Indo-Aryan languages

Indo-Aryan
Indic
Geographic distribution	South Asia
Linguistic classification	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan
Proto-language	Proto-Indo-Aryan
Subdivisions	Dardic Northern Zone Northwestern Zone Western Zone Central Zone Eastern Zone Southern Zone (the W, C, and E zones all include languages traditionally counted as dialects of Hindi)
ISO 639-2 / 5	inc
Linguasphere	59= (phylozone)
Glottolog	indo1321
1978 map showing geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan languages. (Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.) Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.   Central   Dardic   Eastern   Northern   Northwestern   Southern   Western

The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages are the dominant language family of the Indian subcontinent. They constitute a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan speakers form about one-half of all Indo-European speakers (about 1.5 of 3 billion), and more than half of all Indo-European languages recognized by Ethnologue. While the languages are primarily spoken in South Asia, pockets of Indo-Aryan languages are found to be spoken in Europe and the Middle East.

The largest in terms of speakers are Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu, about 329 million), Bengali (242 million), Punjabi (about 100 million), and other languages, with a 2005 estimate placing the total number of native speakers at nearly 900 million.

History

Proto-Indo-Aryan

Main article: Proto-Indo-Aryan language

Proto-Indo-Aryan, or sometimes Proto-Indic, is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the Proto-Indo-Aryans. Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan (1500–300 BCE) which is directly attested as Vedic and Mitanni-Aryan. Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of archaic features lost in Vedic.

Indian subcontinent

See also: Linguistic history of the Indian subcontinent

• Proto-Indo-Aryan (reconstructed)
• Old Indo-Aryan (ca. 1500–300 BCE)
  • early Old Indo-Aryan: Vedic Sanskrit (1500 to 500 BCE)
  • late Old Indo-Aryan: Epic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit (500 to 300 BCE)
• Middle Indo-Aryan or Prakrits, Old Odia (ca. 300 BCE to 1500 CE) [see]
• Early Modern Indo-Aryan (Late Medieval India)
  • early Dakkhini and emergence of Khariboli

Old Indo-Aryan

The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic and Mitanni-Aryan. Vedic has been used in the ancient preserved religious hymns, the foundational canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. Mitanni-Aryan is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda, but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords. The language of the Vedas - commonly referred to as "Vedic Sanskrit" by modern scholars - is only marginally different from reconstructed Proto-Indo-Aryan.

From the Vedic, "Sanskrit" (literally "put together", meaning perfected or elaborated) developed as the prestige language of culture, science and religion, as well as the court, theatre, etc. Sanskrit is, by convention, referred to by modern scholars as 'Classical Sanskrit' in contradistinction to the so-called 'Vedic Sanskrit', which is largely intelligible to Sanskrit speakers.

Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)

Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardha Magadhi, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects. "Apabhramsa" is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Sravakachar of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.

The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Turco-Mongol Mughal empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoptation of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian, Arabic, and Turkic elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects.

The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali and Hindustani; others include Sindhi, Gujarati, Odia, Marathi, and Punjabi.

New Indo-Aryan

Dialect continuum

The Indo-Aryan languages of Northern India and Pakistan form a dialect continuum. What is called "Hindi" in India is frequently Standard Hindi, the Sanskrit-ized version of the colloquial Hindustani spoken in the Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from Bihar to Rajasthan. The Indo-Aryan prakrits also gave rise to languages like Sindhi, Gujarati, Assamese, Bengali, Odia, Nepali, Marathi, and Punjabi, which are not considered to be part of this dialect continuum.

Hindustani

Main articles: Hindustani language and History of Hindustani

In the Western Hindi-speaking areas, for a long time the prestige dialect was Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by the Khariboli-based Hindustani. Hindustani was strongly influenced by Sanskrit and Persian, with these influences leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language. This state of affairs continued until the division of the British Indian Empire in 1947, when Hindi became the official language in India and Urdu became official in Pakistan. Despite the different script the fundamental grammar remains identical, the difference is more sociolinguistic than purely linguistic. Today it is widely understood/spoken as a second or third language throughout South Asia and one of the most widely known languages in the world in terms of number of speakers.

Mitanni-Aryan

Main article: Mitanni-Aryan

Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggest that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general

Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha, ≈ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, Heidelberg, 1986–2000; Vol. II:358).

Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastr "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736).

Romani, Lomavren, and Domari languages

Domari

Main article: Domari language

Domari is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by older Dom people scattered across the Middle East and North Africa. The language is reported to be spoken as far north as Azerbaijan and as far south as central Sudan, in Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Iraq, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria and Lebanon. Based on the systematicity of sound changes, we know with a fair degree of certainty that the names Domari and Romani derive from the Indo-Aryan word ḍom.

Lomavren

Main article: Lomavren language

Lomavren is a nearly extinct mixed language, spoken by the Lom people, that arose from language contact between a language related to Romani and Domari and the Armenian language.

Romani

Main article: Romani language

The Romani language is usually included in the Western Indo-Aryan languages. Romani — spoken mainly in various parts of Europe — is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further proof that Romani originated in the Central region, then migrated to the Northwest.

There are no known historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language.

Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be classed as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000.

The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just a two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today.

It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century. /ref>

Classification

Language region map of India, most commonly spoken first language. Right click to see image summary giving 'List of percentage of people speaking as L1'.

There can be no definitive enumeration of Indic languages because their dialects merge into one another. The major ones are illustrated here; for the details, see the dedicated articles.

The classification follows Masica (1991) and Kausen (2006).

