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Hakka people

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This article is about the Hakka people. For the Hakka language, see Hakka Chinese.
For other uses, see Hakka.
Not to be confused with Haka.
Hakka
客家
Hak-kâ
Regions with significant populations
Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand
Languages
Hakka + language(s) of their country of residence
Religion
Predominantly Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Traditional Chinese religion. Small but significant Christianity.
Related ethnic groups
Other Han Chinese, She people
Hakka people
Chinese客家
Hakkahag2 ga24
Literal meaningguest families
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinkèjiā
Gan
RomanizationKak6 Ga1
Hakka
Romanizationhag2 ga24
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpinghaak3 gaa1

The Hakkas (Hakka language: Hak-kâ; Mandarin Chinese: Kèjiā) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people who live predominantly in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian in China. Their ancestors were often said to have arrived from what is today's central China centuries ago. It is still a contested issue where the Hakkas originated. It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world. The Hakkas have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history: in particular, they have been a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.

Migrations and group identification

The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).

Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and the invasion of foreign conquerors, since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty when China fragmented, during the middle of the Song Dynasty which saw massive depopulation of the north and a flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital, at the fall of the Song to the Mongols in the Yuan Dynasty, and when the Ming Dynasty fell to the Manchu who formed the Qing Dynasty. Some of these migrants did not want to reveal where they were from as under Chinese Laws, a crime of treason committed by one person is punishable by death upon the clan of that person up to nine generations. As the locals did not know where the migrants were from, they were referred to as 'guest families'.

During the reign of Emperor Qing Kangxi, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the dangers posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given monetary incentives to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).

The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or 本地) of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. People were also able to purchase and sell land. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years, and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes known as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (土客械鬥) in the Pearl Delta. The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact the 'locals' were composed of different people speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side all over China, but they would regard each other as 'locals' or Puntis but not the Hakkas.

The term 'Punti' is not however synonymous with 'Cantonese', as a Cantonese in any other part of China, say for example Beijing, would not be able to call himself a 'Punti', as the puntis of the area are the Beijing or Hebei people.

The term 'Punti' is a Hakka word given to the Cantonese by the Hakka people. In Cantonese, the Hakka word 'Punti' is pronounced 'boon-day'.

Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several people speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.

The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, where there are television news broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.

Although different, and also not different, in some social customs and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, the Hakkas are not a separate ethnic group: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties. With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Hakka newcomers and the indigenous people, and between the Punti and Hakka.

The Hakkas have a custom of buying the unwanted baby daughters of the Yue puntis in Guangdong, as Puntis favored sons over daughters. These Punti-moys (本地妹) then made brides for Hakka sons when they grew up. Hakka daughters did not enter Punti households in the same way, and there is no equivalent Hakka-mui term in the Punti vocabulary. The Yue punti genes thus entered Hakka populations.

Social and cultural influences

Tulou buildings in Fujian

Due to their agrarian lifestyle, the Hakkas have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (See Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (See Hakka cuisine).

When Hakkas expanded into areas with pre-existing populations, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education.

Unlike the majority of other Han Chinese women, Hakka women did not practice footbinding.

Hakka people built Tulou buildings which has been inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site[1].

Martial arts

The Hakka community is also a source for a variety of martial arts. Those systems in general are referred to as Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist). Southern Praying Mantis, Bak Mei and Dragon Kung Fu are examples of styles practised by the Hakkas.

Hakkas in mainland China

Meizhou Prefecture (in yellow) in Guangdong Province, where Xingning and Meixian are located

Hakkas in Guangdong

The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Chinese: 圍龍屋, wéilóngwū or Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and sijiaolou (Chinese: 四角樓, sìjǐaolóu or Hakka: Si Kok Liu).

Hakkas in Fujian

The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architectural building known as tu lou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.

