Jump to content

Prometheus: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
LURYpenis
Line 3: Line 3:
[[File:Prometheus Adam Louvre MR1745 edit atoma.jpg|thumb|300px|Prometheus depicted in a sculpture by [[Nicolas-Sébastien Adam]], 1762 ([[Louvre]])]]
[[File:Prometheus Adam Louvre MR1745 edit atoma.jpg|thumb|300px|Prometheus depicted in a sculpture by [[Nicolas-Sébastien Adam]], 1762 ([[Louvre]])]]


'''Prometheus''' ({{lang-gr|Προμηθεύς}}) is a [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]], [[culture hero]], and [[trickster]] figure who in [[Greek mythology]] is credited with the [[creation of man from clay]] and the [[theft of fire]] for human use, an act that enabled progress and civilization. He is known for his intelligence, and as a champion of mankind.<ref>William Hansen, ''Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans'' (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 32, 48–50, 69–73, 93, 96, 102–104, 140; as trickster figure, p. 310.</ref>
'''Prometheus''' ({{lang-gr|Προμηθεύς}}) is a [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]], [[culture hero]], and [[trickster]] figure who in [[Greek mythology]] is credited with the [[creation of man from clay]] and the [[theft of fire]] for human use, an act that enaafnjhslgoihae;uogihwb;jg;jnfkj;idb;infa;sdkfjnv;kjsv'osan'oif'ndzx;vaseh'ojnwsochasnk fewrf;asd[3owndlsioz aiok/;nadfhlBAE;IFDUUGBa;IH:ia;KHKHzXUOX;:adiouOJA;UIah;Ioverreaching or unintended consequences. In particular, he was regarded in the [[Romanticism|Romantic era]] as embodying the lone genius whose efforts to improve human existence could also result in tragedy: [[Mary Shelley]], for instance, gave ''The Modern Prometheus'' as the subtitle to her novel ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818).

The punishment of Prometheus as a consequence of the theft is a major theme of his mythology, and is a popular subject of both ancient and modern art. [[Zeus]], king of the [[Olympian gods]], sentenced the Titan to eternal torment for his transgression. The immortal Prometheus was bound to a rock, where each day an [[eagle]], the emblem of Zeus, was sent to feed on his [[liver]], only to have it grow back to be eaten again the next day. In some stories, Prometheus is freed at last by the [[Greek hero|hero]] [[Heracles]] ([[Hercules]]).

In another of his myths, Prometheus establishes the form of [[animal sacrifice]] practiced in [[Religion in ancient Greece|ancient Greek religion]]. Evidence of a [[cult (religion)|cult]] to Prometheus himself is not widespread. He was a focus of religious activity mainly at [[ancient Athens|Athens]], where he was linked to [[Athena]] and [[Hephaestus]], other Greek deities of creative skills and technology.<ref>[[Lewis Richard Farnell]], ''The Cults of the Greek States'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1896), vol. 1, pp. 36, 49, 75, 277, 285, 314, 346; Carol Dougherty, ''Prometheus'' (Routledge, 2006), p. 42ff..</ref>

In the [[Western civilization|Western]] [[classical tradition]], Prometheus became a figure who represented human striving, particularly the quest for scientific knowledge, and the risk of overreaching or unintended consequences. In particular, he was regarded in the [[Romanticism|Romantic era]] as embodying the lone genius whose efforts to improve human existence could also result in tragedy: [[Mary Shelley]], for instance, gave ''The Modern Prometheus'' as the subtitle to her novel ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818).


==Etymology==
==Etymology==
;fijjwku
The ancients believed that the name ''Prometheus'' derived from the Greek ''pro'' (before) + ''manthano'' (learn) and the [[agent suffix]] -''eus'', thus meaning "Forethinker". [[Plato]] contrasts Prometheus with his dull-witted brother [[Epimetheus (mythology)|Epimetheus]], "Afterthinker".<ref>Plato, ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)#Protagoras' great speech|Protagoras]]''; Hansen, ''Classical Mythology,'' p. 159.</ref> Writing in [[late antiquity]], the Latin commentator [[Servius]] explains that Prometheus was so named because he was a man of great foresight ''(vir prudentissimus)'', possessing the abstract quality of ''[[providentia]]'', the Latin equivalent of Greek ''promētheia'' ({{lang|grc|ἀπὸ τής πρόμηθείας}}).<ref>[[Servius]], note to [[Vergil]]'s ''[[Eclogue]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Serv.+Ecl.+6.42&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0091 6.42]: ''Prometheus vir prudentissimus fuit, unde etiam Prometheus dictus est'' {{lang|grc|ἀπὸ τής πρόμηθείας}}'', id est a providentia''.</ref>
ygv

