International Space Station: Difference between revisions
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* [http://www.jaxa.jp/projects/iss_human/research/index_e.html JAXA - Space Environment Utilization and Space Experiment]. |
* [http://www.jaxa.jp/projects/iss_human/research/index_e.html JAXA - Space Environment Utilization and Space Experiment]. |
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* [http://www.energia.ru/en/iss/researches/iss-researches.html RSC Energia - Science Research on ISS Russian Segment]. |
* [http://www.energia.ru/en/iss/researches/iss-researches.html RSC Energia - Science Research on ISS Russian Segment]. |
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* [http://www.gatagat.com/china-space-station-tiangong-1-china-launched-space-station-tiangong-1-experimental-module/ China Launched Own Chinese Space Station Tiangong-1 Experimental Module] |
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 | |
 ISS Insignia | |
| Station statistics | |
|---|---|
| COSPAR ID | 1998-067A |
| SATCAT no. | 25544 |
| Call sign | Alpha |
| Crew | 6 Expedition 29 |
| Launch | 1998–2012 |
| Launch pad | Baikonur LC-81/23, LC-1/5 KSC LC-39, |
| Mass | approximately 450,000 kg (990,000 lb) |
| Length | 51 m (167.3 ft)[citation needed] from PMA-2 to Zvezda |
| Width | 109 m (357.5 ft)[citation needed] along truss, arrays extended |
| Height | c. 20 m (c. 66 ft) nadir–zenith, arrays forward–aft (27 November 2009)[needs update] |
| Pressurised volume | 837 m3 (29,600 cu ft) (21 March 2011) |
| Atmospheric pressure | 101.3 kPa (29.91 inHg, 1 atm) |
| Periapsis altitude | 352 km (190 nmi) AMSL (21 March 2011) |
| Apoapsis altitude | 355 km (192 nmi) AMSL (21 March 2011) |
| Orbital inclination | 51.6 degrees |
| Orbital speed | 7,706.6 m/s (27,743.8 km/h, 17,239.2 mph) |
| Orbital period | 91 minutes |
| Days in orbit | 9414 (29 August) |
| Days occupied | 8701 (29 August) |
| No. of orbits | 147767 (29 August) |
| Orbital decay | 2 km/month |
| Statistics as of 9 March 2011 (unless noted otherwise) References:[1][2][3][4][5][6] | |
| Configuration | |
 | |
The International Space Station (ISS) is a habitable, artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. The ISS follows the Salyut, Almaz, Cosmos, Skylab, and Mir space stations, as the 11th space station launched, not including the Genesis I and II prototypes. The ISS serves as a research laboratory that has a microgravity environment in which crews conduct experiments in many fields including biology, human biology, physics, astronomy and meteorology.[7][8][9] The station has a unique environment for the testing of the spacecraft systems that will be required for missions to the Moon and Mars.[10] The station is expected to remain in operation until at least 2020, and potentially to 2028. [11][12] Russia's next space station OPSEK, will be separated in 2020 to form a new, separate space station, supporting deep space exploration. Like many artificial satellites, the ISS can be seen from Earth with the naked eye.[13][14] The ISS is operated by Expedition crews, and has been continuously staffed since 2 November 2000—an uninterrupted human presence in space for the past Template:Ageand.[15] As of September 2011[update], the crew of Expedition 29 is aboard.[16]
The ISS combines three space station projects, the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the American Freedom project which includes the Japanese Kibō Laboratory, and the European Columbus space station.[17][18] Budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national programme.[17] The station consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components which have been launched by Russian Proton rockets, American space shuttles, and Russian Soyuz rockets.[18] The station is maintained in orbit between 278 km (173 mi) and 460 km (286 mi) altitude, and travels at an average ground speed of 27,724 km (17,227 mi) per hour, completing 15.7 orbits per day.[19]
The ISS is a joint project between the five participating space agencies, the American NASA, the Russian RKA, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency JAXA, the European ESA, and the Canadian CSA.[20][21] The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements[22] which divide the station into two areas and allow the Russian Federation to retain full ownership of Russian Orbital Segment (ROS)/(RS),[23] with the US Orbital Segment (USOS) allocated between the other international partners.[22] The station is serviced by Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft, the Automated Transfer Vehicle and the H-II Transfer Vehicle,[21] and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.[24]
Purpose
Scientific research
The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research that cannot be performed in any other way. Whilst unmanned spacecraft can provide platforms for zero gravity and exposure to space, the ISS offers a long term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades, combined with ready access by human researchers over periods that exceed the capabilities of manned spacecraft.[24][25] Kibō will accelerate Japan's progress in science and technology, gain new knowledge and apply it to such fields as industry and medicine.[26] The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which NASA compares to the Hubble telescope [27], could not be accommodated on a free flying satellite platform, due in part to its power requirements and data bandwidth needs. [28] The Station simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff.
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2011) |
The primary fields of research include Space weather, human research, space medicine, life sciences, physical sciences, astronomy and meteorology.[7][8][9][29][30] Scientists on Earth have access to the crew's data and can modify experiments or launch new ones; benefits generally unavailable on unmanned spacecraft.[25] Crews fly expeditions of several months duration, providing approximately 160 man-hours a week of labor with a crew of 6.[7][31]
Research on the ISS improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. This data will be used to determine whether lengthy human spaceflight and space colonization are feasible. As of 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to travel to Mars.[32][33] Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the National Space and Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician onboard the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.[34][35][36]
Microgravity
Gravity is the only significant force acting upon the ISS, which is in constant freefall. This state of freefall, or perceived weightlessness, is not perfect however, being disturbed by four separate effects:[37] One, the drag resulting from the residual atmosphere, when the ISS enters the earth's shadow, the main solar panels are rotated to minimize this aerodynamic drag, helping reduce orbital decay. Two, vibration caused by mechanical systems and the crew on board the ISS. Three, orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes or thrusters. Four, the spatial separation from the real centre of mass of the ISS. Any part of the ISS not at the exact center of mass will tend to follow its own orbit. That is, parts on the underside, closer to the earth are pulled harder, towards the earth. Conversely, parts on the top of the station, further from earth, try to fling off into space. However, as each point is physically part of the station, this is impossible, and so each component is subject to small forces which keep them attached to the station as it orbits.[37] This is also called the tidal force.
Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of this data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues, and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space.[8]
The investigation of the physics of fluids in microgravity will allow researchers to model the behaviour of fluids better. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. In addition, an examination of reactions that are slowed by low gravity and temperatures will give scientists a deeper understanding of superconductivity.[8]
The study of materials science is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground.[38] Other areas of interest include the effect of the low gravity environment on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve current knowledge about energy production, and lead to economic and environmental benefits. Future plans are for the researchers aboard the ISS to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapour, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the universe.[8]
Exploration
According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and RSA, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in space. It was also planned to provide transportation, servicing and act as a staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids.[23] In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic, and educational purposes.[39]
The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of Low Earth Orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in the maintenance, repair, and replacement of systems on-orbit, which will be essential in operating spacecraft farther from Earth. Mission risks are reduced, and the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft are advanced.[10] The ESA states that "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, other aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations".[40]
A Mars exploration mission may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010 ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other 4 partners that China, India and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.[41] NASA chief Charlie Bolden stated in Feb 2011 "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort".[42] As of 2011, the space agencies of Europe, Russia and China are carrying out the ground-based preparations in the Mars500 project, which complement the ISS-based preparations for a manned mission to Mars.[43] China is planning to launch its own space station in 2011,[44] and has officially initiated its programme for a modular station.[45] However, China has indicated a willingness to cooperate further with other countries on manned exploration.[46]
Education and cultural outreach
The ISS crew provide opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, videolink and email. [21][47] Cultural activities are another major objective. There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science. [48]
Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme which inspires students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics through amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from 9 countries including several countries in Europe as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, speakerphones connect students to ground stations which connect the calls to the station. [49]
JAXA aims both to 'Stimulate the curiosity of children, cultivating their spirits, and encouraging their passion to pursue craftsmanship', and to 'Heighten the child's awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society.' [50] Through a series of education guides, a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of manned space flight, as well as that of Earth and life, will be learned. [51][52] In the JAXA Seeds in Space experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS is explored. Students grow sunflower seeds which flew on the ISS for about nine months as a start to ‘touch the Universe’. In the first phase of kibo utilization from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields. [53]
ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms. [54] In one lesson, students can navigable a 3-D model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time. [55]
Origins
The International Space Station represents a combination of three national space station projects, NASA's Freedom, the RSA's Mir-2, and the European Columbus space stations. In September 1993, American Vice-President Al Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station.[56] They also agreed, in preparation for this new project, that the United States would be involved in the Mir program, including American Shuttles docking, in the Shuttle-Mir Program.[57] According to the plan, the International Space Station programme would combine the proposed space stations of all participant agencies and the Japanese Kibō laboratory.
