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Solar power in the United States

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Main article: Renewable energy in the United States
US annual average solar energy received by a latitude tilt photovoltaic cell (modeled).

Solar power in the United States is the largest available energy source for the United States, although in 2006 it accounted for less than 0.1% of electricity generation. Renewable resources (solar, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric, biomass, and waste) provided nearly 12 percent of the nation's electricity supply in 2003.[1] Due to the eight year extension of the 30% solar tax credit, it was estimated that an additional 28,000 megawatts (MW) will be installed by the end of 2016.

Growth

Solar energy deployment increased at a record pace in the United States and throughout the world in 2008, according to new industry reports. On March 19, the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) released its "2008 U.S. Solar Industry Year in Review" which found that U.S. solar energy capacity increased by 17% last year, reaching the total equivalent of 8,775 megawatts (MW). The SEIA report tallies all types of solar energy, and last year the United States installed 342 MW of solar photovoltaic (PV) electric power, 139 thermal megawatts (MWTh) of solar water heating, 762 MWTh of pool heating, and 21 MWTh of solar space heating and cooling.[2]

The growth rate was highest for grid-connected PV electric systems, which increased by 58% to a total of 792 MW. Meanwhile, domestic PV manufacturing capacity increased by 65%, and preliminary estimates peg the total U.S. PV manufacturing capacity at 685 MW per year as of the end of 2008.[2]

A report finds that solar power's contribution could grow to 10% of the nation's power needs by 2025. The report, prepared by research and publishing firm Clean Edge and the nonprofit Co-op America, projects nearly 2% of the nation's electricity coming from concentrating solar power systems, while solar photovoltaic systems will provide more than 8% of the nation's electricity. Those figures correlate to nearly 50,000 megawatts of solar photovoltaic systems and more than 6,600 megawatts of concentrating solar power.

As noted in the report, solar power has been expanding rapidly in the past eight years, growing at an average pace of 40% per year. The cost per kilowatt-hour of solar photovoltaic systems has also been dropping, while electricity generated from fossil fuels is becoming more expensive. As a result, the report projects that solar power will reach cost parity with conventional power sources in many U.S. markets by 2015. But to reach the 10% goal, solar photovoltaic companies will also need to streamline installations and make solar power a "plug-and-play" technology, that is, it must be simple and straightforward to buy the components of the system, connect them together, and connect the system to the power grid.

The report also places some of the responsibility with electric utilities, which will need to take advantage of the benefits of solar power, incorporate it into future "smart grid" technologies, and create new business models for building solar power capacity. The report also calls for establishing long-term extensions of today's investment and production tax credits, creating open standards for connecting solar power systems to the grid, and giving utilities the ability to include solar power in their rate base.

Large-Scale U.S. Solar Power Facilities

Large-Scale U.S. solar power facilities are becoming commonplace.[3] A spate of announced plans to build large solar power facilities throughout the United States seems to indicate that relatively large-scale systems are becoming commonplace. The trend is most apparent in concentrating solar power (CSP), with a number of facilities in the planning stages with capacities greater than 100 megawatts (MW).

For photovoltaic (PV) systems, even a 1-MW facility is quite large, although megawatt-scale systems are now planned for many parts of the country. In late April, Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter announced that a megawatt-scale PV system will be installed at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in Pennsylvania. In late May, Duke Energy Carolinas announced plans to buy all the power from a 16-MW PV facility, to be built north of Charlotte, North Carolina. SunEdison LLC is building the facility and expects to have it running by 2010. In mid-June, Pepco Energy Services[4] was awarded a contract to install a 2.36-MW PV system on the roof of the Atlantic City Convention Center in New Jersey, with the installation to be completed by the end of the year, and in late June, enXco[5] agreed to install a 1.3-MW system and a 0.5-MW system on two warehouses in South Plainfield, New Jersey, under a contract with Hall's Warehouse Corporation. First Solar, Inc. has announced that it will install a 2-MW PV system on the roof of a commercial building in Fontana, California, and at least 7.5 MW of ground-mounted PV panels in Blythe, California, with the power from both systems to be sold to Southern California Edison (SCE).