Dardic

Main article: Dardic languages

Kashmiri - 5.6 million speakers

Shina

• Shina - 500,000 speakers
• Brokskat - 10,000 speakers
• Domaaki - 340 speakers
• Kundal Shahi - 700 speakers
• Kalkoti - 6,000 speakers
• Ushoji - 2,000 speakers
• Palula - 10,000 speakers
• Savi - 3,000 speakers

Pashayi - 400,000 speakers

Kunar

• Dameli - 5,000 speakers
• Gawar-Bati - 9,500 speakers
• Nangalami - 5,000 speakers
• Shumashti - 1,000 speakers

Chitral

• Kalasha - 5,000 speakers
• Khowar - 290,000 speakers

Kohistani

• Maiya - 200,000 speakers
• Bateri - 29,000
• Chilisso - 1,000 speakers
• Gowro - 200 speakers
• Kalami - 100,000 speakers
• Tirahi - 100 speakers
• Torwali - 80,000 speakers
• Wotapuri-Katarqalai †

Northern Zone

Main article: Pahari languages

Central Pahari

• Garhwali - 2.9 million speakers
• Kumaoni - 2.4 million speakers

Eastern Pahari

• Nepali - 17 million speakers
• Jumli - 850
• Palpa †

Northwestern Zone

Dogri-Kangri (Western Pahari)

• Dogri - 4 million speakers
• Kangri - 1.1 million speakers
• Mandeali - 1.7 million
• Jaunsari - 100,000 speakers
• Kullu - 110,000
• Pahari Kinnauri - 6,300 speakers
• Mahasu Pahari - 1 million speakers
• Hinduri - 30,000 speakers
• Sirmauri - 400,000 speakers

Punjabi

• Punjabi - 122 million speakers
• Doabi
• Lahnda
  • Saraiki - 20 million speakers
  • Hindko - 3.7 million speakers
  • Jakati †
  • Pothwari - 2.5 million speakers
• Majhi
• Malwai

Sindhi

• Sindhi - 25 million speakers
• Jadgali - 25,000 speakers
• Kutchi - 873,000 speakers
• Luwati - 5,000 speakers
• Memoni

Western Zone

Ethnologue lists the following languages under the Western Zone that are not already covered in other subgroups:

Rajasthani

• Marwari - 22 million speakers
• Rajasthani proper - 20 million speakers
• Mewati - 3 million speakers
• Malvi - 5.6 million speakers
• Dhundari - 9.6 million speakers
• Harauti - 4.7 million speakers
• Mewari - 5.1 million speakers
• Shekhawati - 3 million speakers
• Bagri - 2.1 million speakers
• Dhatki - 150,000 speakers

Gujarati

• Gujarati - 49 million speakers
• Jandavra - 5,000 speakers
• Sourashtra - 190,000 speakers
• Aer - 100 speakers
• Vaghri - 10,000 speakers
• Vasavi - 1.2 million speakers
• Koli - 1.4 million speakers
  • Parkari Koli - 250,000 speakers
  • Kachi Koli - 500,000 speakers
  • Wardiyara Koli - 542,000 speakers

Bhil

• Northern Bhil
  • Bauria - 27,000 speakers
  • Bhilori - 200,000 speakers
  • Magari
• Central Bhil
  • Bhili proper - 3.5 million speakers
  • Bhilali - 1.1 million speakers
  • Chodri - 210,000 speakers
  • Dhodia - 170,000 speakers
  • Dhanki - 140,000 speakers
  • Dubli - 250,000 speakers
• Bareli
  • Palya Bareli - 10,000 speakers
  • Pauri Bareli - 640,000 speakers
  • Rathwi Bareli - 100,000 speakers
  • Pardhi - 49,000 speakers
• Kalto - 15,000 speakers

Khandeshi - 1.9 million speakers

Domari - 4 million speakers

Romani

• Northern Romani
  • Sinte Romani - 200,000 speakers
  • Carpathian Romani - 160,000 speakers
  • Finnish Kalo - 12,000 speakers
  • Baltic Romani - 35,000 speakers
• Balkan Romani - 560,000 speakers
• Vlax Romani - 540,000 speakers

Central Zone (Madhya or Hindi)

Indic, Central Zone

Main article: Hindi languages

Parya - 4,000 speakers

Western Hindi

• Hindustani (including Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu) - 329 million speakers
• Braj - 21 million speakers
• Haryanvi - 8 million speakers
• Bundeli - 3.1 million speakers
• Kannauji - 9.5 million speakers

Eastern Hindi

• Awadhi - 3.5 million speakers
  • Fiji Hindi - 460,000 speakers
• Bagheli - 8.4 million speakers
• Chhattisgarhi - 24 million speakers

Parya historically belonged to the Central Zone but lost intelligibility with other languages of the group due to geographic distance and numerous grammatical and lexical innovations.

Eastern Zone

These languages derive from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa Prakrit. The most widely-spoken languages in this family are Bengali with 250 million speakers, Bhojpuri with 40 million speakers, and Odia with 33 million speakers. The Eastern Nagari script is the most widely-used script, and is used for the Bengali-Assamese languages, and for Maithili and Angika which use the Tirhuta and Anga Lipi variations of the script respectively. The Kaithi script was once a commonly used script used for the Bhojpuri language and Magahi language but has now been replaced by the Devanagari script. The Odia script is used for the Odia language , Sylheti Nagari script (closely related to the Kaithi script) is used for Sylheti and Hanifi script is used for the Rohingya language (along with Perso-Arabic, Latin and Burmese script).