Freedom and Kibō
| This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2011) |
In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. Although approved by then-president Ronald Reagan and announced in the 1984 State of the Union Address, Freedom was never constructed or completed as originally designed, and after several cutbacks, the remnants of the project became part of the International Space Station.
Mir-2
The Russian Orbital Segment is the eleventh Soviet-Russian space station. Mir and the ISS are successors to the Salyut and Almaz stations. The Mir-2 space station was originally authorized in the February 1976 resolution setting forth plans for development of third generation Soviet space systems. The planned station changed several times, but Zvezda was always the service module. A 1981 prototype of the Mir-2 FGB module was flown in 1986 as the Polyus star wars test-bed, containing a one megawatt laser weapon. That station would have used the Buran space shuttle and Proton rockets to lift new modules into orbit. The spaceframe of Zvezda, also called DOS-8 serial number 128, was completed in February 1985 and major internal equipment was installed by October 1986. [58]
In 1983, the design was changed and the station would consist of Zvezda, followed by several 90 metric ton modules and a truss structure similar to the current station. The draft was approved by NPO Energia Chief Semenov on 14 December 1987 and announced to the press as 'Mir-2' in January 1988. This station would be visited by Buran, but mainly resupplied by Progress-M2 spacecraft. (Orbital) assembly of the station was expected to begin in 1993.[59] In 1993 with the collapse of the Soviet Union, a redesigned smaller Mir-2 was to be built whilst attached to Mir, just as OPSEK is being assembled whilst attached to the ISS.
Columbus
The Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer (MTFF) was a European Space Agency (ESA) program to develop a space station that could be used for a variety of microgravity experiments while serving ESA's needs for an autonomous manned space platform. The program ran from 1986 to 1991, was expected to cost $3.56 billion including launch and utilization,[60] and was cancelled while still in the planning stage. Aspects of the program were later realised in the Columbus module.
In November 1992, Further financial difficulties in Russia and uncertainties with America's Freedom space station led Russia and the European Space Agency to open discussions on joint development and use of Mir-2.[61]
Station structure
Below is a diagram of major station components. The blue areas are pressurized sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits. The station's unpressurized superstructure is indicated in red. Other unpressurised components are yellow. Note that the Unity node joins directly to the Destiny laboratory. For clarity, they are shown apart.
| Russian docking port | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Balistic pannel | Zvezda DOS-8 Service Module | Balistic pannel | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Russian docking port | Poisk (MRM-2) | Pirs | Russian docking port | Nauka laboratory to Replace Pirs | European Robotic Arm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Zarya FGB | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Rassvet (MRM-1) | Russian docking port | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| PMA 1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Leonardo | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Quest Airlock | Unity Node 1 | Tranquility Node 3 | PMA 3 | PMA docking port | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ESP-2 | Cupola | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Solar array | Solar array | Solar array | Solar array | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat Radiator | Z1 truss segment | Heat Radiator | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ELC 2, AMS | ELC 3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| S6 Truss Segment | S5 Truss Segment | S3/S4 Truss Assembly | S1 Truss Segment | S0 Truss Segment | P1 Truss Segment | P3/P4 Truss Assembly | P5 Truss Segment | P6 Truss Segment | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ELC 4, ESP 3 | ELC 1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dextre | Canadarm2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Solar array | Solar array | Solar array | Solar array | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Destiny Lab | ESP-1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HTV | Kibō (ELM-PS) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| External Payloads | Columbus Lab | Harmony Node 2 | Kibō (PM) | Kibō (EF) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HTV | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| PMA 2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| PMA docking port | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Assembly
The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998.[2] Russian modules launch and dock robotically, with the exception of Rassvet. All other modules were delivered by space shuttle, which required installation by ISS and shuttle crewmembers using the SSRMS and EVAs; as of 5 June 2011[update], they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA activity. 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, while the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked space shuttles.[1] The beta angle of the station had to be considered at all times during construction, as the station's beta angle is directly related to the percentage of its orbit that the station (as well as any docked or docking spacecraft) is exposed to the sun; the space shuttle would not perform optimally above a limit called the "beta cutoff".[62] Rassvet was delivered by NASA's Atlantis Space Shuttle in 2010 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the United States-funded Russian-built Zarya Module in 1998.[63] Robot arms rather than EVAs were utilized in its installation (docking).
The first segment of the ISS, Zarya, was launched on 20 November 1998 on an autonomous Russian Proton rocket. It provided propulsion, orientation control, communications, electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. Two weeks later a passive NASA module Unity was launched aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-88 and attached to Zarya by astronauts during EVAs. This module has two Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs), one connects permanently to Zarya, the other allows the space shuttle to dock to the space station. At this time, the Russian station Mir was still inhabited. The ISS remained unmanned for two years, during which time Mir was de-orbited. On July 12, 2000 Zvezda was launched into orbit. Preprogrammed commands onboard deployed its solar arrays and communications antenna. It then became the passive vehicle for a rendezvous with the Zarya and Unity. As a passive "target" vehicle, the Zvezda maintained a stationkeeping orbit as the Zarya-Unity vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system. Zarya's computer transferred control of the station to Zvezda's computer soon after docking. Zvezda added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen, CO2 scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control. This enabled permanent habitation of the station.[64][65]
The first resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz TM-31, midway between the flights of STS-92 and STS-97. These two Space Shuttle flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the station with Ku-band communication for U.S. television, additional attitude support needed for the additional weight of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays supplementing the station's existing 4 solar arrays.[66]
Over the next two years the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the Pirs docking compartment. The Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.
The expansion schedule was interrupted by the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia on STS-107 in 2003, with the resulting hiatus in the Space Shuttle program halting station assembly until the launch of Discovery on STS-114 in 2005.[67]
The official resumption of assembly was marked by the arrival of Atlantis, flying STS-115, which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the Harmony node and Columbus European laboratory were added. These were followed shortly after by the first two components of Kibō. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of Kibō was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian Poisk module. The third node, Tranquility, was delivered in February 2010 during STS-130 by the Space Shuttle Endeavour, alongside the Cupola, closely followed in May 2010 by the penultimate Russian module, Rassvet, delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-132. The last pressurised module of the USOS, Leonardo, was brought to the station by Discovery on her final flight, STS-133, followed by the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on STS-134, delivered by Endeavour.[citation needed]
As of June 2011[update], the station consisted of fifteen pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure. Still to be launched are the Russian Multipurpose Laboratory Module Nauka and a number of external components, including the European Robotic Arm. Assembly is expected to be completed by 2012, by which point the station will have a mass in excess of 400 metric tons (440 short tons).[2][68]
The gross mass of the station is not possible to calculate with precision. The total launch weight of the modules on orbit is 417,289 kg (919,965 lb) (as of 03/09/2011).[69] The weight of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station. Gas (Hydrogen) is constantly vented overboard by the Oxygen generators of the USOS (Hab OGA) and in the Russian segment 75% of the oxygen is generated by electrolysis and 25% from perchlorate or other source (providing redundancy).
Pressurised modules
Zarya (Russian: Заря́; lit. dawn), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB(Russian: ФГБ), was the first module of the station, launched on November 20, 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 81 in Kazakhstan to a 400 km (250 mi) high orbit. After parking in orbit, the Zarya Module provided orientation control, communications and electrical power for itself, and for the passive Node 1 (Unity) attached later, while the station awaited launch of the third component, a Russian-provided crew living quarters and early station core, the service module Zvezda. The Service Module enhanced or replaced many functions of Zarya. The FGB is a descendant of the TKS spacecraft designed for the Russian Salyut program. 5.4 tons of propellant fuel can be stored and transferred automatically to and from ships docked to the Russian portion of the station - the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS). Zarya was originally intended as a module for the Russian Mir space station, but was not flown as of the end of the Mir-1 program. Development costs for Zarya were paid for by Russia (and the former Soviet Union), spread across previous space station programs, and construction costs were paid for by the United States.