Solar thermal power plants

The largest solar power plant in the world is the 354 MW SEGS thermal power plant, in California.[6]

Each of California's electric utilities are required to provide 20% of their electricity from renewable sources by 2017. Sterling Energy Systems is building a 4,500-acre (18 km2) sun farm to supply 500 MW by 2012. Output will go to Southern California Edison and San Diego Gas and Electric.[7] Annual output is expected to be 1,047 gigawatt-hours (GW·h).[8] California electricity consumption was 272,464 GW·h in 2005.[9] The federal Bureau of Land Management has received right-of-way requests for the development of approximately 34 large solar thermal power plants on 300,000 acres (1,200 km2) in California totaling approximately 24,000 megawatts. Projects under development include Ivanpah Solar, a 400 MW solar tower, the Carrizo Solar Farm, a 177 MW compact linear fresnel reflector, the Beacon Solar Energy Project, a 250 MW solar trough, and Harper Lake Solar, a 250 MW solar trough.[10]

Concentrating solar power

Pacific Gas & Electric Company (PG&E) signed a power purchase contract for a a 106.8-MW CSP plant near Coalinga, California, about 60 miles (97 km) southwest of Fresno with a subsidiary of Martifer Renewables Electricity LLC in June 2008. Slated to start operation in 2011, the facility will produce power from biomass fuels when the sun is not available, allowing for constant power production.[11][12]

The four largest utilities in New Mexico, including Public Service Company of New Mexico, issued a request for proposals (RFP) in late June 2008 to build a CSP plant in the state on the scale of about 100 MW. Bids are due by September 26, 2008 and a contract should be issued by January 2009, with the goal of commercial operation by 2012.[13][14]

Both the California and New Mexico facilities will use parabolic trough-shaped mirrors to concentrate the sun's heat.

Florida Power & Light Company (FPL) is moving ahead with its plans to deploy solar power in Florida — the "Sunshine State". The utility plans to build a 75-MW CSP facility in Indiantown, just east of Lake Okeechobee. The solar thermal facility will help to reduce natural gas consumption at the power plant. The project was approved by the Florida Public Service Commission (PSC) on July 15, 2008.[3]

The United States Army says it wants to build what could be the world's most powerful solar power plant, as part of a far-reaching effort to cut back on the service's dependence on fossil fuels. It would partner with the private sector to construct a 500-megawatt solar thermal plant at Fort Irwin, in the Mojave Desert, that will provide renewable power on the grid and provide the sprawling Army post with added energy security against disruption of power supply.[15]

Photovoltaics in the U.S.

Main article: Photovoltaics in the United States

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) announced on September 29, 2008 that it will invest $17.6 million, subject to annual appropriations, in six company-led, early-stage photovoltaic (PV) projects under the Solar America Initiative's "PV Incubator" funding opportunity. The "PV Incubator" project is designed to fund prototype PV components and systems with the goal of moving them through the commercialization process by 2010. The 2008 award will be the second funding opportunity released under the PV Incubator project. With the cost share from industry, which will be at least 20%, up to $35.4 million will be invested in these projects. The projects will run for 18 months, and will be subcontracted through DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

Most of the projects will receive up to $3 million in funding, with the exception of Solasta and Spire Semiconductor, which will receive up to $2.6 million and $2.97 million, respectively. Massachusetts-based 1366 Technologies will develop a new cell architecture for low-cost, multi-crystalline silicon cells, which will enhance cell performance through improved light-trapping texturing and grooves for self-aligned metallization fingers. California's Innovalight will use ink-jet printing to transfer their "silicon ink" onto thin-crystalline silicon wafers to produce high-efficiency, low-cost solar cells and modules. Skyline Solar, also in California, will develop an integrated, lightweight, single-axis tracked system that reflects and concentrates sunlight over 10 times onto silicon cells. [Solasta, in Massachusetts, is working on a novel cell design that increases currents and lowers the materials cost. Solexel, another California-based company, will commercialize a disruptive, 3D high-efficiency mono-crystalline silicon cell technology that dramatically reduces manufacturing cost per watt. Finally, Spire Semiconductor in New Hampshire will develop three-junction tandem solar cells that better optimize the optical properties of their device layers; the company is targeting cell efficiencies over 42% using a low-cost manufacturing method.