== Mythology ==jfsah;ogsdaihfasiuasehn;roih"LOGih'tGUHQokwbef;oiuHSX:O*Uy;jkob'pfoijDAP97TG
Modern scientific linguistics suggests that the name derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European root]] that also produces the [[vedic sanskrit|Vedic]] ''pra math'', "to steal," hence ''pramathyu-s'', "thief", [[cognate]] with "Prometheus", the thief of fire. The [[Vedic mythology|Vedic myth]] of fire's theft by [[Mātariśvan]] is an analog to the Greek account. ''Pramantha'' was the tool used to create fire.<ref>Fortson 2004, 27; Williamson 2004, 214–15; Dougherty 2006, 4.</ref>

== Mythology ==
{{Greek myth (Titan)}}
{{Greek myth (Titan)}}


Revision as of 13:19, 26 September 2012

This article is about the Greek Titan. For other uses, see Prometheus (disambiguation).
Prometheus depicted in a sculpture by Nicolas-Sébastien Adam, 1762 (Louvre)

Prometheus (Greek: Προμηθεύς) is a Titan, culture hero, and trickster figure who in Greek mythology is credited with the creation of man from clay and the theft of fire for human use, an act that enaafnjhslgoihae;uogihwb;jg;jnfkj;idb;infa;sdkfjnv;kjsv'osan'oif'ndzx;vaseh'ojnwsochasnk fewrf;asd[3owndlsioz aiok/;nadfhlBAE;IFDUUGBa;IH:ia;KHKHzXUOX;:adiouOJA;UIah;Ioverreaching or unintended consequences. In particular, he was regarded in the Romantic era as embodying the lone genius whose efforts to improve human existence could also result in tragedy: Mary Shelley, for instance, gave The Modern Prometheus as the subtitle to her novel Frankenstein (1818).

Etymology

fijjwku

ygv == Mythology ==jfsah;ogsdaihfasiuasehn;roih"LOGih'tGUHQokwbef;oiuHSX:O*Uy;jkob'pfoijDAP97TG

Greek deities
series
Titans
The Twelve Titans
Children of Cronus
Children of Oceanus
Children of Hyperion
Daughters of Coeus
Sons of Iapetus
Sons of Crius

Hesiod

The Prometheus myth first appeared in the late 8th-century BC Greek epic poet Hesiod's Theogony (lines 507–616). He was a son of the Titan Iapetus by Clymene, one of the Oceanids. He was brother to Menoetius, Atlas, and Epimetheus. In the Theogony, Hesiod introduces Prometheus as a lowly challenger to Zeus's omniscience and omnipotence.[1]

In the trick at Mecone, a sacrificial meal marking the "settling of accounts" between mortals and immortals, Prometheus played a trick against Zeus (545–557). He placed two sacrificial offerings before the Olympian: a selection of beef hidden inside an ox's stomach (nourishment hidden inside a displeasing exterior), and the bull's bones wrapped completely in "glistening fat" (something inedible hidden inside a pleasing exterior). Zeus chose the latter, setting a precedent for future sacrifices.[2]

Henceforth, humans would keep that meat for themselves and burn the bones wrapped in fat as an offering to the gods. This angered Zeus, who hid fire from humans in retribution. In this version of the myth, the use of fire was already known to humans, but withdrawn by Zeus.[3] Prometheus, however, stole back fire in a giant fennel-stalk and restored it to mankind. This further enraged Zeus, who sent Pandora, the first woman, to live with men.[4]

Pandora was fashioned by Hephaestus out of clay and brought to life by the four winds, with all the goddesses of Olympus assembled to adorn her. "From her is the race of women and female kind," Hesiod writes; "of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble, no helpmeets in hateful poverty, but only in wealth."[5]

Prometheus, in eternal punishment, is chained to a rock in the Caucasus, where his liver is eaten daily by an eagle,[6] only to be regenerated by night, due to his immortality.[7] Years later, the Greek hero Heracles (Hercules) slays the eagle and frees Prometheus from his chains.[8]

