The Yao people (its majority branch is also known as Mien; simplified Chinese: 瑶族; traditional Chinese: 瑤族; pinyin: Yáo zú; Template:Lang-vi) is a government classification for various minorities in China and Vietnam. They are one of the 55 officially recognised ethnic minorities in China and reside in the mountainous terrain of the southwest and south. They also form one of the 54 ethnic groups officially recognised by Vietnam. In the last census in 2000, they numbered 2,637,421 in China and roughly 470,000 in Vietnam.[citation needed]
The origins of the Yao can be traced back 2000 years starting in Hunan.
The Yao and Hmong were among the rebels during the Miao Rebellions against the Ming dynasty. As the Han Chinese expanded into South China, the Yao retreated into the highlands between Hunan and Guizhou to the north and Guangdong and Guangxi to the south, and stretching into eastern Yunnan.[1] Around 1890, the Guangdong government started taking action against Yao in northwestern Guangdong.[2]
The first Chinese exonym for "Yao people" was the graphic pejorativeyao猺 (犭"dog radical" and yao 䍃 phonetic) "jackal", with twentieth-century reforms this was changed to yao: "precious jade".
Laotian Civil War
During the Laotian Civil War, the Yao tribes of Laos had a good relationship with U.S. forces and were dubbed to be an "efficient friendly force". They fought in favour of the (South Vietnamese) government against the communists.[3] This relationship caused the new communist Laotian government to target Yao tribal groups for revenge once the war was over. This triggered further immigration into Thailand, where the tribes would be put into camps along the Thailand-Laos border.
Immigration to the United States
After obtaining refugee status from the Thai government and with the help of the United Nations, many Yao people were able to obtain sponsorship into the United States (although many remain in Thailand). Most of the Yao who have immigrated to the United States have settled along the Western part of the U.S., mainly in Central and Northern California such as Visalia, Oakland, Oroville, Redding, Richmond, Sacramento, but also in parts of Oregon like Portland, Salem, and Beaverton as well as the state of Washington in Seattle and Renton. See Mien American for those identified as Mien.
Culture, society, and economy
A Yao child with traditional dress in GuangxiA red Yao woman in Vietnam
The Yao people have been farmers for over a thousand years, mostly rice cultivation through plowing, although a few practice slash-and-burn agriculture. Where the Yao live nearby forested regions, they also engage in hunting.[4]
During the Southern Song (1127–127), an imperial Chinese observer, Zhou Qufei, described the Yao as wearing distinctive fine blue clothing produced using indigo.[5]
The Yao celebrate their Pan Wang (King Pan) festival annually on the sixteenth day of the tenth lunar month. The festival celebrates the mythical original story of the Yao people, and has evolved "into a happy holiday for the Yao to celebrate a good harvest and worship their ancestors."[6]
Daoism has historically been important to the Yao.[7] Jinag Yingliang, in a 1948 study, argued that Yao religion was characterized by (1) a process of Han Chinese-influenced Daoisation (Chinese: 道教化; pinyin: Dàojiào huà); (2) the endurance of pre-Daoist folk religion; and (3) some Buddhist beliefs.
The description of Yao religion is similar to the definition of Chinese folk religion as described by Arthur Wolf and Steve Sangren.[8] Scholar Zhang Youjun takes issue with claims of "strong Buddhist influence" on the Yao, arguing that "although Yao ritual texts contain Buddhist expression, the Yao do not believe in Buddhism at all. They are resolutely Taoist."[8]
Groups and languages
A Yao stilt house in Vietnam
There are several distinct groups within the Yao nationality, and they speak several different languages, The Iu Mien comprise 70% of the Yao population.[citation needed]
Iu Mien, 2,172,000 speakers (1,699,750 in China, 350,000 in Vietnam, 40,000 in Thailand, 20,250 in Laos, 60,000 in the United States, 2,000 in France) [1]
Kim Mun (also known as Lanten), more than 300,000 Yao people [2]
In addition to China, Yao also live in northern Vietnam (where they are called Dao), northern Laos, and Myanmar. There are around 60,000 Yao in northern Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. The lowland-living Lanten of Laos, who speak Kim Mun, and the highland-living Iu Mien of Laos are two different Yao groups. There are also many Iu Mien Americans, mainly refugees from the highlands of Laos. The Iu Mien do not call themselves "Yao". Not all "Yao" are Iu Mien. A group of 61,000 people on Hainan speak the Yao language Kim Mun; 139,000 speakers of Kim Mun live in other parts of China (Yunnan and Guangxi), and 174,500 live in Laos and Vietnam.[9]
The Bunu people call themselves Nuox[no13], Buod nuox[po43no13], Dungb nuox[tuŋ33no13], or their official name Yaof zuf[ʑau21su21]. Only 258,000 of the 439,000 people categorised as Bunu in the 1982 census speak Bunu; 100,000 speak the Tai–Kadai Zhuang languages, and 181,000 speak Chinese and the Tai–Kadai Bouyei language.[citation needed]
Mao (2004)
Mao Zongwu (2004:7-8)[10] gives a detailed list of various Yao endonyms (i.e., self-designated names) and the Chinese names of various groups and clans associated with them. Endonyms are written in the International Phonetic Alphabet with numerical Chao tones.