(see Hakka architecture)

Hakkas in Hong Kong

Historical background

In contemporary society, the Hakka people in Hong Kong have been identified primarily through their concentration and population in the villages and small towns in the New Territories, which were unpopulated and did not have a native or 'Punti' population. The Hakkas thus became the 'puntis' of these areas when they moved in. During the Qing Dynasty, the Hakka people were displaced and persecuted due to their cultural differences from the Manchus of the Qing. Refusing to practise the binding of feet (which was not a practice in Chinese classical eras), the Hakka people were marked out as 'Hak' or 'guest' people in Hong Kong [Cantonese dialect transliteration], as these people never state which part of China their ancestors were from. The last great migration of the Hakka people towards Hong Kong took place at the time of the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864). Hakka dissenters featured in the anti-government rebellion and subsequently were persecuted following the failure of the Taipings.

The Hakka people practised mainstream Confucian practices as any other Han Chinese group, with a hierarchised dependence on authority given through the family head. Christianised by Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries in the mid-19th century who gave food to the Hakka and the poor, the Hakka were often slanderously categorised by Puntis with the cult practices of Hong Xiuquan's Taiping Tianguo movement. Thus the new settlers were forced by the circumstances and, not physically by the Puntis, to concentrate on the northern New Territories of Hong Kong. The Hakka people placed a greater reliance on the internal strengths of their own customs, cultural identity and education. This model of community survival, dependent on the integrity of the nuclear clan unit in the face of adversity, has contributed to the 20th century outcome of preserving the cultural identity of the Hakka people. British Law was also in force in Hong Kong, preventing any major incidents from taking place. Over the past forty years, due to the social pressures of Hong Kong, many young Hakkas (as well as other internal Chinese migrant groups such as the Shanghai people and the Hoklo people) have been 'localised' and adopted Punti speech.

Occupationally, Hakka were agriculture-based, as were about 95% of the Chinese population then. There was high unemployment in those times as Hong Kong was still a backwater. The Hakka 'mountain song' as well as songs of 'eight tones' have become famous, particularly outside of Hong Kong by several Hakka artists. The traditional Hakka mountain song expressed human struggle and toil in the early and harsh settlement of a land which was untreaded by man, requiring clearing and human effort. Hakka folk-art remains a strong reminder of the folk origin and connection and the naturalistic tendencies of the Hakka populace, working within a self-dependent synergistic agrarian bioecosystem, in exactly the same manner as any other Chinese peasant farmer of the time. Geographically segregated from Qing Dynasty control and persecution following China's military failures of the 19th century, the Hakka people placed great reliance on a traditional but free society with the opportunities to trade and improve. The striving ethos in the Hakka people of Hong Kong also emphasized ancestral and cultural customs with strong Confucian leanings, recognised for its Chineseness, and the modern Western Christian thoughts. In Hong Kong, Hakka villages continue to be aggregated loosely around clanship, maintaining blood-ties to families (often identified through genealogy), as most well connected Puntis also do, but is lost amongst the lower class Puntis. Land rights in The New Territories of Hong Kong are based on English Common Law in respect to Land Law, and apply to both Puntis and Hakkas, and any other people of the region, irrespective of their spoken language. These laws are accepted and followed by the Hong Kong SAR government. Buying and selling of land was also done through the ages.

It is well documented that when the British took over Hong Kong, the territory was almost unpopulated. The Hakkas of Hong Kong were one its earliest inhabitants, and many arrived several centuries before the migration into Hong Kong by Punti Cantonese people. The term Hakka refers to a people and not who was the first to arrived in Hong Kong. To be technically correct, the Hakkas are the Puntis of Hong Kong if one were to make Punti mean aboriginal. Late arrivers to Hong Kong, such the Shanghainese during the Chinese Civil War, are not referred to as 'guests' but by the city from which they took their language. The Hakkas were different as they did not reveal their origins because many of them fled during the period when under the Chinese Law, they could be sentenced to death because someone in their clan within nine generations had committed treason.

Cuisine

The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food - the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats, 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate have a central place in their repertoire. In fact the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine, what you cook depends on what is available in the market. Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty. The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavour (umami taste) of meat. Most of the Chinese restaurants in the United Kingdom are owned by Hakkas.