Hesiod revisits the story of Prometheus in the Works and Days (lines 42–105). Here, the poet expands upon Zeus's reaction to the theft of fire. Not only does Zeus withhold fire from men, but "the means of life," as well (42). Had Prometheus not provoked Zeus's wrath (44–47), "you would easily do work enough in a day to supply you for a full year even without working; soon would you put away your rudder over the smoke, and the fields worked by ox and sturdy mule would run to waste." Hesiod also expands upon the Theogony's story of the first woman, now explicitly called Pandora ("all gifts"). After Prometheus' theft of fire, Zeus sent Pandora in retaliation. Despite Prometheus' warning, Epimetheus accepted this "gift" from the gods. Pandora carried a jar with her, from which were released (91–92) "evils, harsh pain and troublesome diseases which give men death".[9] Pandora shut the lid of the jar too late to contain all the evil plights that escaped, but foresight remained in the jar, giving mankind hope.

Angelo Casanova,[10] Professor of Greek Literature at the University of Florence, finds in Prometheus a reflection of an ancient, pre-Hesiodic trickster-figure, who served to account for the mixture of good and bad in human life, and whose fashioning of men from clay was an Eastern motif familiar in Enuma Elish; as an opponent of Zeus he was an analogue of the Titans, and like them was punished. As an advocate for humanity he gains semi-divine status at Athens, where the episode in Theogony in which he is liberated[11] is interpreted by Casanova as a post-Hesiodic interpolation.[12]

Aeschylus

Prometheus Bound, perhaps the most famous treatment of the myth to be found among the Greek tragedies, is traditionally attributed to the 5th-century BC Greek tragedian Aeschylus. At the center of the drama are the results of Prometheus' theft of fire and his current punishment by Zeus; the playwright's dependence on the Hesiodic source material is clear, though Prometheus Bound also includes a number of changes to the received tradition.[13]

Before his theft of fire, Prometheus played a decisive role in the Titanomachy, securing victory for Zeus and the other Olympians. Zeus's torture of Prometheus thus becomes a particularly harsh betrayal. The scope and character of Prometheus' transgressions against Zeus are also widened. In addition to giving humankind fire, Prometheus claims to have taught them the arts of civilization, such as writing, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and science. The Titan's greatest benefaction for humankind seems to have been saving them from complete destruction. In an apparent twist on the myth of the so-called Five Ages of Man found in Hesiod's Works and Days (wherein Cronus and, later, Zeus created and destroyed five successive races of mortal men), Prometheus asserts that Zeus had wanted to obliterate the human race, but that he somehow stopped him.

Heracles freeing Prometheus from his torment by the eagle (Attic black-figure cup, ca. 500 BC)

Moreover, Aeschylus anachronistically and artificially injects Io, another victim of Zeus's violence and ancestor of Heracles, into Prometheus' story. Finally, just as Aeschylus gave Prometheus a key role in bringing Zeus to power, he also attributed to him secret knowledge that could lead to Zeus's downfall: Prometheus had been told by his mother Gaia of a potential marriage that would produce a son who would overthrow Zeus. Fragmentary evidence indicates that Heracles, as in Hesiod, frees the Titan in the trilogy's second play, Prometheus Unbound. It is apparently not until Prometheus reveals this secret of Zeus's potential downfall that the two reconcile in the final play, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer or Prometheus Pyrphoros, a lost tragedy by Aeschylus.

Prometheus Bound also includes two mythic innovations of omission. The first is the absence of Pandora's story in connection with Prometheus' own. Instead, Aeschylus includes this one oblique allusion to Pandora and her jar that contained Hope (252): "[Prometheus] caused blind hopes to live in the hearts of men." Second, Aeschylus makes no mention of the sacrifice-trick played against Zeus in the Theogony.[14]

These innovations reflect the play's thematic reversal of the Hesiodic myth[citation needed]. In Hesiod, the story of Prometheus (and, by extension, of Pandora) serves to reinforce the theodicy of Zeus: he is a wise and just ruler of the universe, while Prometheus is to blame for humanity's unenviable existence[citation needed]. In Prometheus Bound, this dynamic is transposed: Prometheus becomes the benefactor of humanity, while every character in the drama (except for Hermes, a virtual stand-in for Zeus) decries the Olympian as a cruel, vicious tyrant.[citation needed]