The PV Incubator project is part of the Solar America Initiative, which aims to make solar energy cost-competitive with conventional forms of electricity by 2015 (grid parity).[16]

Cell makers

New manufacturing facilities for solar cells and modules in Massachusetts, Michigan, Ohio, Oregon, and Texas promise to add enough capacity to produce thousands of megawatts of solar devices per year within the next few years from 2008:[17]

In late September 2008, Sanyo Electric Company, Ltd. announced its decision to build a manufacturing plant for solar ingots and wafers (the building blocks for silicon solar cells) in Salem, Oregon. The plant will begin operating in October 2009 and will reach its full production capacity of 70 megawatts (MW) of solar wafers per year by April 2010.

In early October 2008, First Solar, Inc. broke ground on an expansion of its Perrysburg, Ohio, facility that will add enough capacity to produce another 57 MW per year of solar modules at the facility, bringing its total capacity to roughly 192 MW per year. The company expects to complete construction early next year and reach full production by mid-2010.

And in mid-October 2008, SolarWorld AG opened a manufacturing plant in Hillsboro, Oregon, that is expected to produce 500 MW of solar cells per year when it reaches full production in 2011.

Production is also growing for manufacturers of flexible thin-film solar modules. Energy Conversion Devices, Inc. (ECD)—a manufacturer of thin-film modules deposited on flexible stainless steel—has announced plans to build a facility in Battle Creek, Michigan, that will produce 120 MW of solar modules per year. ECD will start construction in fall 2008, with production starting by the end of 2009. ECD has the option of doubling its production capacity in Battle Creek and has plans to reach 1,000 MW of annual production by 2012. Konarka Technologies, Inc. deposits its solar modules onto a flexible plastic substrate, and the company has just reopened a former Polaroid Corporation facility in New Bedford, Massachusetts, that has been converted into a production facility for Konarka's "Power Plastic" solar modules. Konarka expects the facility to reach its capacity to produce of 1,000 MW of solar modules per year by 2011. Both companies employ a roll-to-roll processing, similar to a newspaper printing press, for the manufacture of their solar modules. The manufacturing process offers the possibility of achieving high production capacities at a lower cost than most solar cell manufacturing plants.

HelioVolt Corporation opened a manufacturing facility in Austin, Texas, that will have an initial capacity to produce 20 MW of solar cells per year. Starting with solar "inks" developed at DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory that are deposited with ink jets, HelioVolt employs a proprietary "printing" process to produce solar cells consisting of thin films of copper indium gallium selenide, or CIGS. The technology won an R&D 100 Award in 2008 and it earned an Editor's Choice Award for Most Revolutionary Technology. HelioVolt's "FASST" reactive transfer printing process is 10-100 times faster than other CIGS production processes and can also be combined with vacuum evaporation or ultrasonic spray deposition techniques. At its new Austin manufacturing plant, HelioVolt plans to produce both solar modules and next-generation building-integrated solar products using its FASST process.

Power plants

FPL

Florida Power & Light plans to install 25 MW of solar panels at a site in DeSoto County, east of Sarasota. Construction will begin by the end of 2008 on what will be the world's largest PV power facility (although larger projects are now planned for Europe).

