

Turkey sent to Libya Ankara ferry which had been transformed into a hospital ship in order to transport to Turkey for medical treatment the wounded people from Misurata, a city exposed to intense clashes. Ankara docked at the Misurata port on 2 April under the protection provided by 12 Turkish Air Force F-16 aircraft taking off from Bandırma and Dalaman, 4 tanker aircraft taking off from İncirlik and TCG Yıldırım frigate. 230 wounded people and 60 attendants were taken on board and the ferry left Misurata for Benghazi. On 4 April the ferry sailed from Benghazi to Turkey with additional 190 people, including 90 injured. Humanitarian Relief Foundation (IHH) has sent a cargo ship carrying nine containers, 141 tons of humanitarian aid including medication, food packages, infant formula, milk powder, hygiene kits and clothing. The ship set sail from Turkey and dropped anchor in Malta.

Over 500, mostly ethnic Berber Libyans, had fled their homes in Libya's Western Mountains and took shelter in the Dehiba area of south east Tunisia between April 5 and 12.

By April 11, hundreds of foreign labourers from countries including Bangladesh, Egypt, Sudan, Ghana and Niger who were previously attracted by jobs in a once prosperous town of Misurata had not been evacuated. A labourers' spokesperson said there were 650 trapped workers from Ghana, 750 from Chad and 2,000 from Niger. Another spokesperson also gave a reporter for the British Daily Telegraph newspaper handwritten sheets of names that he said represented hundreds of stranded Sudanese.

To continue responding to needs of people staying at the Ras Ejdir crossing point in Tunisia, WFP and Secours Islamique-France are upgrading a kitchen that will provide breakfast for families.Separately, the International Committee of the Red Cross ICRC has advised it is handing over its operations at the Choucha Camp to the Tunisian Red Crescent. Since 24 March, WFP has supplied over 42,500 cooked meals for third-country nationals at the Saloum border.A total of 1,650 cartons of fortified date bars (equivalent of 13.2 metric tons) have also been provided to supplement these meals.

For a over 50 days, the Libyan city of Misurata has been shelled by artillery and hit by tanks and snipers, and for over 20 days has had its water intentionally shut off by Muammar Gaddafi's forces. Sewage has been intentionally re-routed into water wells by Gaddafi's forces. As supplies run short, hundreds of thousands are at risk of death.

A humanitarian ship docked in harbour of the besieged city of Misrata late on the 14th to begin the evacuation of nearly 8,300 stranded migrants living around the port in temporary accommodation in tents and shelters made from tarpaulins. The Red Cross also released a statement that it expected one of its medical supply shipments to arrive at Misrata in the near future.

11 May 2011 the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland Radoslaw Sikorski paid a visit to Benghazi. During the visit, Poland provided its medical aid transport for those who sustained injuries during the clashes in Misrata and other Libyan cities.

Casualties

People in Dublin, Ireland protesting against Gaddafi's use of violence against Libyans

Main article: Casualties of the 2011 Libyan civil war

Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000, The International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 killed on 7 March. The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February. On 2 March, the International Federation for Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000 and the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed. At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died. The Libyan League for Human Rights estimated 6,000 killed on 5 March. Later, rebel spokesman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death toll reached 8,000.

Domestic responses

Main article: Domestic responses to the 2011 Libyan civil war

Resignation of government officials

In response to the use of force against protesters, a number of senior Libyan public officials either renounced the Gaddafi regime or resigned from their positions. Justice Minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil and Interior Minister Major General Abdul Fatah Younis both defected to the opposition. Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem and Foreign Minister Moussa Koussa fled Libya, with the latter defecting to the UK. Libyan Prosecutor General Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar resigned his position and joined the opposition.

A number of senior military officials defected to the opposition, including Major General Suleiman Mahmoud, Brigadier General Musa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, Brigadier General Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi and Brigadier General Dawood Issa Al Qafsi. Two Libyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta, and requested asylum, after being ordered to carry out air strikes against anti-government protesters in Benghazi Colonel Nuretin Hurala, the commander of the Benghazi Naval Base also defected.

The staff of a number of diplomatic missions of Libya have either resigned or condemned the action of the Gaddafi regime. The ambassadors to the Arab League, European Union and United Nations have either resigned or stated that they no longer support the government. The ambassadors to Bangladesh, Belgium, People's Republic of China, France, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, and the US also renounced the Gaddafi regime or formally resigned.

Economic, religious and tribal

Libyan economy is mainly based on its oil production. The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second-largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces. Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi. The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes announced their support of the protesters. The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in its part of Libya if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.

Libyan royal family

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.

Claimant to the Libyan throne Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect." as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence. On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre". He dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence. He asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops. On April 20, Mohammed spoke in front of the European Parliament calling for more support for Libya. He also states that he will support any form of government that Libya will choose after Gaddafi including a constitutional monarchy.