Other authors

Creation of man by Prometheus as Athena looks on (Roman-era relief, 3rd century AD)
Prometheus watches Athena endow his creation with reason (painting by Christian Griepenkerl, 1877)

Some two dozen other Greek and Roman authors retold and further embellished the Prometheus myth into the 4th century AD. The most significant detail added to the myth found in, e.g., Sappho, Plato, Aesop and Ovid — was the central role of Prometheus in the creation of the human race. According to these sources, Prometheus fashioned humans out of clay. In the dialogue Protagoras, Protagoras asserts that the gods created humans and all the other animals, but it was left to Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus to give defining attributes to each. As no physical traits were left when the pair came to humans, Prometheus decided to give them fire and other civilizing arts.[15]

Although perhaps made explicit in the Prometheia, later authors such as Hyginus, the Bibliotheca, and Quintus of Smyrna would confirm that Prometheus warned Zeus not to marry the sea nymph Thetis. She is consequently married off to the mortal Peleus, and bears him a son greater than the father — Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. Pseudo-Apollodorus moreover clarifies a cryptic statement (1026–29) made by Hermes in Prometheus Bound, identifying the centaur Chiron as the one who would take on Prometheus' suffering and die in his place.[15]

Reflecting a myth attested in Greek vase paintings from the Classical period, Pseudo-Apollodorus places the Titan (armed with an axe) at the birth of Athena, thus explaining how the goddess sprang forth from the forehead of Zeus.[15]

Other minor details attached to the myth include: the duration of Prometheus' torment;[16][17] the origin of the eagle that ate the Titan's liver (found in Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus); Pandora's marriage to Epimetheus (found in Pseudo-Apollodorus); myths surrounding the life of Prometheus' son, Deucalion (found in Ovid and Apollonius of Rhodes); and Prometheus' marginal role in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (found in Apollonius of Rhodes and Valerius Flaccus).[15]

Anecdotally, the Roman fabulist Phaedrus attributes to Aesop a simple etiology for homosexuality, in Prometheus' getting drunk while creating the first humans and misapplying the genitalia.[18]

Religious cult

Despite his importance to the myths and imaginative literature of ancient Greece, the religious cult of Prometheus during the Archaic and Classical periods seems to have been limited.[19] Writing in the 2nd century AD, the satirist Lucian points out that while temples to the major Olympians were everywhere, none to Prometheus is to be seen.[20]

Heracles freeing Prometheus, relief from the Temple of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias

Athens was the exception. The altar of Prometheus in the grove of the Academy was the point of origin for several significant processions and other events regularly observed on the Athenian calendar. For the Panathenaic festival, arguably the most important civic festival at Athens, a torch race began at the altar, which was located outside the sacred boundary of the city, and passed through the Kerameikos, the district inhabited by potters and other artisans who regarded Prometheus and Hephaestus as patrons.[21] The race then traveled to the heart of the city, where it kindled the sacrificial fire on the altar of Athena on the Acropolis to conclude the festival.[22] These footraces took the form of relays in which teams of runners passed off a flaming torch. According to Pausanias (2nd century AD), the torch relay, called lampadedromia or lampadephoria, was first instituted at Athens in honor of Prometheus.[23] By the Classical period, the races were run by ephebes also in honor of Hephaestus and Athena.[24] Prometheus' association with fire is the key to his religious significance[25] and to the alignment with Athena and Hephaestus that was specific to Athens and its "unique degree of cultic emphasis" on honoring technology.[26] The festival of Prometheus was the Prometheia. The wreaths worn symbolized the chains of Prometheus.[27]

Pausanias recorded a few other religious sites in Greece devoted to Prometheus. Both Argos and Opous claimed to be Prometheus' final resting place, each erecting a tomb in his honor. The Greek city of Panopeus had a cult statue that was supposed to honor Prometheus for having created the human race there.[15]

In Greek art

Prometheus' torment by the eagle and his rescue by Heracles were popular subjects in vase paintings of the 6th–4th c. BC. He also sometimes appears in depictions of Athena's birth from Zeus' forehead. There was a relief sculpture of Prometheus with Pandora on the base of Athena's cult statue in the Athenian Parthenon of the 5th century BC.