Unity, a passive connecting module was the first U.S.-built component of the Station. It is cylindrical in shape, with six berthing locations facilitating connections to other modules. Unity was carried into orbit as the primary cargo of the Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-88, the first Space Shuttle mission dedicated to assembly of the station. On December 6, 1998, the STS-88 crew mated the aft berthing port of Unity with the forward hatch of the already orbiting Zarya module.
Zvezda (Russian: Звезда, meaning "star"), DOS-8, also known as the Service Module or SM (Russian: СМ). It provides all of the station's critical systems, its addition rendered the station permanently habitable for the first time, adding life support later supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members. Zvezda's DMS-R computer handles guidance, navigation & control for the entire space station.[70] A second computer which performs the same functions is installed in the Nauka FGB-2. The rocket used for Zvezda's launch was one of the first to carry advertising.[71] The space frame was completed in February 1985, major internal equipment was installed by October 1986, and it was launched on 12 July 2000. Zvezda is at the rear of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation, its engines are used to boost the stations orbit. Alternatively Russian and European spacecraft can dock to Zvezda's aft (rear) port and use their engines to boost the station.
 |
| Module | Assembly mission | Launch date | Launch system | Nation | Isolated view | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Destiny (U.S. laboratory) |
5A | 7 February 2001 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-98 | USA | 
|
[72] |
| The primary research facility for United States payloads aboard the ISS, Destiny is intended for general experiments. The module houses 24 International Standard Payload Racks, some of which are used for environmental systems and crew daily living equipment. Destiny also serves as the mounting point for most of the station's Integrated Truss Structure. | ||||||
| Quest (joint airlock) |
7A | 12 July 2001 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-104 | USA | 
|
[73] |
| The USOS airlock, Quest hosts spacewalks with both United States EMU and Russian Orlan spacesuits. Quest consists of two segments; the equipment lock, that stores spacesuits and equipment, and the crew lock, from which astronauts can exit into space. This module has a separately controlled atmosphere. Crew sleep in this module, breathing a low nitrogen mixture the night before scheduled EVAs, to avoid decompression sickness (known as "the bends") in the low pressure suits. | ||||||
| Pirs (lit. pier) (docking compartment) |
4R | 14 September 2001 | Soyuz-U, Progress M-SO1 | Russia | 
|
[74] |
| Pirs provides the ISS with additional docking ports for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and allows egress and ingress for spacewalks by cosmonauts using Russian Orlan spacesuits, in addition to providing storage space for these spacesuits. | ||||||
| Harmony (node 2) |
10A | 23 October 2007 | Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-120 | Europe (builder) USA (operator) |
|
[75] |
| The second of the station's node modules, Harmony is the utility hub of the ISS. The module contains four racks that provide electrical power, bus electronic data, and acts as a central connecting point for several other components via its six Common Berthing Mechanisms (CBMs). The European Columbus and Japanese Kibō laboratories are permanently berthed to the module, and American Space Shuttle Orbiters dock with the ISS via PMA-2, attached to Harmony's forward port. | ||||||
| Columbus (European laboratory) |
1E | 7 February 2008 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-122 | Europe | 
|
[76][77] |
| The primary research facility for European payloads aboard the ISS, Columbus provides a generic laboratory as well as facilities specifically designed for biology, biomedical research and fluid physics. Several mounting locations are affixed to the exterior of the module, which provide power and data to external experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF), Solar Monitoring Observatory, Materials International Space Station Experiment, and Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space. A number of expansions are planned for the module to study quantum physics and cosmology. | ||||||
| Kibō Experiment Logistics Module (lit. hope and wish JEM–ELM) |
1J/A | 11 March 2008 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-123 | Japan | 
|
[78] |
| Part of the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the ELM provides storage and transportation facilities to the laboratory with a pressurised section to serve internal payloads. | ||||||
| Kibō Pressurised Module (JEM–PM) |
1J | 31 May 2008 | Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-124 | Japan | 
|
[78][79] |
| Part of the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the PM is the core module of Kibō to which the ELM and Exposed Facility are berthed. The laboratory is the largest single ISS module and contains a total of 23 racks, including 10 experiment racks. The module is used to carry out research in space medicine, biology, Earth observations, materials production, biotechnology, and communications research. The PM also serves as the mounting location for an external platform, the Exposed Facility (EF), that allows payloads to be directly exposed to the harsh space environment. The EF is serviced by the module's own robotic arm, the JEM–RMS, which is mounted on the PM. | ||||||
| Poisk (lit. 'search') (mini-research module 2) |
5R | 10 November 2009 | Soyuz-U, Progress M-MIM2 | Russia | 
|
[80][81] |
| Poisk is the second Russian airlock for spacewalks, almost identical to Pirs, but lacking Strela cargo cranes. It is one of the four main Russian docking ports for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and is used as an interface for scientific experiments. | ||||||
| Tranquility (node 3) |
20A | 8 February 2010 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-130 | Europe (builder) USA (operator) |
|
[82][83] |
| The third and last of the station's U.S. nodes, Tranquility contains an advanced life support system to recycle waste water for crew use and generate oxygen for the crew to breathe. The node also provides four berthing locations for more attached pressurised modules or crew transportation vehicles, in addition to the permanent berthing location for the station's Cupola. | ||||||
| Cupola | 20A | 8 February 2010 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-130 | Europe (builder) USA (operator) |
|
[84] |
| The Cupola is an observatory module that provides ISS crew members with a direct view of robotic operations and docked spacecraft, as well as an observation point for watching the Earth. The module comes equipped with robotic workstations for operating the SSRMS and shutters to protect its windows from damage caused by micrometeorites. It features a 80-centimetre (31 in) round window, the largest window on the station. | ||||||
| Rassvet (lit. dawn) (mini-research module 1) |
ULF4 | 14 May 2010 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-132 | Russia | 
|
[68] |
| Rassvet is being used for docking and cargo storage aboard the station. | ||||||
Leonardo PPM The three NASA Space shuttle MPLM cargo containers Leonardo, Raffaello and Donatello, were built for NASA in Turin, Italy by Alcatel Alenia Space, now Thales Alenia Space[85]. The MPLMs are provided to the ISS program by the Italy (independent of Italy's role as a member state of ESA) to NASA and are considered to be U.S. elements. In a bartered exchange for providing these containers, the U.S. has given Italy research time aboard the ISS out of the U.S. allotment in addition to that which Italy receives as a member of ESA. [86] The Permanent Multipurpose Module was created by converting Leonardo into a module that could be permanently attached to the station. [87][88][89]
Planned additional modules
Nauka (Russian: Нау́ка; lit. Science), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM) or FGB-2, (Russian: Многофункциональный лабораторный модуль, or МЛМ), is the major Russian laboratory module. This module will be separated from the ISS before de-orbit with support modules and become the OPSEK space station, it contains an additional set of life support systems and orientation control, and power provided by its solar arrays will mean the ROS no longer relies on power from the USOS main arrays. Nauka's mission has changed over time, during the mid 1990's it was intended as a backup for the FGB, and later as a universal docking module (UDM), its docking ports will be able to support automatic docking of both space craft, additional modules and fuel transfer. Prior to the arrival of the MLM, a progress robot spacecraft will dock with PIRS, depart with that module, and both will be discarded. Nauka will then use its own engines to attach itself to the ROS in May 2012.
Node Module (UM)/(NM) This 4-ton ball shaped module will support the docking of two scientific and power modules during the final stage of the station assembly and provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz TMA and Progress M spacecraft. NM is to be incorporated into the ISS in 2012. It will be integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo ship and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket. The Progress would use its own propulsion and flight control system to deliver and dock the Node Module to the nadir (Earth-facing) docking port of the Nauka MLM/FGB-2 module. One port will be equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the MLM module. The remaining five ports would be passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles, as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with modified docking systems. However more importantly, the node module was conceived to serve as the only permanent element of the future Russian successor to the ISS, OPSEK. Equipped with six docking ports, the Node Module would serve as a single permanent core of the future station with all other modules coming and going as their life span and mission required. [90][91]This would be a progression beyond the ISS and Russia's modular MIR space station, which are in turn more advanced than early monolithic first generation stations such as Skylab, and early Salyut and Almaz stations.