Autonym mjen31 勉 or [[Iu Mien language|ju31mjen31]] 优勉: Pangu Yao 盘古瑶, Pan Yao 盘瑶, Panhu Yao 盘瓠瑶, Trans-Mountain / Guoshan Yao 过山瑶, Large-Board / Daban Yao 大板瑶, Small-Board / Xiaoban Yao 小板瑶, Board / Ban Yao 板瑶, Top-Board / Dingban Yao 顶板瑶, Sharp-Headed / Jiantou Yao 尖头瑶, Level-Headed / Pingtou Yao 平头瑶, Red-Head / Hongtou Yao 红头瑶, Arrow-Pole / Jian'gan Yao 箭杆瑶, Cattle-Horn Yao / Niujiao 牛角瑶, Tu Yao 土瑶 (in Hezhou, Guangxi), Native / Bendi Yao 本地瑶, Flowery / Hua Yao 花瑶 (in Yangshuo County, Guangxi), Ao Yao 坳瑶, Zheng Yao 正瑶, Liang Yao 粮瑶
Autonym [[Kim Mun language|kim33mun33]] 金门 or kem53di35mun21 甘迪门: Blue-Indigo / Landian Yao 蓝靛瑶, Shanzi Yao 山子瑶, Flowery-Headed / Huatou Yao 花头瑶, Sand / Sha Yao 沙瑶, Level-Headed / Pingtou Yao 平头瑶, Bazi Yao 坝子瑶
Autonym bjau31mɔn31 标曼 or ɕi31mun31 史门: Min Yao 民瑶, "Four Great" Min Yao 四大民瑶
Autonym [[Biao Min language|bjau31min31]] 标敏 or tɕau44koŋ55meŋ55 交公勉: East Mountain / Dongshan Yao 东山瑶 (in Quanzhou County, Guangxi), Dog-Headed / Goutou Yao 狗头瑶
Autonym [[Dzao Min language|dzau53min53]] 藻勉: Bapai Yao 八排瑶
Autonym [[Bu-Nao language|pu53nu25]] 布努: Beilou Yao 背篓瑶, Beilong Yao 背陇瑶, West Mountain / Xishan Yao 西山瑶, East Mountain Yao / Dongshan 东山瑶 (in Bama Yao Autonomous County, Guangxi), Tudi Yao 土地瑶, Tu Yao 土瑶 (in Pingguo County and Mashan County, Guangxi), Mountain / Shan Yao 山瑶, Man Yao 蛮瑶, East Valley / Dongnong Yao 东弄瑶, West Valley / Xinong Yao 西弄瑶, Fan Yao 反瑶, Anding Yao 安定瑶, White Yao 白瑶, Black Yao 黑瑶, Black-Trouser / Heiku Yao 黑裤瑶, Long-Shirt / Changshan Yao 长衫瑶
Autonym [[Bu-Nao language|nau35klau42]] 瑙格劳 or [[Bu-Nao language|pou22nou12]] 包诺: Siting Yao 四亭瑶, Situan Yao 四团瑶
Autonym [[Kiong Nai language|kjɔŋ33nai33]] 炯奈: Hualan Yao 花蓝瑶
Autonym [[Pa-Hng language|pa31ŋ̊ŋ35]] 巴哼: Dog Yao 狗瑶, Eight-Surname / Baxing Yao 八姓瑶, Red Yao 红瑶 (in Liping and Congjiang Counties of Guizhou; Rongshui Miao Autonomous County and Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County of Guangxi), Wood Yao 木瑶
Autonym [[Younuo language|ʑou13nɔ13]] 优诺: Red Yao 红瑶
Autonym [[Lakkja language|lak25kja25]] 拉珈: Tea Mountain / Chashan Yao 茶山瑶
Plains Yao
Groups considered to be "Plains Yao" (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶) include:[11]
Autonym Bingduoyou 炳多尤 (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶, Dainaijiang 代奈江): in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County 江华 of Hunan; Gongcheng 恭城, Fuchuan 富川, Zhongshan 钟山, and Lingui 临桂 counties of Guangxi
Autonym Yeheni 爷贺尼 (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶): in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County 江华, Hunan (Jianghua County Almanac). The Yeheni speak a divergent Chinese dialect. It is spoken in Taoxu Town 涛圩镇 and Helukou Town 河路口镇 in Jianghua County, Hunan.[12]
Autonym Younian 优念 (Pinghua-speaking Red Yao 平话红瑶; ʑou13ȵen13): in Longsheng 龙胜 and Guanyang 灌阳 counties of Guangxi. According to Chen Qiguang (2013:30),[13] the ʑəu21ȵien21 number about 10,000 speakers in Sishui 泗水, Madi 马堤, Mengshan 孟山, Jiangliu 江柳, and other locations of Longsheng County.