Comparative mythology

The two most prominent aspects of the Prometheus myth have parallels within the beliefs of many cultures throughout the world; see creation of man from clay and theft of fire.

In Georgian mythology, Amirani is a culture hero who challenged the chief god, and like Prometheus was chained on the Caucasian mountains where birds would eat his organs.[citation needed]

Classical tradition

Mythological narrative of Prometheus by Piero di Cosimo (1515)
See also: Prometheus in popular culture

The myth of Prometheus has been a favorite theme of Western art and literature in the classical tradition, and occasionally in works produced outside the West.

Literature

For the Romantic era, Prometheus was the rebel who resisted all forms of institutional tyranny epitomized by Zeus — church, monarch, and patriarch. The Romantics drew comparisons between Prometheus and the spirit of the French Revolution, Christ, the Satan of John Milton's Paradise Lost, and the divinely inspired poet or artist. Prometheus is the lyrical "I" who speaks in Goethe's Sturm und Drang poem "Prometheus" (written ca. 1772–74, published 1789), addressing God (as Zeus) in misotheist accusation and defiance. In Prometheus Unbound (1820), a four-act lyrical drama, Percy Bysshe Shelley rewrites the lost play of Aeschylus so that Prometheus does not submit to Zeus (under the Latin name Jupiter), but instead supplants him in a triumph of the human heart and intellect over tyrannical religion. Lord Byron's poem "Prometheus" also portrays the Titan as unrepentant. Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein is subtitled "The Modern Prometheus", in reference to the novel's themes of the over-reaching of modern man into dangerous areas of knowledge.

Prometheus (1909) by Otto Greiner

Franz Kafka (d. 1924) wrote a short piece on Prometheus, outlining what he saw as the four aspects of his myth:

According to the first, he was clamped to a rock in the Caucasus for betraying the secrets of the gods to men, and the gods sent eagles to feed on his liver, which was perpetually renewed.
According to the second, Prometheus, goaded by the pain of the tearing beaks, pressed himself deeper and deeper into the rock until he became one with it.
According to the third, his treachery was forgotten in the course of thousands of years, forgotten by the gods, the eagles, forgotten by himself.
According to the fourth, everyone grew weary of the meaningless affair. The gods grew weary, the eagles grew weary, the wound closed wearily.
There remains the inexplicable mass of rock. The legend tried to explain the inexplicable. As it came out of a substratum of truth it had in turn to end in the inexplicable.[28]

The British poet Ted Hughes titled a 1973 collection of poems Prometheus On His Crag. The Nepali poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota (d. 1949) wrote an epic entitled Prometheus (प्रमीथस).

Classical music, opera, and ballet

Works of classical music, opera, and ballet based on the myth of Prometheus include:

In painting

In landscape painting

  • Prometheus Chained on the Snowy Peaks of the Caucasus by Francesco Foschi (1710–1780)
    Prometheus Chained on the Snowy Peaks of the Caucasus by Francesco Foschi (1710–1780)
  • Prometheus Bound by Thomas Cole (1801–1848)
    Prometheus Bound by Thomas Cole (1801–1848)

In sculpture

Science

The myth of Prometheus, with its theme of invention and discovery, has been used in science-related names and as a metaphor for scientific progress.

Liver regeneration

Prometheus by Theodoor Rombouts (1597–1637)