NEM-1
NEM-2
Cancelled components
The US Habitation Module, which would have served as the station's living quarters, the sleep stations are now spread throughout the station.[92] The US Interim Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module were intended to replace functions of Zvezda in case of a launch failure.[93] The Russian Universal Docking Module, to which the cancelled Russian Research modules and spacecraft would have docked.[94] The Russian Science Power Platform would have provided the Russian Orbital Segment with a power supply independent of the ITS solar arrays,[94] and two Russian Research Modules that were planned to be used for scientific research.[95]
Unpressurised elements
The ISS features a large number of external components that do not require pressurization. The largest such component is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are mounted.[96] The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure 108.5 m (356 ft) long.[2]
The station in its complete form has several smaller external components, such as the eight robotic arms, the three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs), launched on STS-102, STS-114 and STS-118 as well as four ExPrESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs). ELCs 1 and 2 were delivered on STS-129 in November 2009. ELC 4 was installed on February 2011 by STS-133 and ELC 3 by STS-134 in May 2011.[68][97] Whilst these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3 and the Robotic Refuelling Mission) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space such as by providing the necessary electricity and computing to process experimental data locally, the platforms' primary function is to support Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs). ORUs are key elements of the ISS that can be readily replaced when the unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs include pumps, storage tanks, antennas and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by the SPDM. While spare parts/ORUs were routinely transported to and from the station via space shuttle resupply missions, there was a heavy emphasis on ORU transport once the station approached completion. Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS-129,[98] STS-133[99] and STS-134.[100] To date only one other mode of transportation of ORUs has been utilised - the Japanese cargo vessel HTV-2 - which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).[101]
There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the JEM Exposed Facility serves as an external 'porch' for the Japanese Experiment Module complex,[102] and a facility on the European Columbus laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility[103][104] and the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.[105] A remote sensing instrument, SAGE III-ISS, is due to be delivered to the station in 2014 aboard a Dragon capsule.[106] The largest such scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment, was launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS will measure cosmic rays and look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.[107]
Station systems
Life support
The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian orbital segment's life support systems are contained in the Service Module Zvezda. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The MLM Nauka laboratory has a complete set of life support systems.
Atmospheric control systems
American Mercury, Gemini and Apollo spacecraft contained 100% oxygen (O
2) atmospheres, suitable for short duration missions, to minimize weight and complexity. Because of fire risk and potential physiologic effects, Skylab used 72% O
2 and 28% Nitrogen (N
2). The (NASA) space shuttle was the first American spacecraft to have an Earth-like atmospheric mixture, 22% O
2 and 78% N
2. In contrast, Russian spacecraft have always had more Earth-like atmospheric compositions.[108] Vostok, Voshkod and Soyuz contained air-like mixtures at approx 101kPa (14.7 psi). The MIR and Salyut space stations contained an air-like O
2 and N
2 mixture at approximately sea-level pressures 93.1 kPa (13.5psi) to 129 kPa (18.8 psi) with an O
2 content of 21% to 40%. The ISS air-like atmosphere is maintained at 101 kPa.
Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen (O
2) supply, triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The Elektron unit is the primary oxygen supply, O
2 and (H
2) are produced by electrolysis, with the H
2 being vented overboard. The 1kw system uses approximately 1 liter of water per crew member per day from stored water from earth, or water recycled from other systems. MIR was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning O
2 producing cartridges in the ТГК. Each 'candle' takes 5-20 minutes to decompose at 450-500 degrees celcius, producing 600 liters of O
2, this unit is manually operated. [109]Triple-redundancy is provided by these two systems, and oxygen tanks in ROS modules and spacecraft.
The US orbital segment has redundant supplies of oxygen (O
2), from a pressurized storage tank on the Quest airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the Node 3 Tranquility module, which produces O
2 from electrolysis. [110] Hydrogen produced is combined with Carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane.
ECLSS controls atmospheric pressure, fire detection and suppression, oxygen levels, waste management and water supply. The highest priority for the ECLSS is maintaining the onboard atmosphere, but the system also collects, processes, and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew—a process that recycles water from the sink and toilet, and condensation from the air. The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station.[111] The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters.[112] Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in Zvezda. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters.[112]
The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to the Earth's.[113] Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi);[114] the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than the alternative, a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.[115]
Power supply
Photovoltaic (PV) arrays power the ISS. The Russian segment of the station, like the space shuttle and most aircraft, uses 28 volt DC partly provided by four solar arrays mounted directly to Zarya and Zvezda. The rest of the station uses 130–180 V DC from the United States PV array.[96]
The United States solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, with each wing producing nearly 32.8 kW.[96] These arrays normally track the sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about 375 m2 (450 yd2) in area and 58 metres (63 yd) long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the sun by rotating the alpha gimbal once per orbit while the beta gimbal follows slower changes in the angle of the sun to the orbital plane. The Night Glider mode aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude.[116]
The station uses rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries (NiH2) for continuous power during the 35 minutes of every 90 minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The batteries are recharged on the day side of the earth. They have a 6.5 year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and will be regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station.[117]
Power is stabilised and distributed at 160 V DC and converted to the user-required 124 V DC. The higher distribution voltage allows smaller, lighter conductors. The two station segments share power with converters, essential since the Columbia disaster forced the cancellation of the Russian Science Power Platform and Jaxa centrifuge modules.[118][119]
The stations large solar panels generate a high potential voltage difference between the station and the ionosphere. This could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated by the spacecraft plasma sheath. To mitigate this, plasma contactor units (PCU)s create current paths between the station and the ambient plasma field.[120]
Thermal Control System
The large amount of electrical power consumed by the stations systems and experiments is turned almost entirely into heat. The heat which can be dissipated through the walls of the stations modules is insufficient to keep the internal ambient temperature within comfortable, workable limits. Ammonia is continuously pumped through pipework throughout the station to collect heat, and then into external radiators exposed to the cold of space, and back into the station.
The International Space Station (ISS) External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains an equilibrium when the ISS environment or heat loads exceed the capabilities of the Passive Thermal Control System (PTCS). Note Elements of the PTCS are external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, or Heat Pipes. The EATCS provides heat rejection capabilities for all the US pressurised modules, including the JEM and COF as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 Trusses. The EATCS consists of two independent Loops (Loop A & Loop B), they both use mechanically pumped Ammonia in fluid state, in closed-loop circuits. The EATCS is capable of rejecting up to 70 kW, and provides a substantial upgrade in heat rejection capacity from the 14 kW capability of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS-105 and installed onto the P6 Truss.[121]
Robotic arms
The largest robotic arm on the ISS, Canadarm2 weighs 1,800 kilograms and is used to dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS, and hold crew members and equipment during EVA's. The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically, and may be repositioned or discarded the same way. Crew use the 2 Strela cargo cranes during EVA's for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each strela crane weighs 45 kg. The Russian and Japanese laboratories both have airlocks and robotic arms specifically to move science experiments quickly to or from the exposed space environment on the outside of the station to the shirt-sleeves pressurised environment within, where the crew can readily maintain the experiments without EVA's.