In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the Libya once change had been initiated. On 21 February, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising. In March, it was reported Idris had held meetings at the State Department and Congress in Washington with US government Officials. It was also reported attempts at contact had been initiated by French and Saudi officials. On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.

International reactions

Main article: International reactions to the 2011 Libyan civil war

Official responses

March for free Libya in Japan before the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

A number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, North Korean leader Kim-Jong-il, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez all expressed support for Gaddafi. Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he called the attacks on protesters unacceptable.

The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergency meeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities".

Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters. On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and, refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians. Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen members of his clan or his regime. A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia, took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates.

The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians. The Arab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against the measure.

On 16 May, the International Criminal Court's chief prosecutor asked judges to issue arrest warrants for Colonel Gaddafi, his son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, and his intelligence chief Abdullah al-Sanoussa. According to the prosecutor, the three had ordered, planned, and participated in illegal attacks against civilians. He stated that under their command, pro-Gaddafi forces had attacked civilians in their homes, shot at demonstrators protesting his 40 years of rule with live ammunition, shelled funeral processions, and deployed snipers to kill people leaving mosques. While compiling a 74-page dossier of evidence that will be presented to judges, as many as 50 top Gaddafi insider officials had provided information, seeking to implicate each other in war crimes.

Evacuations

During the uprising, many states evacuated their citizens. China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100 citizens from twelve other states. On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day wait for the seas to calm. South Korea evacuated 1,200 residents of Libya, utilizing cars, airplanes and ferries, to nearby jurisdictions, including Malta.

Bulgaria evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinese citizens. The Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated 15,000 of its nationals. The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported 25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul. The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya. Several Russians, twenty-one Tadjiks and some Kazachs were evacuated by Russia authorities.

A number of international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, Suncor Energy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees included Siemens and Russian Railways.

The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The United Kingdom deployed aircraft and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuations. China's frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts. The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived off the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens. The UK Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetown to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise.

Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces onboard evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi. A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the UK and Germany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete. An attempt by the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp on 27 February to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirte by helicopter failed after its three-man crew was apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi for infiltrating Libyan airspace without clearance. The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released twelve days later, but the helicopter was confiscated. A cruise ship arrived to save the 7,913 Filipinos in Libya from the destruction. They stopped in Greece and then safely made it home to the Philippines.

Mediation proposals

There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. Early in the conflict, Gaddafi's son reportedly requested that former British Prime Minister Tony Blair mediate the crisis but he bluntly refused.

The South African government proposed an African Union led mediation effort to prevent civil war. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez also put himself forward as a mediator. Although Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later said there was no need for any foreign mediation. The proposal has also been under consideration by the Arab League, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa.

The Libyan opposition has stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down. The US and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power. Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, the 2010 winner of the al-Gaddafi prize for Human Rights, has offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed that Gaddafi appoint a president acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.

The African Union's special committee on Libya have been attempting to broker a ceasefire agreement. Gadhafi accepted the proposal in principle, which reportedly contains provision for an immediate ceasefire. However, opposition leaders remain skeptical that mediation would end the conflict in a way that would satisfy their goals, which include seeing Gadhafi removed from power.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 (no-fly zone and other measures)

Countries committed to enforcement:

Belgium

Bulgaria

Canada

Denmark

France

Greece

Italy

Jordan

Netherlands

Norway

Qatar

Romania

Spain

Sweden

United Arab Emirates

United Kingdom

United States

Main articles: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 and 2011 military intervention in Libya

On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using military aircraft against civilians. A number of states indicated they would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the UN.

US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates was initially sceptical of this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defences. Russia and China, both holding UN Security Council veto power, indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone. Romania, India and Turkey also indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone.

On 7 March, a UN diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse, on condition of anonymity, that France and the UK were drawing up a resolution for the UN Security Council to authorize a no-fly zone over Libya.

The foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed at their 12 March meeting to ask the UN to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. The rebels concurrently stated that a no-fly zone alone would not be sufficient, because the majority of the bombardments were coming from tanks and rockets, not aircraft. The US changed its position, as Gadaffi forces were quickly approaching Benghazi, and voiced support for the no-fly-zone concept.

On 17 March, the UN Security Council approved UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011), authorizing a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favour, zero against, and five abstentions. The resolution bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order to protect civilians. A collection of states began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March.

On 29 March, in his position as Foreign Minister of Libya, Moussa Koussa wrote to UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon, nominating the former foreign minister of Nicaragua's socialist Sandinista government and one-time president of the UN General Assembly Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann as Libya's new ambassador to the UN. The letter stated that Brockmann was nominated, as Ali Abdussalam Treki, also a former General Assembly president who was their first choice, was denied a visa to enter the US under UN SCR 1973.