The Hakkas who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats, instead emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (炸大腸 or Tza Tai Chong). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (鹽焗雞 or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choy (盆菜).[2] While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view. The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China including Guangdong, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka Chinese population. Offal in China was/is also more expensive than meat, as was/is fatty pork more expensive than lean pork. Offal was/is a premier food in China. Other dishes consumed by Hakkas and many Chinese include chicken's feet and duck's feet.

Modern society

It should be noted that the Hakka's modern societal structure and experience includes far more diverse and complex global elements than the Hong Kong landscape, where only a small fraction of the Hakka reside or have transitioned through.

Preservation

In the latter half of the 20th century, a stronger emphasis has been placed on Hakka preservation through folk art and customs. A Hakka language dictionary has also been completed auspiciously on 1997 by Dr CF Lau [ISBN Reference: ISBN 962-201-750-9], a devoted contributor to the preservation of the Hakka language in Hong Kong.

Hakkas worldwide

The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably India, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar.

Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama and Brazil. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There was once a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia, Taiwan or Austria. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world. In Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesian, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek, the Hokkien (Minnan) pronunciation of Ke (Hak).

Hakkas in Indonesia

Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Bangka and Belitung islands as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Kalimantan in the 19th century. In the early 20th Century new arrivals from Meixian joined their compatriots as traders and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta and Pontianak.

Bangka Belitung

Hakkas also live in the Indonesia's biggest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung province.[3] They were the second majority ethnic group after Malay at about 330,000.[4] Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia as well.

The first ancestors of Hakkas in Bangka and Belitung reached the islands in 1700s from Guangdong. Many of them worked as tin mining labourers. Since then, they have stayed on the island along with the native Malay people. The condition is much different with Chinese and natives in other region as they always came into clashes before year of 1999 when Indonesian Chinese finally got their freedom again since 1960s. But here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festival such as celebrating Chinese New Year and Qingming while in other regions, they were strictly banned by government before 1999.[5] The majority religions of Chinese Babel are Confucianism or Buddhism, and significant number of Christian. A little number of them confessed Islam as some of them married Malays.

Hakkas on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by the Malay, especially in younger generations. The younger generations speak much more Malay than the older Hakka generation. As Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words, where differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely, The Hakka dialect spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas from other regions. But they still refer to themselves as Thong ngin as well as younger people and spoke Thong boi. Hakka ngin words are unpopular as well as Hakkafa. The Hakka spoken in the Belinyu area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakkas in the province have moved outside the Islands especially to Jakarta. There are more than 30,000 - 50,000 Chinese Babel in Jakarta who speak both Malay and Thong boi.

There were also a big Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who lived abroad such as in China and Hongkong. They proud to be Chinese Bangka Belitung, so once or twice a year they always returned home to celebrate Chinese new year or pay their respects in Qingming.[6][7]

Pontianak

Hakka people in Pontianak live alongside with teochew speaking Chinese. Whilst the teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the hakkas are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their hakka dialect is originally of Mei Xien (Hakka: MoiYan) standard but heavily influenced by the teochews dialect and vocabularies from the local Malay and Dayak tribes.

The Hakkas in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.

Singkawang

The hakkas in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speaks a different standard of hakka dialect to the hakkas along the Kapuas River. Their place of origin in China is tai phu (Dabu 大埔), a district in Mei Xien. also Fuk Luk Hoi which means winds of the six seas.

Jakarta

Hakka can still be heard in some commercial districts in Jakarta. Their numbers increases with internal migrations from the three regions mentioned above.

Hakkas in East Timor

There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated to be around 25,000 (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion, many Hakkas were killed. According to a book source, it was estimated that about 700 Hakkas were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakkas evacuated and escaped to Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka association registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remained (400 families, including half Timorese families) in East Timor.