The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the main remote manipulator system called the Mobile Servicing System (MSS). This consists of the Mobile Base System (MBS), the Canadarm2, and the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator. The MBS rolls along rails built into some of the ITS segments to allow the arm to reach all parts of the United States segment of the station.[122] The MSS had its reach increased by an Enhanced Orbiter Boom Sensor System, installed by Astronauts in EVA during the STS-134 mission in May 2011. To gain access to the extreme extents of the Russian Segment the crew also placed a "Power Data Grapple Fixture" to the forward docking section of Zarya, so that the Canadarm2 may inchworm itself onto that point.[123]
The European Robotic Arm, which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, will be launched alongside the Multipurpose Laboratory Module in 2012.[124] The Japanese Experiment Module's Remote Manipulator System (JFM RMS), which services the JEM Exposed Facility,[125] was launched on STS-124 and is attached to the JEM Pressurised Module.[126]
Communications & computers
* Luch satellite not currently in use
Radio communications provide telemetry and scientific data links between the station and Mission Control Centres. Radio links are also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crewmembers, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes.[127]
The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground via the Lira antenna mounted to Zvezda.[21][128] The Lira antenna also has the capability to use the Luch data relay satellite system.[21] This system, used for communications with Mir, fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and as a result is no longer in use,[17][21][129] although two new Luch satellites—Luch-5A and Luch-5B—are planned for launch in 2011 to restore the operational capability of the system.[130] Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M, which enables internal telephone communications between Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk and the USOS, and also provides a VHF radio link to ground control centres via antennas on Zvezda's exterior.[131]
The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links mounted in the Z1 truss structure: the S band (used for audio) and Ku band (used for audio, video and data) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, which allows for almost continuous real-time communications with NASA's Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston.[18][21][127] Data channels for the Canadarm2, European Columbus laboratory and Japanese Kibō modules are routed via the S band and Ku band systems, although the European Data Relay Satellite System and a similar Japanese system will eventually complement the TDRSS in this role.[18][132] Communications between modules are carried on an internal digital wireless network.[133]
UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs. UHF is employed by other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station, such as Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and the Space Shuttle (except the shuttle also makes use of the S band and Ku band systems via TDRSS), to receive commands from Mission Control and ISS crewmembers.[21] Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV uses a laser attached to the spacecraft and equipment attached to Zvezda, known as the Proximity Communications Equipment, to accurately dock to the station.[134][135]
The ISS is equipped with approximately 100 IBM and Lenovo ThinkPad model A31 and T61P laptop computers. Each computer is a commercial off-the-shelf purchase which is then modified for safety and operation including updates to connectors, cooling and power to accommodate the station's 28V DC power system and weightless environment. Laptops aboard the ISS are connected to the station's wireless LAN via Wi-Fi and are connected to the ground at 3 Mbit/s up and 10 Mbit/s down, comparable to home DSL connection speeds.[136]
Station operations
Currently docked
| Spacecraft | Mission | Docking port | Docked (UTC) | Undocking (UTC) | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Progress M-10M | Progress 42 Cargo | Pirs | 29 April 2011 14:29 | 25 October 2011 | [137] |
|
|
Soyuz TMA-02M | Expedition 28/29 | Rassvet | 9 June 2011 21:18 | November 2011 | [138] |
Scheduled launches and dockings
As of 9 March 2011[update], there have been 25 Soyuz, 41 Progress, 2 ATV, 2 HTV and 35 space shuttle flights to the station.[1]
All dates are UTC. Dates are the earliest possible dates and may change. Forward ports are at the front of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation (attitude). Aft is at the rear of the station, used by spacecraft boosting the station's orbit. Nadir is closest the earth, Zenith is on top.
| Spacecraft | Launch | Mission | Planned Docking | Docking port | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
Progress M-13M | TBD | Progress 45 Cargo | TBD | Pirs | [139] |
|
|
Soyuz TMA-22 | 14 November 2011 | Expedition 29/30 | 16 November 2011 | Poisk | [140] |
|
|
Soyuz TMA-03M | TBD | Expedition 30/31 | TBD | Rassvet | |
|
Dragon C2 | TBD | Dragon Demo | TBD | Harmony nadir | |
|
|
Progress M-14M | TBD | Progress 46 Cargo | TBD | Pirs | [141] |
|
White Stork 3 | 18 February 2012 | HTV-3 Cargo | 23 February 2012 | Harmony | |
|
|
Cygnus 1 | 23 February 2012 | Cygnus 1 Cargo | TBD | Harmony nadir | [142] |
|
Edoardo Amaldi | 7 March 2012 | ATV-3 Cargo | 15 March 2012 | Zvezda aft | [143] |
|
|
Soyuz TMA-04M | 30 March 2012. | Expedition 31/32 | TBD | Poisk | [141] |
|
|
Dragon C3 | 12 April 2012 | Dragon 1 Cargo | TBD | TBD | [144] |
|
|
Proton | May 2012. | Module Nauka MLM | May 2012. | [145] | |
|
|
Progress M-UM with Soyuz-2.1b | 2012. | Module Node Module (UM) | 2012. | ||
|
|
Proton-M (or Angara A5) | 2014. | Module NEM-1 | 2014. | ||
|
|
Proton-M (or Angara A5) | 2015. | Module NEM-2 | 2015. |
TBD = Yet to be decided / determined.
Expeditions
Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions have an average duration of half a year, and they commence following the official handover of the station from one Expedition commander to another. Expeditions 1 through 6 consisted of three person crews, but the Columbia accident led to a reduction to two crew members for Expeditions 7 to 12. Expedition 13 saw the restoration of the station crew to at least three. Several expeditions, such as Expedition 16, have consisted of up to six Crew members, who are flown to and from the station on separate flights.[146][147] When the NASA space shuttle was retired in 2011, space tourism was halted until 2013. [citation needed] The MLM module contains a berth for one crewmember, added in 2012. The Node Module, added after the MLM allows more soyuz spacecraft to dock and act as escape vehicles. Additional seats on the soyuz spacecraft are sometimes used for tourists.[citation needed] Space tourists remain on the ISS for short durations, typically remaining during expedition handovers. [citation needed] An expedition size of 7 crew is planned at the completion of the ROS stage 1. [citation needed]
The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of 15 December 2010[update], it had received 297 visitors (196 different people).[24][148] Mir had 137 visitors (104 different people).[17]
Docking
Spacecraft from Russia and Europe are able to launch and fly themselves without human intervention, docking is automated using the Kurs radio telemetry system. This includes both Russian manned and unmanned spacecraft. The American Space Shuttle was manually docked, and on missions with a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module, the MPLM would be berthed to the Station with the use of manually controlled robot arms. The Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle parks itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and then awaits 'approach' commands from the crew, until it is close enough for the crew to grapple it with a robotic arm and berth it to the USOS. Berthed craft can transfer International Standard Payload Racks. Japanese spacecraft berth for 1–2 months. Russian and European Supply craft can remain at the ISS for 6 months,[149][150] allowing great flexibility in crew time for loading and unloading of supplies and trash. With the use of the Station to shuttle power transfer system, the American Space Shuttles could remain docked to the space station for up to 12 days, with the longest docking lasting 11 days.[151]
The American Manual approach to docking allows greater initial flexibility and less complexity. The downside to this mode of operation is that each mission becomes unique and requires specialized training and planning, making the process more labor-intensive and expensive. The Russians pursued an automated methodology that used the crew in override or monitoring roles. Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardizations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive routine operations.[152] The Russian approach allows assembly of space stations orbiting other worlds in preparation for manned missions. The Nauka module of the ISS will be used in the 12th Russian(/Soviet) space station, OPSEK, whose main goal is supporting manned deep space exploration.
Russia supply Soyuz spacecraft, for crew rotation and emergency evacuation, which are replaced every six months. Expeditions require, on average, 2 722 kg of supplies, and as of 9 March 2011[update], crews had consumed a total of around 22 000 meals.[1] Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station on average two and three times respectively each year,[153] with the ATV and HTV planned to visit annually from 2010 onwards.