The NATO Berlin summit of April 14–15

NATO, Georgian, Russian, Ukrainian, UAE, Swedish and Qatari officials attended a summit in Berlin, but failed for a second day to find new ground-attack aircraft, despite planning to send more fighters to strengthen the no fly zone. NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen asked other member states to do more in Libya, but Italy signalled its reluctance to contribute more airpower. The British Foreign Minister, William Hague, said he did not regard the meeting as a failure, even though it had not prompted any extra member nations to join the French, British and American led mission. The Russian representative warned that NATO had gone beyond the United Nations mandate to only protect citizens, by attacking ground targets in Libya.

Reactions to the decision to intervene

See also: International reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya, Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya, and US domestic reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya

The International Federation for Human Rights stated that it welcomed the resolution which finally offers protection to civilians in Libya, who are the targets of crimes which can be considered crimes against humanity. Muslim Brotherhood-linked Egyptian scholar Yusuf al-Qaradawi expressed his support for the no-fly zone put in place by the United Nations over Libya, saying, "The operation in Libya is to protect the civilians from Gaddafi’s tyranny." Qaradawi also slammed Arab League leader and likely presidential candidate Amr Moussa for remarks criticizing the international intervention. Al-Qaeda also stated that they support the uprising against Gaddafi. Egypt reportedly has been shipping arms to Libya to arm the rebels.

Kenneth Roth, executive director of the Human Rights Watch, stated that the Security Council at last lived up to its duty to prevent mass atrocities. He further commented the Arab League's role, stating that "the league had watched silently as Sudan's Omar al-Bashir committed crimes against humanity in Darfur – or, less recently, as Iraq's Saddam Hussein massacred Shia and Kurds, and Syria's Hafez al-Asad destroyed the town of Hama. But the league apparently sensed the winds of change wafting through the Middle East and North Africa, and felt compelled to respond."

According to a French Institute of Public Opinion (IFOP) poll, only 36% of the population supported French participation in any military intervention in Libya in the run-up to the intervention. However, an IFOP poll conducted after the intervention began showed 66% supported the intervention, with no difference of opinion between the left-wing and right-wing. In the US, opposition before the intervention was as high as 74%, according to CNN/Opinion Research Corporation, while after the intervention a CBS News poll indicated 66% of Americans support the air and naval strikes, with 70% of Democrats and Republicans, and 65% of independents approving of missile and airstrikes. However, only 20% expect the no-fly zone to be "very effective" in protecting civilians and rebels from Gaddafi's forces.

China, India, Russia and Turkey condemned the strikes by international forces. Amr Moussa, the head of the Arab League, expressed great concern over civilians, clearly defining his position as supporting the UN Security Council resolution but not a bombing campaign. However, Amr Moussa later clarified that his comments were misinterpreted, and that he does in fact support the air strikes, and reiterated his support for protecting civilians. Turkey specifically singled out French leadership for ignoring the NATO alliance, which was left divided and split over the operation. NATO members Germany and Poland are not participating in the campaign, and Malta did not offer its airports for use by coalition forces.

In Britain the intervention has been broadly supported, though it has also provoked strong opposition from a minority including former MP George Galloway and MPs Jeremy Corbyn and Caroline Lucas. In the US, some politicians have voiced opposition to military action without congressional approval, or have requested clarifications and debate about US goals and how they will be achieved, including Democratic and Republican congressional representatives, Speaker of the House John Boehner, House Armed Services Committee Chairman Buck McKeon, and Democratic House Caucus chair John Larson. Richard Haass, president of the Council on Foreign Relations, has expressed doubts over the possibility of a better regime emerging if the rebels are victorious. However, others have predicted more fortuitous results from the US-led intervention in Libya, especially regarding its long-term ramifications on standing American foreign policy.

See also

• Egypt's January 25 Revolution
• Human rights in Libya
• List of modern conflicts in North Africa
• Human rights violations in 2011 Libyan civil war

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• Topple the Tyrants
• Tunisian revolution
• Free speech in the media during the 2011 Libyan civil war
• Moussa Ibrahim, Gaddafi spokesman

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Further reading

• Morayef, Heba (2009). Truth and Justice Can't Wait: Human Rights Developments in Libya Amid Institutional Obstacles. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 9781564325631.
• St. John, Ronald Bruce (2011). Libya: Continuity and Change. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415779777.

External links

• "Photos of Air Strikes on Libya". The Atlantic.
• "Libya Uprising". Al Jazeera.
• "Live Blog". Al Jazeera.
• "Libya Revolt". BBC News.
• "Libya". Der Spiegel.
• Quinn, Ben; Haynes, Jonathan (21 February 2011). "Libya in Crisis". The Guardian. London.
• News coverage at libyafeb17.com.
• Donadio, Rachel. "Libya –The Protests (2011)". The New York Times.
• "Libya". Reuters.
• Voice of Free LIbya (newsblog)