Bihari

• Bhojpuri - 40 million speakers
  • Fiji Hindi - 460,000 speakers
  • Caribbean Hindustani - 166,000 speakers
• Magahi/मगही - 14 million speakers
• Maithili/মৈথিলি - 33.9 million speakers
• Angika/অঙ্গিকা - 743,000 speakers

Tharu - 1.9 million speakers

Odia (ଓଡ଼ିଆ) - 33 million speakers

Halbic

• Halbi - 600,000 speakers
• Bhatri - 220,000 speakers
• Kamar - 40,000 speakers
• Mirgan - 60,000 speakers
• Nahari - 20,000 speakers

Bengali–Assamese

• Bengali/বাংলা - 268 million speakers
• Assamese/অসমীয়া - 24 million speakers
• Bishnupriya Manipuri (বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মনিপুরী) - 120,000 speakers
• Chakma (𑄌𑄋𑄴𑄟𑄳𑄦) - 330,000 speakers
• Sylheti (ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ/ছিলটি) - 11 million speakers
• Chittagonian (চাঁটগাঁইয়া) - 16 million speakers
• Rohingya/Ruáingga - 1.8 million speakers
• KRNB (কোচ ৰাজবংশী/রংপুরী/কমতা)

Southern Zone languages

This group of languages developed from Maharashtri Prakrit. It is not clear if Dakhini (Deccani, Southern Urdu) is part of Hindustani along with Standard Urdu, or a separate Persian-influenced development from Marathi.

Marathi-Konkani

• Marathi - 73 million speakers
• Phudagi - 1,000 speakers
• Kadodi
• Konkani - 7.4 million speakers
• Katkari - 12,000 speakers
• Kukna - 110,000 speakers
• Varli - 600,000 speakers
• Maharashtrian Konkani - 2.4 million speakers

Insular Indic

• Sinhalese - 16 million
• Maldivian - 340,000 speakers
  • Mahl - 10,000 speakers

The Insular Indic languages share several characteristics that set them apart significantly from the continental languages.

Unclassified

The following languages are related to each other, but otherwise unclassified within Indo-Aryan:

Kuswaric

• Danwar - 46,000 speakers
• Bote-Darai - 20,000 speakers

Chinali–Lahul Lohar

• Chinali - 750 speakers
• Lahul Lohar - 750 speakers

The following other poorly attested languages are listed as unclassified within the Indo-Aryan family by Ethnologue 17:

• Kanjari (Punjabi?), Od (Marathi?), Vaagri Booli, Andh, Kumhali (perhaps in Central).

Also Degaru, Mina, Bhalay and Gowlan are all names for the Gowli caste, rather than a language.

Kholosi

The Kholosi language is a more recently discovered Indo-Aryan language spoken in two villages in southern Iran and remains currently unclassified.

Phonology

Consonants

Stop positions

The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five points of articulation: labial, dental, "retroflex", palatal, and velar, which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be alveolar or postalveolar, and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatals stops have affricated release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as [tʃ], Masica (1991:94) claims [cʃ] to be a more accurate rendering.

Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates [ts] instead of palatal, though some among them retain [tʃ] in certain positions: before front vowels (esp. /i/), before /j/, or when geminated. Alveolar as an additional point of articulation occurs in Marathi and Konkani where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments (*t̪ɾ, t̪ > /tʃ/), and in Kashmiri. The addition of a retroflex affricate to this in some Dardic languages maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed /q/), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > /s/, which has happened in Assamese, Chittagonian, Sinhala (though there have been other sources of a secondary /ts/), and Southern Mewari.

Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and Romany, which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which may lose its labial and velar articulations through spirantization in many positions (> [f, x]).

Stop series	Language(s)
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /tʃ/, /k/	Hindi, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Bihari, Maithili, Sinhala, Odia, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari)
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /k/	Nepali, dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri)
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /k/	Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /tʂ/, /k/	Shina, Bashkarik, Gawarbati, Phalura, Kalasha, Khowar, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /k/	Rajasthani's S. Mewari
/p/, /t̪/, /t/, /ts/, /tɕ/, /k/	E. and N. dialects of Bengali (Dhaka, Mymensing, Rajshahi)
/p/, /t/, /k/	Assamese
/p/, /t/, /tʃ/, /k/	Romani
/t̪/, /t/	Chittagonian

Nasals

Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal-stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurasthtri, and Sindhi have been analyzed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal + stop cluster ([ɲj] > [ɲ] and [ŋɡ] > [ŋ]), though there are other sources as well.

Charts

The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, as presented in Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical.

Romani p t (ts) tʃ k pʲ tʲ kʲ b d (dz) dʒ ɡ bʲ dʲ ɡʲ pʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰ m n nʲ (f) s ʃ x (fʲ) sʲ v (z) ʒ ɦ vʲ zʲ ɾ l lʲ j	Shina p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ tʂ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɖʐ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ tʂʰ kʰ m n ɳ ɲ ŋ (f) s ʂ ɕ z ʐ ʑ ɦ ɾ l ɽ w j	Kashmiri p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ k pʲ t̪ʲ ʈʲ tsʲ kʲ b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ bʲ d̪ʲ ɖʲ ɡʲ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ kʰ pʲʰ t̪ʲʰ ʈʲʰ tsʲʰ kʲʰ m n ɲ mʲ nʲ s ʃ sʲ z ɦ zʲ ɦʲ ɾ l ɾʲ lʲ w j wʲ
Saraiki p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ m n ɳ ɲ ŋ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s (ʃ) (x) (z) (ɣ) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ w j wʱ	Punjabi p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ m n ɳ [ɲ ŋ (f) s ʃ (z) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɭ [w] [j]	Nepali p t̪ ʈ ts k b d̪ ɖ dz ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ mʱ nʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɾʱ lʱ [w] [j]	Assamese p t k b d ɡ pʰ tʰ kʰ bʱ dʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ s x z ɦ ɹ l [w]
Sindhi p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ m n ɳ ɲ ŋ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s (ʃ) (x) (z) (ɣ) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ w j wʱ	Marwari p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ̪ ɗ ɠ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ s ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɭ w j wʱ	Hindustani p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n (f) s (ʃ) (z) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɽʱ ([w]) ([j])	Assamese p t k b d g pʰ tʰ kʰ bʱ dʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ s x z ɦ ɹ l [w]
Bengali p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɽ [w] [j]	Gujarati p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɭ ɾʱ lʱ w j	Marathi p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dz dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɭ ɾʱ lʱ w j wʱ	Odia p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ s ɦ ɾ l [ɽ] ɭ [ɽʱ] [w] [j]	Sinhala p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ ᵐb ⁿ̪d̪ ᶯɖ ᵑɡ m n ɲ ŋ s ɦ ɾ l w j