Following the retirement of the Space Shuttle, a number of other spacecraft are expected to fly to the station. Two, the Orbital Sciences Cygnus and SpaceX Dragon, will fly under NASA's Commercial Orbital Transportation Services and Commercial Resupply Services contracts, delivering cargo to the station until at least 2015.[154][155]
From 26 February 2011 to 7 March 2011, during the docked phase of STS-133, four of the governmental partners (United States, ESA, Japan and Russia) had their current visiting vehicles (Space Shuttle, ATV, HTV, Progress and Soyuz) docked at the ISS at one time, the only time this has happened to date.[156]
Orbit
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The ISS is maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of 278 km (173 mi) and a maximum of 460 km (286 mi), in the centre of the Thermosphere. It travels at an average speed of 27,724 kilometres (17,227 mi) per hour, and completes 15.7 orbits per day.[19] The normal maximum altitude is 425 km (264 mi) to allow NASA Shuttle rendezvous missions. It is likely that, with the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station will be raised in altitude.[157] As the ISS constantly loses altitude because of a slight atmospheric drag, it needs to be boosted to a higher altitude several times each year.[25][158] This boost can be performed by the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, a docked space shuttle, a Progress resupply vessel, or by ESA's ATV. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed.[158]
In December 2008 NASA signed an agreement with the Ad Astra Rocket Company which may result in the testing on the ISS of a VASIMR plasma propulsion engine.[159] This technology could allow station-keeping to be done more economically than at present.[160][161] The station's navigational position and velocity, or state vector, is independently established using the United States Global Positioning System (GPS) and a combination of state vector updates from Russian Ground Sites and the Russian GLONASS system.[citation needed]
The Russian orbital segment handles Guidance, Navigation & Control for the entire Station.[70] Initially, Zarya, the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module Zvezda docked and was transferred control. Zvezda contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System.[162] The attitude (orientation) of the station is independently determined by a set of sun, star and horizon sensors on Zvezda and the United States GPS with antennas on the S0 truss and a receiver processor in the United States lab. The attitude knowledge is propagated between updates by rate sensors.[21] Attitude control is maintained by either of two mechanisms; normally, a system of four control moment gyroscopes (CMGs) keeps the station oriented, with Destiny forward of Unity, the P truss on the port side, and Rassvet on the Earth-facing (nadir) side. Once, during Expedition 10,[163] an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, and the CMG system became 'saturated' (when the set of CMGs exceed their operational range or cannot track a series of rapid movements[164]) Attitude control was automatically taken over by the Russian Attitude Control System thrusters for about one orbit, using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. Thrusters are deactivated during EVA's for crew safety. When a space shuttle or Soyuz is docked to the station, it can also be used to maintain station attitude such as for troubleshooting. Shuttle control was used exclusively during installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for station's electronics.[165]
Sightings
Before sunrise or after sunset, the ISS can appear to observers on the ground, with the naked eye as a slow moving, bright, white dot, slowly crossing the sky in 2 to 5 minutes. This happens when after sunset or before sunrise the ISS is still sunlit, which is typically the case up to a few hours after sunset or before sunrise.[166] Because of its size, the ISS is the brightest man made object in the sky, with an approximate brightness of magnitude -4 when overhead, similar to Venus. The ISS can also produce flares as sunlight glints off reflective surfaces as it orbits of up to 8 or 16 times the brightness of Venus.[167] The ISS is also visible during broad daylight conditions, albeit with a great deal more effort.
Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above as well as smartphone applications that use the known orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to predict when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise to the observer, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears to the observer either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow.[168][169][170][171]
The ISS orbits at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator, necessary to ensure that Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome may be safely launched to reach the station. Spent rocket stages must be dropped into uninhabited areas and this limits the directions rockets can be launched from the spaceport.[172][173] While this orbit makes the station visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, it is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes.[172]
Life on board
A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.[174]
The time zone used on board the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets a day. During visiting space shuttle missions, the ISS crew will mostly follow the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the shuttle mission.[175][176] Because the sleeping periods between the UTC time zone and the MET usually differ, the ISS crew often has to adjust its sleeping pattern before the space shuttle arrives and after it leaves to shift from one time zone to the other in a practice known as sleep shifting.[177]
The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two 'sleep stations' in the Zvezda and four more installed in Harmony.[178][179] The American quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The Russian crew quarters include a small window, but do not provide the same amount of ventilation or block the same amount of noise as their American counterparts. A crewmember can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop.[180][181][182] Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall—it is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment.[183] It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads.[181]
Food
Most of the food eaten by station crews is stored frozen, refrigerated or canned. Menus are prepared by the astronauts, with the help of a dietitian, before the astronauts' flight to the station.[180] As the sense of taste is reduced in orbit because of fluid shifting to the head, spicy food is a favourite of many crews.[181] Each crewmember has individual food packages and cooks them using the onboard galley, which features two food warmers, a refrigerator, and a water dispenser that provides both heated and unheated water.[182] Drinks are provided in dehydrated powder form and are mixed with water before consumption.[180][182] Drinks and soups are sipped from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten with a knife and fork, which are attached to a tray with magnets to prevent them from floating away. Any food that does float away, including crumbs, must be collected to prevent it from clogging up the station's air filters and other equipment.[180]
Exercise
The most significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness are muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, or spaceflight osteopenia. Other significant effects include fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, excess flatulence, and puffiness of the face. These effects begin to reverse quickly upon return to the Earth.[32]
To prevent some of these adverse physiological effects, the station is equipped with two treadmills (including the COLBERT), the aRED (advanced Resistive Exercise Device) which enables various weightlifting exercises, and a stationary bicycle; each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment.[181][182] Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill.[184] Researchers believe that exercise is a good countermeasure for the bone and muscle density loss that occurs when humans live for a long time without gravity.[185]
Hygiene
The ISS does not feature a shower, although it was planned as part of the now cancelled Habitation Module. Instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Crews are also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.[183]
There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in Zvezda and Tranquility.[182] These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal.[181] A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream carries the waste away. Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container. Full containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal.[182][186] Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct "urine funnel adapters" attached to the tube so both men and women can use the same toilet. Waste is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled back into drinking water.[180]
Mission control centres
The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at control centres across the globe, including:
- Roskosmos's Mission Control Center at Korolyov, Moscow Oblast, controls the Russian Orbital Segment which handles Guidance, Navigation & Control for the entire Station.,[70][162] in addition to individual Soyuz and Progress missions and main relif mission contorl to the United States segments in case the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center is evacuated like in Hurricane Rita in 2005 and Hurricane Ike in 2008.[21]
- ESA's ATV Control Centre, at the Toulouse Space Centre (CST) in Toulouse, France, controls flights of the unmanned European Automated Transfer Vehicle.[21]
- JAXA's JEM Control Centre and HTV Control Centre at Tsukuba Space Centre (TKSC) in Tsukuba, Japan, are responsible for operating the Japanese Experiment Module complex and all flights of the 'White Stork' HTV Cargo spacecraft, respectively.[21]
- NASA's Mission Control Center at Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, serves as the primary control facility for the United States segment of the ISS and also controls the Space Shuttle missions that visit the station.[21]
- NASA's Payload Operations and Integration Center at Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, serves as the centre that coordinates all payload operations in the United States Segment.[21]
- ESA's Columbus Control Centre at the German Aerospace Centre (DLR) in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, controls the European Columbus research laboratory.[21]
- CSA's MSS Control at Saint-Hubert, Quebec, Canada, controls and monitors the Mobile Servicing System, or Canadarm2.[21]
Safety aspects
The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity.[187] Some simple forms of life[188] including Tardigrades[189] can survive in this environment in a desiccated state.
The ISS is partially protected from this environment by the Earth's magnetic field. From an average distance of about 70,000 km, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to deflect solar wind around the Earth and ISS. However, solar flares are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning. The crew of Expedition 10 took shelter as a precaution in 2005 in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose during the initial 'proton storm' of an X-3 class solar flare.[190][191]
Without the protection of the Earth's atmosphere, astronauts are exposed to higher levels of radiation from a steady flux of cosmic rays. Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from solar wind, penetrate living tissue and damage DNA. The station's crews are exposed to about 1 millisievert of radiation each day, which is about the same as someone would get in a year on Earth, from natural sources.[192] This results in a higher risk of astronauts' developing cancer. High levels of radiation can cause damage to the chromosomes of lymphocytes. These cells are central to the immune system and so any damage to them could contribute to the lowered immunity experienced by astronauts. Over time lowered immunity results in the spread of infection between crew members, especially in such confined areas. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding and protective drugs may lower the risks to an acceptable level, but data is scarce and longer-term exposure will result in greater risks.[32]
Despite efforts to improve radiation shielding on the ISS compared to previous stations such as Mir, radiation levels within the station have not been vastly reduced, and it is thought that further technological advancement will be required to make long-duration human spaceflight further into the Solar System a possibility.[192] Large, acute doses of radiation from Coronal Mass Ejection can cause radiation sickness and can be fatal. Without the protection of the Earth's magnetosphere, interplanetary manned missions are especially vulnerable.