Now the Hakka diaspora can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their education in Taiwan or China, with majority of younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, partially related to political situation of East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, or grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakkas had become successful and established food chains, shops, supermarkets and importers in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2002, some Hakka families had returned and invest in businesses in the newborn nation.

Hakkas in Malaysia

Hakkas form the second largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia. During his time, Chung Keng Quee, Capitan China of Perak and Penang was founder of Taiping, leader of the Hai San, a millionaire philanthropist, an innovator in the mining of tin and was respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. A well known Hakka man was Yap Ah Loy, a Kapitan in Kuala Lumpur from 1868 to 1885, where he brought significant economic contributions, founded Kuala Lumpur and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.

In East Malaysia, they form a significant part of the Bornean state of Sabah where most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. Hakka is the lingua franca among the Chinese in Sabah.

Hakkas in Jamaica

Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and they have a long history in Jamaica. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5000 Hakka arrived in Jamaica on 3 major voyages. Most came to Jamaica under contract as indentured servants. Under the terms of the contract, free return passage was available for any Hakka who wanted to return to China. Most of them did.[8] In 1854, 205 Chinese workers who had been working on the Panama canal arrived in Jamaica. They had demanded re-settlement due to the threat of Yellow Fever in Panama. Many were ill upon arrival in Jamaica and were immediately hospitalized in Kingston. Less than 50 or these immigrants survived. The rest died of Yellow Fever.

Chin Pa-kung (a.ka. Jackson Chin), opened a wholesale business in Kingston where the Desnoes and Geddes building now stands. Chang Si-Pah and Lyn Sam opened groceries nearby. These gentleman provided guidance for other Chinese immigrants to Jamaica.[9]

During the 1960s-1970s, there was substantial migration of Hakka Jamaican Chinese to the USA and Canada.

Hakkas in Mauritius

The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region. Some of them have emigrated from Calcutta.

Today the language of most Mauritian Hakkas speak are Creole, French, English and Hakka, depending on how much their parents have tried to keep the Hakka language alive.

Many Mauritian Hakkas have also emigrated to Canada and Australia.

Hakkas in Taiwan

In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15-20% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the second largest ethnic group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.

Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Chungli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong in Kaohsiung County, and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei, Taichung, and Kaohsiung.

Many people in Taiwan are of mixed Hoklo, Hakka, and Formosan aboriginal heritage. Approximately half of the population of Hakka in Taiwan also speak Taiwanese, and it is highly likely that many Taiwanese-speaking households were descendants of Hakka families in Taiwan who lost their language a few generations back.

World Hakka Congress

No Year City Country
1 1971 Hong Kong Hong Kong
2 1973 Taipei Taiwan
3 1976 Taipei Taiwan
4 1978 San Francisco USA
5 1980 Tokyo Japan
6 1982 Bangkok Thailand
7 1984 Taipei Taiwan
8 1986 Mauritius Mauritius
9 1988 San Francisco USA
10 1990 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Malaysia
11 1992 Kaoshiung Taiwan
12 1994 Meixian, Guangdong China
13 1996 Singapore Singapore
14 1998 Miaoli Taiwan
15 1999 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
16 2000 Longyan, Fujian China
17 2001 Jakarta Indonesia
18 2003 Zhengzhou, Henan China
19 2004 Ganzhou, Jiangxi China
20 2005 Chengdu, Sichuan China
21 2006 Taipei Taiwan
22 2008 Xi'an, Shaanxi China
23 2010 Heyuan, Guangdong China
24 2011 Beihai, Guangxi China

Prominent Hakkas

The Hakkas have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their smaller total numbers, on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.

Hakkas were active during the Taiping Rebellion [Jonathan D. Spence, "God's Chinese Son", 1997 - see references], the largest uprising in the modern history of China. The uprising, also known as Jintian Uprising, originated at the Hakka village of Jintian in Guiping, Guangxi. It was led by the failed Qing scholar, Hong Xiuquan, who was influenced by Protestant missionaries. Hong's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following, who were initially Hakka peasants from Guangxi, grew across the southern provinces. The hugely disciplined Taiping army, which included women in their ranks, captured stoutly-defended towns and cities from the Qing defenders. In 1851, less than a year after the uprising, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 太平天囯 was established. It had, at one stage, occupied one-third of China, and almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. The kingdom lasted for eleven years.