FPL will also install a 10-MW PV project at the Kennedy Space Center.[3]

Nellis Solar Power Plant

The Nellis Solar Power Plant was completed in December 2007. It is the largest solar photovoltaic system in North America and is located at Nellis Air Force Base in Clark County, Nevada. It includes approximately 70,000 solar panels and the peak power generation capacity of the plant is approximately 15 megawatts.[18][19]

Pacific Gas & Electric

On August 14, 2008, Pacific Gas & Electric Company announced agreements to buy the power from two proposed PV plants in San Luis Obispo County, California with a total peak power of 800 MW. Both projects are contingent upon the extension of the federal investment tax credit for renewable energy.[20]

Photovoltaic (PV) power plants
Name Location DC Peak
Power (MW)		 GW·h/year Capacity factor Notes
KCRD Solar Farm[21] California 80 Scheduled to be completed in 2012; Proposed[22][23]
Kohl's[24] California 25 35 0.16 Under construction; installed on 63 of the 80 stores
Nellis Solar Power Plant Nevada 18 25 0.22 70,000 solar panels
Alamosa photovoltaic power plant[25] Colorado 8.22 17 0.24
CalRENEW-1[26] California 5 n.a. Cleantech America (proposed)
Springerville Generating Station[27] Arizona 4.59 7.8 0.19 34,980 BP solar modules
Rancho Seco[27] California 3.9 n.a.
Prescott Airport Solar Power Plant[27] Arizona 3.5 4.9 0.16
Destiny USA[28] New York 3.2 3.7 0.13 Proposed
LVVWD Distributed Solar Array[29] Nevada 3.1 One of the largest public agency facilities. Located at the Luce Reservoir, Fort Apache Reservoir, Ronzone Reservoir, Spring Mountain-Durango Reservoir and Grand Canyon Reservoir
Exelon-Epuron Solar Energy Center[30][31] Pennsylvania 3 3.7 0.14 16,500 Conergy S 175MU solar panels. To be completed October 2008
Fort Carson[27] Colorado 2 3.2 0.18
Google[32] California 1.6 2.2 0.16 9212 Sharp ND-208-U1 modules
HP[33] California 1 SunPower (proposed)
Beverly High School[34] Massachusetts 0.1 0.09 0.10 Solar Power Corporation single crystal modules. Installed April 13, 1981 as one of eight large-scale photovoltaic systems to be installed across the country

Distributed solar power

Main article: Building-integrated photovoltaic
Photovoltaic panels on a house roof.

Thousands and soon millions of homes, as well as many schools and businesses will include photovoltaic solar panels on their roofs. Most of these will be grid connected and use net metering laws to allow use of electricity in the evening that was generated during the daytime. New Jersey leads the nation with the least restrictive net metering law,[35] while California leads in total number of homes which have solar panels installed. Many were installed because of the million solar roof initiative.[36] California decided that it was not moving forward fast enough on photovoltaic generation and has enacted a Feed-in Tariff.[37][38] Washington state has a feed-in tariff of 15 ₡/kWh which increases to 54 ₡/kWh if components are manufactured in the state.[39] Hawaii and Michigan are also considering feed in tariffs. A comparison of the 38 states plus Washington D.C. which have net metering gives five an A and five an F.[40]

Many of the homes, schools and businesses which have installed solar panels can be monitored online on the internet.[41]

Another proposal for distributed generation is to cover the nation's parking lots with solar car parks.

Incentives

A complete list of incentives is maintained at the Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) (see external link).

Federal

The federal tax credit for solar was extended for eight years as part of the financial bail out bill, H.R. 1424, until the end of 2016. It was estimated this will create 440,000 jobs, 28 gigawatts of solar power, and lead to a $300 billion investment in solar energy. This estimate did not take into account the removal of the $2,000 cap on residential tax credits at the end of 2008.[42]

  • A 30% tax credit is available for residential and commercial installations.[43][44] For 2009 and 2010 this is a 30% grant, not a tax credit, for installations begun before the end of 2010 and completed before the end of 2016, thus making it available to those not paying federal tax, such as schools, local governments, and non-profit organizations.