The radiation levels experienced on ISS are about 5 times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew. The Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. Airline passengers, however, experience this level of radiation for no more than 15 hours for the longest transcontinental flights. For example, on a 12 hour flight an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisievert of radiation, or a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; only 1/5 the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO.[193]
Orbital debris
At the low altitudes at which the ISS orbits there is a variety of space debris,[194] consisting of many different objects including entire spent rocket stages, dead satellites, explosion fragments—including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests, paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, coolant released by RORSAT nuclear powered satellites and some of the 480,000,000 small needles from the American military Project West Ford.[195] These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids,[196] are a significant threat to life for the crew, and the station's structure, despite their small size, because of their kinetic energy and direction in relation to the station.[197][198] Debris poses a risk to spacewalking crew, as such objects could puncture their spacesuits, causing them to depressurise.[199]
Space debris objects are tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified of many objects with sufficient size to cause damage on impact. This allows for a Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre (DAM) to be conducted, which uses thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment to alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. DAMs are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Eight DAMs had been performed prior to March 2009,[200] the first seven between October 1999 and May 2003.[201] Usually the orbit is raised by one or two kilometres by means of an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s. Unusually there was a lowering of 1.7 km on 27 August 2008, the first such lowering for 8 years.[201][202] There were two DAMs in 2009, on 22 March and 17 July.[203] If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their Soyuz spacecraft, so that they would be able to evacuate in the event it was damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred twice, on 13 March 2009 and 28 June 2011.[197]
Repairs
Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons, had these problems not been resolved.
During STS-120 on 2007, following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during the redeployment of the array that it had become torn and was not deploying properly.[204] An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock, the men took extra precautions to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight.[205] The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic race ring at the heart of the joint, and so the joint was locked to prevent further damage.[206] Repairs to the joint were carried out during STS-126 with lubrication of both joints and the replacement 11 of 12 trundle bearings on the joint.[207][208]
More recently, problems have been noted with the station's engines and cooling. In 2009, the engines on Zvezda were issued an incorrect command which caused excessive vibrations to propagate throughout the station structure which persisted for over two minutes.[209] While no damage to the station was immediately reported, some components may have been stressed beyond their design limits. Further analysis confirmed that the station was unlikely to have suffered any structural damage, and it appears that "structures will still meet their normal lifetime capability".[210] 2009 also saw damage to the S1 radiator, one of the components of the station's cooling system. The problem was first noticed in Soyuz imagery in September 2008, but was not thought to be serious.[211] The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel has peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly due to micro-meteoroid or debris impact. It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover, jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, had struck the S1 radiator, but its effect, if any, has not been determined. On 15 May 2009 the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve. The same valve was used immediately afterwards to vent the ammonia from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an ammonia leak from the cooling system via the damaged panel.[211]
Early on 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems.[212][213][214] The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down.
Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed due to an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August successfully removed the failed pump module.[215][216] A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality.[217][218]
The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the American company Boeing,[219] which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump.[220]
An air leak from the USOS in 2004,[221] the venting of smoke from an Elektron oxygen generator in 2006,[222] and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during STS-117 which left the station without thruster, Elektron, Vozdukh and other environmental control system operations, the root cause of which was found to be condensation inside the electrical connectors leading to a short-circuit.[citation needed]
Politics
International co-operation
International co-operation in space began in the early 1970's with the docking of Soyuz 19 and Apollo 18, known in the US as the Apollo-Soyuz program, and in the USSR as the Soyuz-Apollo program. From 1978-1987 the USSR's Interkosmos program included allied Warsaw Pact countries, and countries which were not Soviet allies, such as India, Syria and France, in manned and unmanned missions to Space stations Salyut 6 and 7. In 1986 the USSR extended this co-operation to a dozen countries in the MIR program. In 1994-98 NASA space shuttles and crew visited MIR in the Shuttle-Mir program. In 1998 the ISS program began.
Ownership of modules, station utilization by participant nations, and responsibilities for station resupply are established by the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA). This international treaty was signed on 28 January 1998 by the primary nations involved in the Space Station project; the United States of America, Russia, Japan, Canada and eleven member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom).[20][22] A second layer of agreements was then achieved, called Memoranda of Understanding (MOU), between NASA and ESA, CSA, RKA and JAXA. These agreements are then further split, such as for the contractual obligations between nations, and trading of partners' rights and obligations.[22] Use of the Russian Orbital Segment is also negotiated at this level.[23]
In addition to these main intergovernmental agreements, Brazil originally joined the programme as a bilateral partner of the United States by a contract with NASA to supply hardware.[223] In return, NASA would provide Brazil with access to its ISS facilities on-orbit, as well as a flight opportunity for one Brazilian astronaut during the course of the ISS programme. However, due to cost issues, the subcontractor Embraer was unable to provide the promised ExPrESS pallet, and Brazil left the programme.[224] Italy has a similar contract with NASA to provide comparable services, although Italy also takes part in the programme directly via its membership in ESA.[225] The Chinese, who have their own space station program in progress (Tiangong) have reportedly expressed interest in the project, especially if it would be able to work with the RKA. Chinese manned spacecraft and space stations have Russian compatible docking systems. However, as of December 2010[update] China remains uninvolved.[226][227] The heads of both the South Korean and Indian space agency ISRO announced at the first plenary session of the 2009 International Astronautical Congress that their nations intend to join the ISS programme, with talks due to begin in 2010. The heads of agency also expressed support for extending ISS lifetime.[228] European countries not part of the programme will be allowed access to the station in a three-year trial period, ESA officials say.[229]
The Russian part of the station is operated and controlled by the Russian Federation's space agency and provides Russia with the right to nearly one-half of the crew time for the ISS. The allocation of remaining crew time (three to four crew members of the total permanent crew of six) and hardware within the other sections of the station is as follows: Columbus: 51% for the ESA, 46.7% for NASA, and 2.3% for CSA.[22] Kibō: 51% for the JAXA, 46.7% for NASA, and 2.3% for CSA.[132] Destiny: 97.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA.[230] Crew time, electrical power and rights to purchase supporting services (such as data upload and download and communications) are divided 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA, and 2.3% for CSA.[22][132][230]
Cost
The cost estimates for the entire ISS programme range from 35 billion to 160 billion US$.[231] ESA the only partner agency which publishes global costs for the ISS, estimates €100 billion for the entire station over 30 years.[232] This overall cost comprises contributions from all partner agencies.