Language and dialect

In the context of South Asia, the choice between the appellations "language" and "dialect" is a difficult one, and any distinction made using these terms is obscured by their ambiguity. In one general colloquial sense, a language is a "developed" dialect: one that is standardised, has a written tradition and enjoys social prestige. As there are degrees of development, the boundary between a language and a dialect thus defined is not clear-cut, and there is a large middle ground where assignment is contestable. There is a second meaning of these terms, in which the distinction is drawn on the basis of linguistic similarity. Though seemingly a "proper" linguistics sense of the terms, it is still problematic: methods that have been proposed for quantifying difference (for example, based on mutual intelligibility) have not been seriously applied in practice; and any relationship established in this framework is relative.

Language comparison chart

English	Sanskrit	Gujarati	Rajasthani	Marathi	Hindustani	Punjabi	Sindhi	Bengali	Sylheti	Kashmiri	Konkani	Bhojpuri	Odia	Sambalpuri Odia	Assamese	Maithili	Sinhala	Nepali	Pali	Romani	Saraiki
beautiful	sundara	sundar	futaro	sundar	sundar	sohnā	suhɳā	šundor,sudarshon	shundor	sondar	chand, sundar	suhnar, khapsoorat	sundara	sundar	dhuniya, xundôr	sundar	sonduru, sundara, lassana	sundar	sundaro	shukar	sohnra
blood	rakta, loha, lohita, shoNita	lohi, khoon, rakt	ragat	rakta	khūn, rakta, lahū	lahū, ratt	ratu	rokto, lohit, lohu	roxto, lou	ratth	rakt, ragat	khūn, lahū	rakta, Lohu, Rudhira	Rakat, Ruder	tez	shonit	le, rudiraya, ruhiru	ragat	ratta	rat	laho, rat
bread	rotika, polika	paũ, roṭlā	falko	chapāti, poli, bhākarī	chapātī, roṭī	roṭi	pʰulko, maanī	(pau-)ro̊ŧi	ruti	tçhot	roti, rot, polo, poli, chapati, pav	roṭī	pauruṭi	Ruti, Paanruti	pauruti, ruti	roṭi, sohāri	paan, roti	roṭī, paũroṭi,		manro	roti, ma(n)ri, dhodha
bring	anayati	lā-v	lajyo	ān-	lā-	lyā	ɖe	an, an-	an-	ann	haad	lāv-	Aanantu, Aana, Aane	Aanan, Aana, Aan	an-	ān	ghenna	lyaunu		anel	ghin aa, Lai aa
brother	bhrātṛ, bandhu, sahodara	bhāi	beero, bhayo, veer	bhau, bandhu	bhāī	prā, pāh	bʱau	bhai, bhaiya	bai, baiya	boéy	bhav, bhau	bhāī, bhaīyā	bhai, bhaina	Bhe, Dada	bhai (bhaiti, bhayek), dada, kaka/kokai	bhé, bhaīyā	sahodarayā, bæyā	bhāi (younger) dāi, dāju, dādā, dājai (elder		phral	bhrā, vīr, lala
come	āgachchhati	āv-	av-	yē	ā-	ā, āo, ājā	ach	aš-	a-	vall	yo, ye	āv-	āsantu, ās-, ā-	āsun, Aa	ah-	abhin,āu	enna, ena	āunu	āgachcha	āvel	āo
cry	roditi, rauti, krandati	raḍ-	rodno, roosno	raḍ-	rō-	rō-	rōaɳ	kãd, kand-, rodan kor-, kann	xand-, xañ-	wódun	rad-	ro-	kanda, Krandana	kaandna	kand-	kan-	aňdanawa, haňdanawa	runu	rodanam	rovel	rovanra
dark	andhaḥkāra	andhārũ	gairo	andhār, kāḷokh	andhera	hanerā	ôndʱah	ondhokar, ãdhar	andair	anyí-got	andhakar, andhar, kalok	anhār, anhera	andhāra, Andhakara	andhār	andhar, ôndhôkar	anhār	aňduru, andhakara, kaluwara	andhyaro, andhakāra	andhakaaro	kalo	andhara
daughter	duhitṛ, putrī	chhokḍi	sagi, sago, chori	lek, mulagī, poragī	beṭi	dʱī	dʱī	meye, beṭi	furi, zi	koor	dhuv	dhiyā, beṭi, chhori, bitiya	jhiya	jhi, Tukil	ziyôri, zi (ziyek)	dhiā	duva, dū, diyaniya	chhori		chhai	Dhee
day	divasa, dina	divas	dina, din	divas, din	din	din, dihara	ɖīhn	din, diboš	din	dóh	dis, din, divas	din	dina, Dibasa	Din	din	din	dinaya, dawasa	din		dives	denh, jehara
do	kṛ-, karoti	kar-	kar-	kar-	kar-	kar-	kar-	kor-	xor-	kar	kor	kar-	kara-	kar-	kôr-	kôr	karanna	garnu		kerel	karo
door	dvāra, kapāṭa	darvāzo, kerel	kivand	dār, darvāzā	darvāzā, kavad	būha, dar, darvāza	darvāzo	dorja, dur	dorza, doroza	darwaaz, dār, daer ("window")	daar, kavad, bagilu	darvājā, kevadi	daraja, Dwara, kabata	Kapat, Dwar	duwar, dôrza	kebār	dora, dwāraya	dhoka		vudar	buha, dar