Hakkas continue to play prominent roles during the revolutionary and republican years of Kuomintang, as well as during the Chinese Civil War between Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, to which many of the leaders on both sides are Hakkas.

In the 1980s-90s, all the three foremost leaders of the three Chinese-majority states in the world are of Hakka origin: the Republic of China's President Lee Teng-hui, Thailand's Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, and Singapore's founding father, Lee Kuan Yew. Lee Kuan Yew were among four Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by Time magazine. [10]

Hakkas' influence is also evident in Guangdong, China, where the "Hakka Gang" "客家帮" has consistently dominated the provincial government. Presently, the governor, Huang Huahua, and four deputy governors are Hakkas. [11]

Revolutionaries and Politicians

  • Indonesia
    • Low Lan Pak 羅芳伯/罗芳伯 (1738-1778; Meixian, Guangdong), Founder and President, Hakka republic of Lanfang (present Western Kalimantan, now part of Indonesia), 1777-1884
    • Hassan Karman 黄少凡 (Meixian; Guangdong; born in Indonesia), Mayor, Singkawang, Kalimantan; Indonesia's first Chinese mayor
  • Timor-Leste
    • Pedro Lay (born in East Timor), Minister of Infrastructure, 2007-
    • Gil Alves (born in East Timor), Minister of Tourism, Commerce & Industry, 2007-
  • Mauritius
    • Sir Moilin Jean Ah-Chuen 朱梅麟 (1909-1991; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), First Chinese member, Legislative Council, 1949; Minister of Local Government, 1967-1976; Second Hakka after Sun Yatsen to have his portrait printed on the bills of a country's currency [21]
    • Noel Lee Cheong Lem 李國華/李国华 (1951-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Tourism, 1993-1995
    • Joseph Tsang Mang Kin 曾繁興/曾繁兴 (1938-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Art and Culture, 1995-2000
    • Emmanuel Jean Leung Shing 陳念汀/陈念汀 (1944-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Justice and Human Rights, 2000-2005
    • Sylvio Tang Wah Hing 鄧學升/邓学升 (Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Youth and Sports, 2005-
  • Australia
    • Penny Wong 黃英賢/黃英贤 (1968, born in Malaysia), Australia's first Asian Cabinet Minister, 2007-
    • Alfred Huang 黃國鑫/黄国鑫 [22] (Jiaoling, Guangdong, born in China), Lord Mayor, Adelaide, 2000-2003; Australia's first Chinese Lord Mayor
    • Henry Tsang 曾筱龍/曾筱龙 (1943-; Wuhua, Guangdong; born in China), Deputy Lord Mayor, Sydney, 1991-1999
    • Robert Chong 鐘富喜/钟富喜 [23] (Meixian, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Mayor, Whitehorse, Victoria, 2001-2002, 2004