Solar America Initiative

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) announced on September 29, 2008 that it will invest $17.6 million, subject to annual appropriations, in six company-led, early-stage photovoltaic (PV) projects under the Solar America Initiative's "PV Incubator" funding opportunity. The "PV Incubator" project is designed to fund prototype PV components and systems with the goal of moving them through the commercialization process by 2010. The 2008 award will be the second funding opportunity released under the PV Incubator project. With the cost share from industry, which will be at least 20%, up to $35.4 million will be invested in these projects. The projects will run for 18 months, and will be subcontracted through DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

Most of the projects will receive up to $3 million in funding, with the exception of Solasta and Spire Semiconductor, which will receive up to $2.6 million and $2.97 million, respectively. Massachusetts-based 1366 Technologies will develop a new cell architecture for low-cost, multi-crystalline silicon cells, which will enhance cell performance through improved light-trapping texturing and grooves for self-aligned metallization fingers. California's Innovalight will useink-jet printing to transfer their "silicon ink" onto thin-crystalline silicon wafers to produce high-efficiency, low-cost solar cells and modules. Skyline Solar, also in California, will develop an integrated, lightweight, single-axis tracked system that reflects and concentrates sunlight over 10 times onto silicon cells. [Solasta, in Massachusetts, is working on a novel cell design that increases currents and lowers the materials cost. Solexel, another California-based company, will commercialize a disruptive, 3D high-efficiency mono-crystalline silicon cell technology that dramatically reduces manufacturing cost per watt. Finally, Spire Semiconductor in New Hampshire will develop three-junction tandem solar cells that better optimize the optical properties of their device layers; the company is targeting cell efficiencies over 42% using a low-cost manufacturing method.

The PV Incubator project is part of the Solar America Initiative, which aims to make solar energy cost-competitive with conventional forms of electricity by 2015 (grid parity).[16] The Solar America Initiative (SAI)[45] is a part of the Federal Advanced Energy Initiative to accelerate the development of advanced photovoltaic materials with the goal of making it cost-competitive with grid electricity by 2015 (grid parity).

The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technology Program (SETP) will achieve the goals of the SAI through partnerships and strategic alliances by focusing primarily on four areas:

  • Market Transformation — activities that address marketplace barriers and offer the opportunity for market expansion
  • Device and Process Proof of Concept — R&D activities addressing novel devices or processes with potentially significant performance or cost advantages
  • Component Prototype and Pilot-Scale Production — R&D activities emphasizing development of prototype PV components or systems produced at pilot-scale with demonstrated cost, reliability, or performance advantages
  • System Development and Manufacturing — collaborative R&D activities among industry and university partners to develop and improve solar energy technologies

The Solar America Showcases activity is part of the Solar America Initiative (SAI).process, and preference is given to large-scale, highly visible, highly replicable installations that involve cutting-edge solar technologies or novel applications of solar.[46]

States and local

Public land

The Bureau of Land Management will continue to process 125 existing applications for solar plants covering almost one million acres, but has announced it would not accept any new applications until after an environmental assessment is completed.[50]

An April 24, 2007 article in the Christian Science Monitor titled "Green Power May Ruin Pristine Land In California" cited environmentalist opposition to a proposed solar power project in California. Justin Augustine of the Center for Biological Diversity was quoted as saying, "There is absolutely no reason to go through the best wild lands and wild views of a national forest and private conservancy lands." April Sall of Wildlands Conservancy was quoted as saying, "This is another example of public representatives and the LADWP not understanding the sensitivity of the desert and making uninformed unilateral decisions."[51]

The Alliance For Responsible Energy Policy criticized a proposed solar power project by saying that the project "... will destroy millions of acres of public lands. ... Thousands of miles of unnecessary transmission lines... will be added to our Nation's antiquated and dangerous power grid. Additionally, millions of gallons of scarce desert groundwater will be lost every year... to wash the thousands of mirrors..."[52]

Elden Hughes, who has worked with the Sierra Club, was quoted as saying, "We have worked for decades to protect the desert. ... Let's not trash what we've saved."[53]