die	mṛ-, glah-	mar-	mar-	mar-	mar-, mar jā-	mar-, mar ja-	mar-	mor-, more ja-	mor-, mori za-	marun	mar	mu, mar ja	mar-	mar-	môr-, môri za-	môr	maranaya, märena	marnu		merel	marna
egg	aṇḍa, ḍimba	iṇḍũ	ando	aṇḍa	anḍā	aṇḍā	aṇɖo, bedo	đim	dim, enda, boida	thool	ande, motto	anḍā	anḍā, ḍimba	anḍā, ḍim, Gaar	kôni	anḍā	bittharaya, biju	aṇḍā		anro	anda, aana
salt	kṣāra, sala, lavaṇa	mithu	loon	lavan/meeth	namak	lūn/nūn namak	lūn	lobon, nun	lobon, nun, nimox	noon	mith, loni	noon/namak	labana, Luna	Noon	nimôkh, nun, lôbôn	nūn	lunu	nun	khar/lavan	lon	loon/noon
earth	pṛthvi, mahi, bhuvana, dharitrī	pruthvi	dharti, basudhara	pruthvi, dharani	prithvī, dhartī, zamīn	dhartī	dhartī	prithibi, duniya, dhora	duniai, dunya, zomin	daertī (voiced-aspirated /dh/ > /d/)	dhartari, zamin, bhui, pruthvi	jamīn, pirthvi	pruthibi, Dhara, Dhartiri, Dharani	Pruthi, Dharni	prithiwi		pruthuvi, polova, bhoomi, bima	prithivi		phuv	zameen, dharti
eye	netra, lochna, akshi, chakshu	āñkh	aankharli	ḍoḷā, netra	āñkh	akh	akh	chokh, āñkhi, noyon	souk	aéchh	dolo	āñkh	ākhi	ayenk	sôku	ainkh	äsa, akshi, neth, nuwan	ānkhā		yakh	akh
father	pitṛ, janaka, tāta	bāp	baap, kaako	pitā, vaḍil, bāba	bāp	piyō, pite, pita	piu, baba	baba, abba, bap	abba, abbu, baba, baf	mol, bab	bapuy, anna, aan	bāp, bābuji, pitāji	bāpa, bābā	bāpā, Bua	dêuta, bap (bapek)	bābū	piyā, thātthā	buwā, bāu, pitā		dad	abbā, piyoo
fear	bhaya, bhīti, traasa	bik, ḍar	bhau	bhītī, bhaya, ghābar-	ḍar, ghabrāhat	ḍar, bhau	ɖapu	bhoy, đor	dor	dar	bhay	ḍar	ḍara, Bhaya	ḍar, Bhee	bhoy	bhay	baya, biya, bhīthiya	dar		dar, trash	darr
finger	añguli, añguliyaka	āñgḷi	aangli	bōt	anguli, ungli	ungal, ungli	āngur	angul, onguli	angul	ungij	bot, aangal	anguri	ānguthi	āngthi	aŋuli	āngur	äňgili	aunlā		angusht	ungil
fire	agni, bhujyu	agni, jvaḷa	baste	āg, agni, jāḷ, vistava	āg	agg	bāh	agoon	agun	agénn, nār	ujo (from Sanskrit udyota), aag, agni	āgh	agni, nia	Joye, nia	zui	āig	agni, gini, gindara	āgo	manta	yag	bhaa
fish	matsya	māchhli	maachhali	māsā	machhlī	machhī	machhī	mach	maas	gāda	nuste, masoli, jalkay	machhri	māchha	māch	mass	māch	masun, mathsya, mālu	māchā		machho	machhey
food	bhojana, khadati, anna, posha(Na), āhāra, etc.	anna, khorāk, poshaṇ	khaano, lyojibhaya	jēvana, bhojan, anna, āhār	khānā, bhojan	khānā	khādho, ann, māni	khabar, khani	xani	khyann	jevan, anna, khana	khana, bhojan	khādya, bhojana, āhāra	āhāra, Khed, Bhojan	ahar, khaiddyô, khuwa bostu	khenāi	āhāra, kæma, bojun, bhojana	khānā, anna, āhār		xal	roti-tukkur, khanra
go	gachchhati, yāti	jā-	jā-	jā-	jā-	jā-	vaɲ	ja-	za-	gatçh	vach (from Vedic Ach)	jā	jāntu, Ja-	jāun, Ja-	zu-, za-	jāhin	yanna, yana	janu, jā		jal	vanj
god	deva, īśvara, parmeśvara, devata, bhagavān, prabhu	parmeshvar, dev, bhagvān	isar, bavji, dai	dev, parmeshwar, ishwar	bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, khudā	pagvān, rab, ishwar, parmesar	bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, khudā, sāin, mālik	rob, khoda	rob, xuda	dai, divta, bagvān, parmeeshar	dev, sarvesvar	bhagvān, mālik, iswar, daiva, daiya	bhagabāna, ṭhākura, diyan	Maphru, bhagbān, Devta,	dewôta, bhôgôwan	bhagvān	devi, dēvathāvā	bhagawān, deutā, ishwor		devel	rab, mālik
good	shobhna, uttama	sārũ	chokho	chāngle, chhān, uttama	achhā	changa	suʈʰo	bhalo	bala	rut (moral "good"), jān (physical "good")	bare, chand, layak	badhiya, changa, achha	bhāla	Bane, bhāl	bhal	neek, neeman	hoňdhai, hoňda	raamro, asal		lachho, mishto	changa
grass	tṛṇa, kusha	ghāsthāro	chaaro	gavata	ghās	ghāh	ghãhu	ghaš	gash, gah	dramunn	tan (from Prakrit tiṇa, Sanskrit tṛṇa)	ghās	ghāsa	Jhaar, ghāns	ghãh	ghās, duib	thana, thruna	ghaas, dubo		char	ghā
hand	hasta	hāth	haat	hāt	hāth	hath	hatʰu	haat	aat	atth	haat	hāth	hāta	hāt, Bahu	hat	hāth	atha, hasthaya	hāt		vast	hat
head	śira, mastaka, kapāla, mūrdhā	māthũ	sir, maatha	ḍoke, munḍake, mastaka, tāḷke	sir, shīsh	sir, sīs	matʰo	matha, shir	matha	kalla	maate (from Prakrit matthao, Sanskrit Mastaka)	sīr, šīs, kapār	munḍa	Mud	mur, matha	māth, mūri	oluwa, sirasa, hisa	tauko, seer		shero	ser