Government Officials

Entrepreneurs and Corporate Figures

  • Cheong Fatt Tze 張弼士/张弼士 (1840-1916; Dabu, Guangdong), Powerful industralist in South-east Asia who contributed to the interests of Overseas Chinese during China's Qing Dynasty and Republican era
  • Aw Boon Haw 胡文虎 (1882-1954; Yongding, Fujian; born in Burma) and Aw Boon Par 胡文豹 (1888-1944; Yongding, Fujian; born in Burma), Philanthropists of Tiger Balm fame
  • Yong Koon 楊坤/杨坤, Founder, Royal Selangor, Malaysia
  • Raymond Chow 鄒文懷/邹文怀 (1929-; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong); Founder, Golden Harvest; Producer who launched the careers of Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan and Tsui Hark
  • Woon Wing Yip 葉煥榮/叶焕荣 (1940-; Dongguan, China; born in China), Founder, The Wing Yip Supermarkets, United Kingdom; First Chinese tycoon in United Kingdom
  • Prajogo Pangestu (Phang Jun Phen) 彭雲鵬/彭云鹏 (1944-; born in Indonesia), Timber tycoon, Indonesia
  • Alan Yau 丘德威 (1962-; born in Hong Kong}, Founder, Wagamama restaurant chain, Hakkasan and Yauatcha, United Kingdom
  • Khun Bantoon Lamsam 伍捷仆 (Meixian, Guangdong), Founder, Kasikorn Bank (Thai Farmers Bank), Thailand
  • Robert Wan 温惠仁 [26] (Guangdong; born in Tahiti, French Polynesia), Pearl producer (See Robert Wan Pearl Museum)
  • Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah 謝富年/谢富年 (Dongguan, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Founder and chairman of The Sunway Group of Companies, Malaysia
  • Michael Lee-Chin (born in Jamaica), Chairman and CEO, AIC Limited, one of Canada's largest mutual fund companies

Literary Figures, Artists, Academics and Scientists

  • Huang Zunxian 黃遵憲/黄遵宪 (1848-1905; Meixian, Guangdong), Poet, writer and diplomat
  • Yong Mun Sen (Yong Yen Lang) 楊曼生/杨曼生 (1896-1962; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia); Pioneer artist and the father of Malaysian painting
  • Lin Fengmian (Lim Foong Min) 林風眠/林风眠 (1900 - 1991; Meixian, Guangdong), First person to combine Western and Chinese painting techniques
  • Lo Hsiang-lin 羅香林/罗香林 (1906-1978, Xingning, Guangdong), Scholar on Hakka culture and language
  • Teng Yu-hsien 鄧雨賢/邓雨贤 (1906-1944; born in Taiwan), Taiwanese composer
  • Li Guohao 李國豪/李国豪 (1913-2005; Meixian, Guangdong), One of the top bridge experts in the world
  • Chung Li-ho 鐘理和/钟理和 (1915-1960; born in Taiwan), Famous Taiwanese novelist
  • Han Suyin 韓素音/韩素音 (1917-; Xinyang, Henan), Author of books on modern China
  • Lin Haiyin 林海音 (1918-2001; Jiaoling, Guangdong; born in Japan), Taiwanese novelist whose memoirs, 城南旧事 (My Memories of Old Beijing), was made into a movie of the same name
  • Shing-Tung Yau 丘成桐 (1949-; Jiaoling, Guangdong), Chinese-American mathematician