See also

References

  1. ^ Renewable Resources in the U.S. Electricity Supply
  2. ^ a b Solar Energy Grew at a Record Pace in 2008
  3. ^ a b c EERE News: EERE Network News
  4. ^ Pepco Energy Services
  5. ^ enXco - Our Energy Knows No Limits
  6. ^ SEGS III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII & IX
  7. ^ Sun Rises on Solar
  8. ^ Press Release
  9. ^ California Electricity Consumption by County in 2005
  10. ^ Large Solar Energy Projects
  11. ^ Baker, David R. (2008-06-12). "Coalinga solar plant would also burn manure". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2008-08-24.
  12. ^ "PG&E Adds 106.8 MW of Renewable Solar Hybrid Power to its Energy Mix; San Joaquin Solar's Technology Combines Solar and Biofuel Sources for Around-the-Clock Clean Energy Production" (Press release). PG&E. 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2008-08-24.
  13. ^ Murphy, Michael G. (2008-07-01). "4 Utilities Seek N.M. Solar Plant; Giant Facility Could Serve 52,000 Homes". Albuquerque Journal.
  14. ^ "State's Four Major Utilities Partner on Solar Project" (Press release). PNM. 2008-06-30. Retrieved 2008-08-24.
  15. ^ http://blog.wired.com/defense/2008/10/army-looks-to-b.html
  16. ^ a b DOE to Invest $17.6 Million in Six Early-Stage Photovoltaic Projects
  17. ^ U.S. Solar Power Manufacturing Growing DramaticallyOctober 29, 2008 retrieved 28 March 2009
  18. ^ Largest U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System Begins Construction at Nellis Air Force Base
  19. ^ Nellis activates Nations largest PV Array
  20. ^ "PG&E Signs Historic 800 MW Photovoltaic Solar Power Agreements With Optisolar and Sunpower". Pacific Gas & Electric. 2008-08-14. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
  21. ^ KCRD Solar Farm
  22. ^ "Californians plan solar mega-farm". Upstream Online. 2007-07-06. Retrieved 2007-07-10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ Cleantech America Plans 80 MW Solar PV Farm for California Renewable Energy Access, 10 July 2007.
  24. ^ Kohl's Activates Largest Rooftop Solar Rollout in U.S. History
  25. ^ 8.22-Megawatt Photovoltaic Solar Plant
  26. ^ Mendota to Host 5 Megawatt Photovoltaic System
  27. ^ a b c d World's largest photovoltaic systems
  28. ^ Destiny USA Plans 3.2 Megawatt Solar Project
  29. ^ "Solar Projects". Las Vegas Valley Water District. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
  30. ^ Exelon - EPURON Solar Energy Center - Fairless Hills, PA
  31. ^ Exelon - Epuron Solar Energy Center
  32. ^ Solar Panel Project
  33. ^ SunPower Partners With HP to Boost Energy Conservation Efforts
  34. ^ A 100 Kilowatt Photovoltaic Array Still Producing After Twenty Years
  35. ^ Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency
  36. ^ Million Solar Roofs Initiative
  37. ^ Are Feed-in Tariffs a Possibility in California?
  38. ^ California Approves Feed-In Tariffs, Rewards Energy Efficiency
  39. ^ Washington State Passes Progressive Renewable Energy Legislation
  40. ^ Report: States Falling Short on Interconnection and Net Metering
  41. ^ Live monitoring
  42. ^ Solar Investment Credit FINALLY Passed! retrieved 13 October 2008.
  43. ^ Federal Solar Tax Credits Retrieved 15 August 2008.
  44. ^ Residential Solar and Fuel Cell Tax Credit Retrieved 15 August 2008.
  45. ^ EERE: Solar Energy Technologies Program Home Page
  46. ^ DOE Announces Three Solar America Showcase Awards January 16, 2009 retrieved 28 March 2009
  47. ^ San Francisco Offers Solar Subsidies
  48. ^ Final changes and logistics of the SF Solar Incentive Program Explained
  49. ^ Renewable Energy Generation Incentive Program
  50. ^ US Congress to debate German-style feed-in tariff
  51. ^ Green Power May Ruin Pristine Land In California, Christian Science Monitor, April 24, 2007.
  52. ^ The Big Solar Invasion
  53. ^ Renewable-energy push puts all eyes on desert, The San Diego Union-Tribune, June 3, 2008.


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