RSA costs are difficult to determine as substantial development costs of the Progress spacecraft, Soyuz spacecraft and Proton rockets used for module launches, are spread across previous Soviet rocket programmes. Cost of development for module design such as DOS base blocks, life support and docking systems are spread across the budgets of the Salyut, Almaz, and Mir 1 and 2 programmes. Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin stated in Januray 2011 that the government will spend 115 billion rubles (US$3.8 billion) on national space programmes in 2011, however this includes the entire space programme which will launch a spacecraft on average once per week during 2011.[233]
The NASA budget for 2007 estimates costs for the ISS (excluding space shuttle costs) at US$25.6 billion for the years 1994 to 2005, with the annual United States contribution increasing from 2010 to US$2.3 billion. This level is likely to remain relatively constant until around 2017. Based on costs incurred plus a projected $2.5 billion per year from 2011–2017, NASA spending since 1993 comes to approximately US$53 billion. An additional 33 Shuttle assembly and supply flights equates to $35 billion. With addition costs from development of Space Station Freedom, NASA's contribution comes to approximately US$100 billion.[citation needed]
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ESA spending on a 30-year projected station lifespan is €8 billion, consisting of Columbus development (€1 Billion) plus ATV costs including ATV's development up until ATV-1 (€1.35 billion), subsequent ATV launches (€875 Million for each of four spacecraft) and Ariane 5 launch costs (€125 million each), giving ATV total costs of €2.85 billion.[citation needed]
JAXA's costs include the Kibō laboratory (¥7,100 billion), consisting of development (c.¥250 billion), equipment development(¥450 billion), totalling approximately ¥2360 billion in costs and expenses of shuttle launches, plus operating costs of US$350–400 million annually. Other costs include HTV development (¥68 billion) and launch costs (c.¥250 billion), plus astronaut training, ground facilities and experiment-related expenses totalling approximately ¥110 billion. This gives total annual costs to JAXA of about ¥400 billion yen.[citation needed]
CSA spending over the last 20 years is estimated at CA$1.4 billion, including development of the Canadarm2 and SPDM.[citation needed]
Criticism
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Critics of the ISS contend that the time and money spent on the ISS could be better spent on other projects—whether they be robotic spacecraft missions, space exploration, investigations of problems on Earth, colonization of Mars, or tax savings.[234][235]
The research capabilities of the ISS have been criticised, particularly following the cancellation of the ambitious Centrifuge Accommodations Module, which, alongside other equipment cancellations, means scientific research performed on the station is generally limited to experiments which do not require any specialised apparatus. For example, in the first half of 2007, ISS research dealt primarily with human biological responses to living and working in space, covering topics like kidney stones, circadian rhythm, and the effects of cosmic rays on the nervous system.[236][237][238] Other criticisms hinge on the technical design of the ISS, including the high inclination of the station's orbit, which leads to a higher cost for United States-based launches to the station.[239]
End of mission
In 2009, NASA had stated plans to end the ISS programme and deorbit the ISS in early 2016.[240] This was in accordance with the then-President Bush's policy. President Obama announced new policy in 2010, extending the programme through 2020.[241]
All five ISS-participating space agencies had indicated in 2010 their desire to see the platform continue flying beyond 2015, but Europe struggled to agree on funding arrangements within its member states, until agreement was reached in March 2011.[242][243][244] Russia and ISS partners in a 2011 statement said that work is being done to make sure other modules can be used beyond 2015. The first Russian module was launched in 1998, and the 30th anniversary of that module's launch has been chosen as a target date for certification of all components of the ISS.[242]
According to a 2009 report, RKK Energia is considering methods to remove from the station some modules of the Russian Orbital Segment when the end of mission is reached and use them as a basis for a new station, known as the Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (OPSEK). The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS include the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM), currently scheduled to be launched in may 2012, with other Russian modules which are currently planned to be attached to the MLM until 2015, although still currently unfunded. Neither the MLM nor any additional modules attached to it would have reached the end of their useful lives in 2016 or 2020. The report presents a statement from an unnamed Russian engineer who believes that, based on the experience from Mir, a thirty-year life should be possible, except for micrometeorite damage, because the Russian modules have been built with on-orbit refurbishment in mind.[245]
According to the Outer Space Treaty the United States is legally responsible for all modules it has launched.[246] In ISS planning, NASA examined options including returning the station to Earth via shuttle missions (deemed too expensive, as the station(USOS) is not designed for disassembly and this would require at least 27 shuttle missions[247]), natural orbital decay with random reentry similar to Skylab, boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would simply delay reentry) and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area.[248]
The technical feasibility of a controlled targeted deorbit into a remote ocean was found to be possible only with Russia's assistance.[248] At the time ISS was launched, the Russian Space Agency had experience from de-orbiting the Salyut 4, 5, 6, and 7 space stations, while NASA's first intentional controlled de-orbit of a satellite (the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory) would not occur for another two years.[249] NASA currently has no spacecraft capable of de-orbiting the ISS at the time of decommissioning.[250] Skylab, the only space station built and launched entirely by the US, decayed from orbit slowly over 5 years, and no attempt was made to de-orbit the station using a deorbital burn. Remains of Skylab hit populated areas of Esperance, Western Australia.[251] without injuries or loss of life.
While the entire USOS cannot be reused and will be discarded, some Russian modules will be reused. Nauka, the Node module, two science power platforms and Rassvet, launched between 2010 and 2015 and joined to the ROS will be separated to form the next Russian space station OPSEK.[252]
In media
Motion pictures
The free movie First Orbit, documents what the first human being to travel into space would have seen, that is, 'more than most people do in a lifetime'[253]. By timing filming, to match the orbital path of the Space Station as closely as possible, to that of Gagarin's Vostok 1 spaceship, and filming the same vistas of the Earth through the cupola window, experienced photographer Paolo Nespoli, and documentary film maker Christopher Riley, recreate what Gagarin first witnessed fifty years before. Christopher Riley states "Composer Philip Sheppard sets the different moods for the film, from the launch and flight over frozen Siberia, to the approach of the terminator and dusk, through the long dark night over the Pacific Ocean, to dawn breaking and the welcome return of the sun just south of Argentina."[254][255]
Anousheh Ansari (Persian: انوشه انصاری) became the first Iranian in space and the first self-funded woman to fly to the station. Officials reported that her education and experience make her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been "excellent."[256] Ansari herself dismisses the idea that she is a tourist. She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiology during her 10 day stay. The documentary Space Tourists follows her journey to the station, where she fulfilled the childhood dream 'to leave our planet as a normal person and travel into outer space.'[257] In the film, some Kazakhs are shown waiting in the middle of the steppes for four rocket stages to literally fall from the sky. Film-maker Christian Frei states "Filming the work of the Kazakh scrap metal collectors was anything but easy. The Russian authorities finally gave us a film permit in principle, but they imposed crippling preconditions on our activities. The real daily routine of the scrap metal collectors could definitely not be shown. Secret service agents and military personnel dressed in overalls and helmets were willing to re-enact their work for the cameras – in an idealized way that officials in Moscow deemed to be presentable, but not at all how it takes place in reality."
The 2002 remake of the motion picture Solaris is set on the fictional space station Prometheus. The internal and external forms for Prometheus were based upon the International Space Station. The films director and production designer wanted to illicit a sense of realism and give the station a more hi-tech steel and composites look than the 1972 original film, based upon the novel by Stanisław Lem. Prometheus has the same claustrophobic, space-conserving interior as the ISS. Hanson, Matt. Building sci-fi moviescapes: the science behind the fiction. pp. 97–98. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
The ISS is seen in the movie The Time Machine as the Earth is rapidly spinning through time during the first time travel sequence of the film.
In the year 2039, Astronaut Lee Miller is sent to the International Space Station as a one-man skeleton crew to examine if it is safe for use after it had been abandoned two decades earlier. Love portrays the personal-psychological effects of isolation and loneliness when an astronaut becomes stranded in space and through this, emphasizes the importance of human connection and love. Additionally, it touches on the fragility of mankind's existence (explored through a dying Earth-apocalyptic doomsday scenario) inspired by the cautions of Carl Sagan in Pale Blue Dot and considers the importance of memories and stories as humanity's legacy.
Video games
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The ISS is destroyed accidentally by a submarine launched ICBM aimed at Washington D.C. in the videogame Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. The player also briefly assumes the role of an unnamed ISS crew-member during an EVA moments prior to the station's destruction.
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In Gravity, a novel by Tess Gerritsen, cells in an experiment on board the ISS rapidly multiply and soon begin to infect the crew-with agonizing and deadly results. The novel has been compared to The Andromeda Strain. [258]
Every creature on Earth with a Y chromosome is killed by a deadly virus in Y: The Last Man, except two male ISS crewmembers, who die accidentally returning to Earth in their Soyuz, but the third crew member, a woman, is pregnant.
Baikonour is a love story with a twist, featuring a French cosmonaut who blasts off from the cosmodrome as a space tourist only to crash land upon re-entry. "The capsule lands in the Kazakh steppe and is found by this young boy because the rescue team is late,” Director Viet Helmer told RT. “The young boy takes the girl to his yurt because she is in a coma. He tries to wake her and when she wakes up, he tells her she’s his wife because she can’t remember anything.”
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External links
- Official International Space Station webpages of the participating space agencies
- NASA.
- RSC Energia.
- Russian Federal Space Agency.
- Canadian Space Agency.
- European Space Agency.
- Japanese Space Agency.
- Italian Space Agency.
- Daily ISS Reports.
- Interactive and multimedia
- ISS - Interactive Reference Guide.
- ISS - Image Gallery Search Page.
- ISS - Assembly Sequence - Animation.
- ISS - Current position.
- ISS - Satellite Tracking Website.
- ISS - Video (01:02) - Earth (Time-Lapse).
- ISS - Video (00:27) - Earth and Auroras (Time-Lapse).
- ISS - "Live" Webcam.
- Experiments and science
- NASA - Station Science.
- ESA - Columbus.
- JAXA - Space Environment Utilization and Space Experiment.
- RSC Energia - Science Research on ISS Russian Segment.
- China Launched Own Chinese Space Station Tiangong-1 Experimental Module
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See also: ISS expeditions, Uncrewed ISS flights | ||
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Notes: † Never inhabited due to launch or on-orbit failure, ‡ Part of the Almaz military program, ° Never inhabited, lacks docking mechanism. | |||||||||
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