Actors, Musicians and Entertainers

  • Hong Kong
    • Chor Yuen 楚原 (1934-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Hong Kong film director
    • Leslie Cheung 張國榮/张国荣 [27] (1956-2003; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Famous singer/actor
    • Chow Yun-Fat 周潤發/周润发 [28] [29] (1955-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), One of the most famous actors in Asia; Lead actor in several Hollywood movies
    • Leon Lai 黎明 (1966-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Singer/actor; One of the "Four Great Heavenly Kings" of Chinese pop music
    • Alex Man 萬梓良/万梓良 (1957-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor; Best Actor, Golden Horse Awards, 1988
    • Cherie Chung 鍾楚紅/钟楚紅 (1960-; Boluo, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actress
    • Jordan Chan 陳小春/陈小春 [30](1967-, Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor/singer
    • Eric Tsang 曾志偉/曾志伟 (1953-; Wuhua, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor/comedian
    • Frances Yip 葉麗儀/叶丽仪 (1947-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Singer
    • Deanie Ip 葉德嫻/叶德娴 (1947-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Singer/actress
    • Teresa Cheung Tak Lan 張德蘭/张德兰 (Dabu, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Popular Hong Kong singer in the 1970s-1980s
    • Chan Wai-Man 陳惠敏/陈惠敏 [31] (1946-; born in Hong Kong); Actor who is well-known for triad chief roles
    • Shing Fui-On 成奎安 (1955-; Xingning, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor who is well-known for bad guy roles
    • Angeline Leung 梁韵蕊 (Meixian, Guangdong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1982
    • Shallin Tse 謝寧/谢宁 (1963-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1985
    • Shirley Yeung 楊思琦/杨思琦 (1978-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2001
    • Fiona Yuen 袁彩雲 (1976-; born in Germany), Second runner-up, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1996
    • Kate Tsui 徐子珊 (1979-; Huizhou, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2004
    • Shermon Tang 鄧上文/邓上文 (1983-; born in Hong Kong), Miss Photogenic, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2005
  • Taiwan
    • Hou Hsiao-Hsien 侯孝賢/侯孝贤 (1947-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Award-winning film director and a leading figure of Taiwan's New Wave cinema movement
    • Edward Yang 楊德昌/杨德昌 (1947-2007; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Film director; Best Director, Cannes Film Festival, 2000
    • Luo Dayou 羅大佑/罗大佑 (1954-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Influential singer-songwriter who revolutionized Chinese pop and rock music in the 1980s
    • Hebe Tien 田馥甄 (1983-; born in Taiwan), Members of S.H.E, female pop group
    • Chen Qiao En 陳喬恩/陈乔恩 (1979-; born in Taiwan), Leading actress of Taiwan idol dramas
    • Shino Lin 林曉培/林晓培 (born in Taiwan), Singer
    • Julia Peng 彭佳慧 (1972-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Singer
    • Alec Su 蘇有朋/苏有朋 [32] (1973-, born in Taiwan), Actor/singer
    • Bowie Tsang 曾寶儀/曾宝仪 (1973-; Wuhua, Guangdong), Compere/singer/actress
    • Chen Chien-Chou 陳建洲/陈建洲 (Blackie 黑人) (1977-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Compere; Former national basketballer, Chinese Taipei national basketball team
  • China
    • Huang Wanqiu 黄婉秋 (1943-; Meixian, Guangdong), Lead actress of the classic movie, "Third Sister Liu" 刘三姐
    • Li Ai 李艾 (Meixian, Guangdong), Supermodel and one of China's most recognizable media personalities; Host, "China's Next Top Model"
  • Singapore
    • Fann Wong 范文芳 (1971-; born in Singapore), Actress/singer/model
    • Adrian Pang 彭耀順/彭耀顺 (1966-; born in Malaysia), Actor; Best Actor for Comedy Performance, Asian Television Awards, 2002
    • Xie Shaoguang 謝韶光/谢韶光 (1960-; born in Singapore), Actor; Best Actor, Asian Television Awards, 1998; Five-time winner of Singapore's best television actor award
    • Felicia Chin 陳靚瑄/陈靓瑄 (1984-; born in Singapore), Actress; Female winner, Star Search, 2003; Member of the Singapore national softball team at the age of 15[citation needed]
    • Wong Lilin 黃麗玲/黄丽玲 (born in Singapore), Actress
    • Michelle Chong 莊米雪/庄米雪 (1977-; born in Singapore), Actress/compere
    • Maggie Teng 鄧妙華/邓妙华 (born in Singapore), Singer; First Singaporean to break into Taiwan pop music industry in the 1980s[citation needed]
    • Lee Wei Song 李偉菘/李伟菘 (1966-; born in Singapore) and Lee Shih Shiong 李偲菘 (1966-; born in Singapore), Well-known songwriters[citation needed]
    • Ho Yeow Sun 何耀珊 (born in Singapore), Singer; First and only Asian singer to top the US Billboard Dance Chart and the UK MusicWeek Chart; Performed the Olympic Hymn, which was sung in Mandarin for the first time, accompanied by a choir of Overseas Chinese from 16 different nationalities for 2008 Beijing Olympics
    • Yew Hong Chow 遊宏釗/游宏钊, Classical musician and harmonica virtuso
  • Malaysia
    • Eric Moo 巫啟賢/巫启贤 (1963-; born in Malaysia), Award winning singer/composer/producer
    • Michael Wong 王光良 (1970-; born in Malaysia) and Victor Wong 黄品冠 (1972-; Jieyang, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Singer-songwriters of "Guang Liang Pin Guan" 光良品冠 / "Wu Yin Liang Pin" 无印良品 fame
    • Penny Tai 戴佩妮 (1978-; Haifeng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Singer-songwriter; Best Composer, Golden Melody Awards, 2006
    • Z-Chen 張智成/张智成 (1973-; born in Malaysia), Singer; Known as "The Little Prince of R&B"
    • Gary Chaw 曹格 (1979-; born in Malaysia), Singer; Winner, Best Male Mandarin Singer, Golden Melody Awards, 2008
    • Wong Sze Zen (born in Malaysia), Miss Malaysia/World, 2003
  • Indonesia