heart	hrdaya	hruday	hivado, kaljo	hruday, kāḷij	dil, hriday, antar	dil, riday	dil	dil, hridoy, ontor	dil, ontor	ryeda	Hadde, Hardey (From Sanskrit Hrdaya), Hrdaya	dil, hivara, jiyara	hrudaya	hurud	hridoy, hiya		hada, hardaya, hadawatha	hridaya, mutu		ilo	Dil
horse	ashva, ghotaka, hayi, turanga	ghoḍũ	ghodo	ghoda	ghoṛa	koṛa	ghoɽʱo	ghoɍa	ghuɍa	gur	ghodo	ghoṛa	ghoda	ghoda	ghůra	ghodā	ashvaya, thuranga	ghodā		khoro, grast	ghora
house	gṛha, alaya	ghar	ghar, taaparo	ghar	kār	ghôr	ɡʱar, jaɡʱah	ghor	ghor	ghar	ghar	ghar	ghara, Gruha	ghar	ghôr	ghôr, gedhara, gruha	gruhaya, geya, gedara, niwasa	ghar, griha	kher	ghar
hunger	bubuksha, kshudhā	bhukh	bhukh	bhūk	bhūkh	pukh	bhūkhayal	bhukh, khida	bhuk	bo'tchh	bhuk	bhūkh	bhoka	bhok	bhuk	bhūkh	kusagini, badagini	bhok		bokh	bhuk
language	bhāshā, vāNī	bhāshā	boli, zaban	bhāshā	bhāshā, zabān, baat	boli, zabān, pasha	ɓoli, bhasha, zabān	bhaša	basha, zobān, maat	booyl, zabān	bhasha, bhas	bhākhā, boli, jubaan	bhāsā	bhāsā	bhaxa	bhāshā	bhashawa, basa	bhāshā		chhib	boli, zaban
laugh (v.)	hāsa, smera	has-	has-	hās-	hãs-	hassa	kʰillu	haš, hãš	ash-	assun	has-	has-	hãs-	hās-	hãh-	hôs	hina, sinaha, sina	hasnu	asal	khill
life	jivana, jani	jivan, jindagi	bhav	jīvan, jīv	jīvan, zindagī	jindrī, jīvan, jind	zindagī	ɉibon, zindegi	zibon, zindegi	zoo, zindagayn	jivit, jivan	jinigi	jibana, prāna	jiban	ziwôn	jiban	jeevithe, jivana	jeewan, jindagi		jivipen	zindgey
moon	chandramā, soma, māsa	chandra, chāndo	chaan, chando	chandra	chandramā, chandā, chānd	chann, chānd	chanɖ	cãd, condro, chand	sand	tçandram	chandra, chandrim	channa, channarma, mah	chandra, Janha	Jan, JanhaMamu	zunbai, zun, sôndrô	jonhi, chan	chandra, saňdu, haňda	chandramā, juun		chhon	chandr
mother	janani, mātṛ	mā, bā	mai, ma	āi, māi	mā	mā, mata, mai	māo, amma	ma, amma, ammu	ma, amma, ammu	maeyj	amma, mai	matāri, māi, amma	mā, bou	mā	ai, ma	mé	mawa, amma, matha, mæni	āmā, muwā, mumā, mātā		dai	amma, maa
mouth	ās, mukha	moḍhũ, mukha	moondo	tond, mukha	mūñh	mūñh, mukh	mūñh, vāt	mukh	muk	mūñh	tond, mukh	mūñh	mukha, Paati	Tund, Paati	mukh	mūh	mukha, kata	mukh, thutuno
name	nāma	nām	naam	nāv	nām	nā	nālo	nam	naam	naav	naav	nā, nām	nāma, nā	nā	nam	nām	nama, nāmaya	nām		nav	nā
night	raatri, rajani, nishā, naktam, etc.	rāt, rātri, nishā	raati, raat	rātra	rāt, rātri, nishā	rāt	rāt	rat, ratri, nishi	rait, ratri, shob	raath	raat, ratri	rāt	rāti, Ratri, Nishi	Rayet	rati	rāit	rāthriya, ræ	raati, raat, raatri			raat
open	uttana, udhatita	khullũ	khulyuda	ughad, khol	khulā	khulla, khol	khol	khulā	kulā	khol	ughad, ukt-, udhaar	khullā	kholā	kholā	khula	khujal	harinna	khulla		rat	khulla
peace	shānti	shānti, shāntatā	shaanti	shānti	shānti, aman	shānti, aman, sakūn	shānti, aman, sukoon	šanti	shanti	aman, shaenti	shanti, santatay	sānti-sakoon, aman	sānti	sānti	xanti	shānti	sāmaya, shāntiya	shaanti		kotor	aman, sakoon
place	stapana, sthala, bhu, sthāna	jagyā, sthaļ	jageh	sthān, sthal, jāga	sthān, jagah	thāñ, asthān	jaɠah, thāñ	ɉaega, sthan, zomin	zega, zaga, zomin	jaay	jaag, thal	jagah	jāgā	jāgā	thai	tthām	sthanaya, thäna	thaaun, jagga, sthal		than	jaga
queen	rāni, rājpatni	rāṇi, madhurāṇi	raani	rāni, rājmātā	rāni, malkā	rāni, malka	rāɳi	rani	rani	māhraeny (also used for "newly-wed bride")	raani	rāni, begam	rāṇi	rāṇi	rani	rāni	räjina, dēvi, bisawa	rāni		rani, thagarni	ranri, malka
read	pathati, vachana	vānch-	baanch-	vāch-	paṛh-	paṛh-	paɽʱ-	poṛh-	foṛh-	parun	vajji/vaach	paṛh-	paḍh-	paḍdh-	pôrh-	pôdh	kiyawanna	padh-		chaduvu	parhnra, parh
rest	vishrāma	ārām	aaraam	vishrānti	ārām	arām	ārām	aram, bišrom	araam	araam	aaraam	rām	ārām, bisrām	thāk, bisrām	aram, zirôni	arām	vishrāma, viwēka	ārām, bishrām			Araam