Scientific and medical literature about liver regeneration often alludes to Prometheus and the devouring and daily regrowth of his liver. Some think[30] the myth even indicates that the ancient Greeks knew about the liver’s remarkable capacity for self-repair. The Greek word for liver, hēpar, hepat- (ἧπαρ, cf. English "hepatitis", "hepatology", etc.) is derived from the verb hēpaomai (ἠπάομαι), meaning "mend, repair".[31] While others doubt the significance to Greek medical knowledge,[32] Prometheus's name is associated with biomedical companies involved in regenerative medicine.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 590-93.
  2. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 590-93.
  3. ^ M.L. West commentaries on Hesiod, W.J. Verdenius commentaries on Hesiod, and R. Lamberton's Hesiod, pp.95–100.
  4. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 590-93.
  5. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 590-93.
  6. ^ "The Aetos Kaukasios (or Caucasian Eagle) in the Prometheus Myth". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
  7. ^ The liver is one of the rare human organs to regenerate itself spontaneously in the case of lesion.
  8. ^ "Hesiod, ''Theogony''". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
  9. ^ Hesiod, WORKS AND DAYS Translation By H. G. Evelyn-White
  10. ^ Casanova, La famiglia di Pandora: analisi filologica dei miti di Pandora e Prometeo nella tradizione esiodea (Florence) 1979.
  11. ^ Hesiod, Theogony, 526-33.
  12. ^ In this Casanova is joined by some editors of Theogony.
  13. ^ Some of these changes are rather minor. For instance, rather than being the son of Iapetus and Clymene Prometheus becomes the son of Themis. In addition, the chorus makes a passing reference (561) to Prometheus' wife Hesione, whereas a fragment from Hesiod's Catalogue of Women fr. 4 calls her by the name of Pryneie, a possible corruption for Pronoia.
  14. ^ "Aeschylus, ''Prometheus Bound''". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
  15. ^ a b c d e "Theoi Project: "Prometheus:". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
  16. ^ "30 Years". Mlahanas.de. 1997-11-10. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
  17. ^ "30,000 Years". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
  18. ^ "Dionysos". Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
  19. ^ Dougherty, Prometheus, p. 46.
  20. ^ Lucian, Prometheus 14.
  21. ^ On the association of the cults of Prometheus and Hephaestus, see also Scholiast to Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 56, as cited by Robert Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens (Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 472.
  22. ^ Pausanias 1.30.2; Scholiast to Plato, Phaedrus 231e; Dougherty, Prometheus, p. 46; Peter Wilson, The Athenian Institution of the Khoregia: The Chorus, the City and the Stage (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 35.
  23. ^ Pausanias 1.30.2.
  24. ^ Possibly also Pan; Wilson, The Athenian Institution of the Khoregia, p. 35.
  25. ^ Dougherty, Prometheus, p. 46.
  26. ^ Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, vol. 1, p. 277; Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens, p. 409.
  27. ^ Aeschylus, Suppliants frg. 202, as cited by Parker, Polytheism and Society at Athens, p. 142.
  28. ^ Translated by Willa and Edwin Muir. See Glatzer, Nahum N., ed. "Franz Kafka: The Complete Stories" Schocken Book, Inc.: New York, 1971.
  29. ^ Prometheus Soceity website.
  30. ^ See arguments for the ancient Greeks' knowledge of liver regeneration in Chen T and Chen P (1994), Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 87(12): 754-755.
  31. ^ LSJ entry ἠπάομαι meaning mend, repair
  32. ^ A counterargument is provided by Power C and Rasko J (2008). "Whither Prometheus' Liver? Greek Myth and the Science of Regeneration". Annals of Internal Medicine 149(6): 421-426.

References

  • Alexander, Hartley Burr. The Mythology of All Races. Vol 10: North American. Boston, 1916.
  • Beall, E.F., Hesiod's Prometheus and Development in Myth, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 52, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep., 1991), pp. 355–371
  • Dougherty, Carol. Prometheus. Taylor & Francis, 2006. ISBN 0-415-32406-8, ISBN 978-0-415-32406-9
  • Erdoes, Richard and Alfonso Ortiz, edds. American Indian Myths and Legends. New York, 1984.
  • Fortson, Benjamin. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
  • Judson, Katharine B. Myths and Legends of the Pacific Northwest. Chicago, 1912.
  • Lamberton, Robert. Hesiod, Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-04068-7
  • Swanton, John. "Myths and Tales of the Southeastern Indians." Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 88: 1929.
  • Verdenius, Willem Jacob, "A Commentary on Hesiod: Works and Days, Vv. 1–382", Brill, 1985, ISBN 90-04-07465-1
  • West, M.L., "Hesiod, Theogony, ed. with prolegomena and commentary", Oxford: Clarendon Press 1966
  • West, M.L., "Hesiod, Works and Days, ed. with prolegomena and commentary", Oxford: Clarendon Press 1978
  • Westervelt, W.D. Legends of Maui – a Demigod of Polynesia, and of His Mother Hina. Honolulu, 1910.
  • Williamson, George S. The Longing for Myth in Germany: Religion and Aesthetic Culture from Romanticism to Nietzsche (Chicago, 2004).

Further reading

Look up prometheus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Prometheus.


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prometheus&oldid=514643310"