Sportspersons

Others

See also

References

  1. ^ Fujian Tulou - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
  2. ^ Sterling, Richard. Chong, Elizabeth. Qin, Lushan Charles. [2001] (2001) World Food Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Lonely Planet Publishing. ISBN 1864502886
  3. ^ "Dari Tiongkok ke Pulau Bangka Bedol Desa ala Kuli Tionghoa". AMCA. August 19th, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ "Hakka ngin in Bangka Islands, Indonesia". Asiawind. October 27th, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ "Kebersamaan Tanpa Prasangka". KOMPAS. August 23rd, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ "Menengok Kelenteng-kelenteng Tua di Bangka". KOMPAS. April 15th, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ "Ribuan Warga Tionghoa Rayakan Ceng Beng". KOMPAS. August 19th, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-September 10th. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ Hakka Chinese Jamaican
  9. ^ Jamaica Gleaner: Pieces of the Past: The Arrival Of The Chinese
  10. ^ "Asians of the Century".
  11. ^ "港报:黄华华传调京 跻身中国领导人".
  12. ^ "浓浓乡情系中原—访孙中山先生孙女孙穗芳博士 - 我的祖父是客家人".
  13. ^ "China has new chief, but power may lie elsewhere".
  14. ^ "LIAO CHENGZHI, 75, A CHINESE LEADER".
  15. ^ "李登辉助选新招：客家人厉害 连战很客气".
  16. ^ "福建办世界客属恳亲会不欢迎李登辉".
  17. ^ "忘记就是背叛——福建南靖吕氏宗亲痛责吕秀莲".
  18. ^ "Last Kapitan's legacy lives on".
  19. ^ "Thai PM seeks out roots in Meizhou".
  20. ^ "泰国总理他信：我是华裔客家人".
  21. ^ "Mauritius Bank Notes".
  22. ^ "亚洲人在澳洲的骄傲 阿得雷德华人市长黄国鑫".
  23. ^ "Robert Chong".
  24. ^ "Guangxi Hakka Zhang Jiuhuan, China's Ambassador to Singapore".
  25. ^ "张九桓：桂东南小山村走出来的外交官".
  26. ^ "大溪地珍珠王助华裔馆出版《海外华人百科全书》法文版".
  27. ^ "張綠萍談弟弟張國榮".
  28. ^ "Honorary Doctor of Letters - Mr CHOW Yun-fat" (PDF).
  29. ^ "Martial parts - Artist: Yun-Fat, Chow".
  30. ^ "金曲獎／陳小春當頒獎人　用功聽專輯".
  31. ^ "Chan Wai Man's Biography".
  32. ^ "苏有朋出演《原乡人》 将返台抢当客家一哥".
  • The Hakka Dialect. A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon, by Mantaro J. Hashimoto. (Cambridge University Press, 1973).
  • The secret history of the Hakkas: the Chinese revolution as a Hakka enterprise by Mary S. Erbaugh, The China Quarterly, No. 132, December 1992, pp. 937-968.
  • God's Heavenly Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan, by Jonathan D. Spence. (pub. W.W. Norton, reprint) 1997. (ISBN-13 978-0393315561)
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