say	vadati, braviti, brūté,	bōl-	bōl-	bōl-, mhaṇ-, sāng-	bōl, ākh, keh	bôl-, keh	chao	bol-, koh-	xo-	bōl-	mhan, sang, ulay	bol-, kah-	kũhantu, Kuha, Kah-	Kahan, kaha, kah	kô	bāj	pawasanna, kiyanna	bhannu, bolnu		phenel	bol, aakh
sister	svasṛ, bhagini	bêhn	bain, bayee, beeri	bhaginī, bahīṇ	behn	pēn	bēɳ	bon, apa, didi	boin, afa	baeynn	bhaini	bahin, didi, didiya	bhauṇi	bahen	bhônti, bhôni	bôhin	sahodariya	bahini, didi		phen	bheinr
small	alpa, laghu, kanishtha, kshudra	nāhnũ	nāhnũ	lahān, laghu	chhoṭā	nikka, chhoṭā	nanɖo	cho̊ŧo	huru	lokutt, nyika, pyoonth	Saan	chhoṭ, nanhi	choṭa, sana	chot, alap, tike	xôru, suti (for short)	chhot	chuti, podi, kudā	saano, chhoto		tikno, xurdo	nikka, chauta
son	sunu, putra	chhokḍo	choora, betoo	mulgā, porgā	bēṭā	put, puttar	puʈ	chele, put, bēṭā	fua, fut, bēṭā	nyechu, pothur	put	putt/chhora	pua	Po, Pila	put (putek)	pūt	puthra, puthā, puthu	chhora, putra		chhavo	putr
soul	ātmā, atasa	ātmā	aatma	ātmā	ātmā, rūh	ātmā, rūh	ātmā, rūh	ātmā, rūh	ruh	āthmā	atma, jeev	rūh	ātmā	ātmā	atma	ātmā	ātmā	ātmā		di	rooh
sun	sūrya	sūraj, sūrya	suraj	sūrya	sūrya, sūraj	sūraj	siju	šurɉo	surzo, shurzo	siri	surya	sūraj	sūrjya	sūrjya	beli	beri, sūrj	ira, hiru, sūrya	sūrya, ghām		kham	sijh
ten	dasha	das	das	dahā	das	das, daha	ɖaha	doš	dosh	duh	dha	das	dasa	das	dôh	dôs	dahaya, dasa	das		desh	dah
three	trī, trayah, trīNi (neut. nom. pl.)	traṇ	tiin	tīn	tīn	tin, traiy	ʈeh	tin	teen	t're	teen	tīn	tini	tīn	tini	tīn	thuna	tin		trin	trai
village	grāma	gāñḍu	gaaon, dhaani	gāv, khēda	gāoñ	pinḍ, gāñ	ɠoʈʰ	gram, ga	gau	gām	ganv	gāoñ-dehāt, jageer	gān, grāma	gān	gaû	gām	gama, gramaya	gaun	gav	dehat, jhoauk, vasti
want	ichhati, kankshati, amati, apekshati	joi-	chai-	pāhijē, havē	chāh-	chāh-	kʰap, chāh-	cha-	sa-, lag-	yatshun, kan'tchun	jaay-	chāh-	Chanunchi, Loduchi	Chounchen	bisar-, lag-, khuz-	chāhi	oone, awashyayi	chāhanā, ichhya		kamel, mangel	chah
water	pāniya, jala	pāṇi	paani	pāṇi	pāni, jal	pāni, jal	pāṇi	pani, ɉol	fani	poyn, zal (used for "urine" only)	udak, uda, pani, jal	pāni	pāṇi, jala	pāyeṇ	pani	pain	jalaya, wathura, pän	pāni, jal		pani	panri
when	kada, ched	kyahre	kadine	kēvhā, kadhee	kab	kad, kadoñ	kaɖahn	kokhon, kobe	kumbala, khobe	karr	kedna, kenna	kab	kebe	Ketebele, kebe	ketiya	kakhan, kahiyé	kawadhāda, kedinada	kahile		kana	kadanr
wind	pavana, vāyu, vātā	havā, pavan	havaa	vāra	havā, pavan	havā, paun. vah	havā	bataš, haoa	batash	tshath, hava	vaar	hāvā	pabana	Dhuka, haba, paban	bôtãh	basāt	hulan, sulan, pavana, nala	hāwā, batās		balval	hava, phook
wolf	vrka, shvaka	shiyāl	bheriyo	kōlha	bhēṛhiyā	pēṛhiyā	ɡidʱar	nekre, shiyal	hiyal	vrukh	kolo	bhērhiyā	gadhiyā	Kulia	xiyal	siyār	vurkaya	bwānso		ruv	baghiyaar
woman	nāri, vanitā, strī, mahilā, lalanā	mahilā, nāri	lugai, aurat	bāi, mahilā, stree	aurat, strī, mahilā, nāri	naar, mutiyar	māi	mohila, nari, stri	beti, mohila	zanaan	baayal, stree	mehraru, aurat, janaani	stree, nāri	Mayeji	môhila, maiki manuh	maugi, stri	kānthāwa, gähäniya, sthriya, mahilāwa, lalanāwa, liya, laňda, vanīthāwa	mahilaa, naari, stree		juvli	aurat, treimat, zaal, zanaani
year	varsh, shārad	varash	saal, uun	varsh	sāl, baras, varsh	sāl, varah	sāl	bocchor, shal, boshor,	bosor, sāl	váreeh	varas	sāl, baris, barikh	barsa	baras, Bachar	bôsôr	barakh	varshaya, vasara	barsha		bersh	saal
yes / no	hyah, kam / na, ma	hā / nā	hon/koni	hōy, hō, hā / nāhi, nā	hāñ / nā, nahīñ	hāñ, āho / nā, nahīñ	hā/ na	hæ, ho, oi / na	ii, oe / na	aa / ná, ma	Vayi/naa	hāñ / nā	han /Na	Hoye/nei	hôy / nôhôy	hô/nai	ow / næ	ho / hoina, la / nai		va / na	ha / na
yesterday	hyah, gatadinam, gatakāle	(gai-)kāl(-e)	kaal	kāl	kal	kal	kalla	(goto-)kal(-ke)	(goto-)khail, (goto-)khal, khal(-ke), khail(-ku)	kāla, rāth	kaal	kālh	(gata-)kāli	gala kāli	(zuwa-)kali	kāilh	īyē	hijo		ij	kal
English	Sanskrit	Gujarati	Rajasthani	Marathi	Hindi	Punjabi	Sindhi	Bengali	Sylheti	Kashmiri	Konkani	Bhojpuri	Odia	Kosli	Assamese	Maithili	Sinhala	Nepali	Pali	Romani	Saraiki (Southern Punjabi)

Personal pronouns

English	Sanskrit	Assamese	Bengali	Gujarati	Marathi	Hindustani	Punjabi	Rajasthani	Sindhi	Sylheti	Kashmiri	Konkani	Bhojpuri	Odia	Sambalpuri Odia	Maithili	Sinhala	Nepali	Pali	Romani	Saraiki
i	aham	moi	ami	huṁ	mī	maiṁ			maa	mui		aav	haum	mu͂		haum		ma
we		ami	amra	ame	āmhī	ham	asīṁ		asā	amra		aami		aame				hāmī
you (inf)		toi	tui	tu	tū	tu			tū	tui		tū		tu				taṁ
you (mid frm)		tumi	tumi	tame	tūmhī	tum			tū	tumi		tū		tume				timī
you (frm)		apûni	apni	āp	āpaṅ	āp			tāhā	afne		tumi		aapaNa				tapāīṁ
you (inf, pl)		tôhôt	tora															Not used
you (mid frm, pl)		tûmalûk	tomra			tumlog				tumitain, tumra		tumi		tumemaane				timīharū
you (frm, pl)		apûnalûk	apnara			āplog				afnain, afnara		tumi		aapaNamaane				tapāīṁharū
he (mid frm)		xi	śe			woh			ho	he		to		se				ū
she (mid frm)		tai	śe			woh			huā	tai		ti		se				ū
he (frm)		teú, tekhet	tini			ve				tain				se				unī
she (frm)		teú, tekhet	tini							tain				se				unī
they (mid frm)		xihôt	õra			wohlog			huā	tara		taani		semaane				unīharū, tinīharū
they (frm)		teûlûk, tekhetxôkôl	tara				ve			tara				semaane				unīharū, tinīharū
English	Sanskrit	Assamese	Bengali	Gujarati	Marathi	Hindi	Punjabi	Rajasthani	Sindhi	Sylheti	Kashmiri	Konkani	Bhojpuri	Odia	Sambalpuri Odia	Maithili	Sinhala	Nepali	Pali	Romani	Saraiki (Southern Punjabi)

See also

• Indo-Aryans
• Iranic languages
• Indo-Aryan migration
• Proto-Vedic Continuity
• The family of Brahmic scripts
• Linguistic history of the Indian subcontinent
• Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil
• Languages of Bangladesh
• Languages of India
• Languages of Pakistan
• Languages of Nepal

Further reading

• John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
• Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, eds. (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
• Madhav Deshpande (1979). Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
• Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 81-7074-128-9
• Erdosy, George. (1995). The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
• Kobayashi, Masato.; & George Cardona (2004). Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
• Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
• Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
• Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1–2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
• Sen, Sukumar. (1995). Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
• Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University.

External links

• The Indo-Aryan languages, 10-25-2009
• The Indo-Aryan languages Colin P.Masica
• Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages (Rajesh Bhatt), February 7, 2003.