Autonym Youjia 优嘉 (Yaojia 瑶家): in Guanyang County 灌阳, Guangxi
Jingdong Yao 景东县瑶族 (autonym: Lewu people 乐舞人): Jingdong County 景东彝族自治县, Yunnan. According to the Jingdong County Almanac (1994:519), ethnic Yao numbered 3,889 individuals in 1990, and lived mainly in Chaqing 岔箐[14] and Dasongshu 大松树[15] of Taizhong 太忠乡.
Im Mien: Black Dao of Dien Bien and Lai Chau; Red Dao of southern Lao Cai, Yen Bai, and Son La
Kim Mien: Dao Tà Pán 大板瑶 (Dao Đại Bản, Dao Coóc Ngáng,[17] Dao Sừng[18]) of Ha Giang, Cao Bang, and Yen Bai; Red Dao of northern and eastern Lao Cai; Hongtou Red Dao 红头瑶 in northern Lai Chau
Dao Đỏ (Hùng Thầu Dào, Dao Coóc Ngáng, Dao Quý Lâm): located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Lai Chau, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen
Dao Quần Chẹt (Dao Sơn Đầu, Dao Tam Đảo, Dao Nga Hoàng): located in Hoa Binh, Ha Tay, Phu Tho, Vinh Yen, Son La, Yen Bai
Dao Thanh Phán (Dao Coóc Mùn, Dao Đội Ván, Dao Lô Gang, Dao Dụ Kiùn, Dao Thêu): located in Tuyen Quang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, Quang Ninh, Bac Giang
Dao Thanh Y: located in Tuyen Quang, Bac Guang, Quang Ninh
Dao Áo Dài (Dao Tuyển, Dao Chàm, Dao Slán Chỉ): located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Bac Kan
Distribution
In China, Yao peoples are distributed primarily in the provinces Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan. Ethnic groups derived from the Yao of China are found in Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand.
Guizhou
The Yao of Guizhou are found in the following locations (Guizhou Province Almanac 贵州志 2002).[20]
Libo County: townships of Yaoshan 瑶山, Yaolu 瑶麓, and Yao'ai 瑶埃
Shiqian County (2,522 people): 9 Yao villages including Leijiatun 雷家屯 and Wurongguan 乌荣关 of Beita Township 北塔乡, and Shuiwei Village of Huaqiao Township 花桥乡水尾村
Wangmo County: the 4 villages of Shangyoumai 上油迈, Xiaoyoumai 下油迈, Xinzhai 新寨, and Jiaxian 加现 in Youmai Township 油迈瑶族乡
Majiang County: 23 Yao villages in Longshan Township 龙山乡, including Heba 河坝 (with 6,474 people)
Shunhua Township 顺化瑶族乡 (1,316 people in 1992): Gongcun 贡村, Gaoka 高卡, Yibuwan 已补晚, Yishu 已树; Gaozizhai of Gaoshu Village 高抒村高仔寨
Leidong Township 雷洞瑶族水族乡 (1,576 people in 1992): Jinchengzhai 金城寨 and Yibizhai 已毕寨 of Jincheng Village 金城村, Sanshanzhai of Xilao Village 戏劳村三山寨; Cenpangzhai 岑胖寨, Nongbozhai 弄播寨, Yunnanzhai 云南寨
The Yao of Guizhou have various autonyms, such as:[20]
toŋ55mo55 (董蒙), in Yaoshan 瑶山, Libo County. The Buyi people call them ʑou21.
nu55hou33 (努侯), in Yaolu 瑶麓, Libo County. The Shui people call them miou35lo55.
tuŋ33muŋ33 (东蒙), in Yao'ai 瑶埃, Libo County. The Buyi people call them ʑou21.
maŋ55 (满), in Youmai 油迈, Wangmo County.
ʑoŋ21min21 (容棉), in Rongjiang, Leishan, Danzhai, Jianhe, Congjiang, and Sandu Counties.
Hunan
Map of Hunan with administrative divisions (outlined) and local Chinese dialects (colored) (Some Yao people in Hunan also speak local Chinese dialects.)
Some subgroups of ethnic Yao in Hunan include:[21]
Pan Yao 盘瑶 (Mian 勉): in Jianghua, Chenxian, Lanshan, Ningyuan, Daoxian, Guiyang, Lingling, Chengbu, Chenxi, Xinning; speak a Mienic language.
Guoshan Yao 过山瑶: in Jianghua, Lanshan, Ningyuan; speak a Mienic language.
Huajiao Yao 花脚瑶 (Wunai 唔奈): in Longhui, Tongdao, Xupu, Chenxi; speak a Hmongic language.
Badong Yao 八峒瑶 (Batong Yao 八垌瑶): in Xinning. The Badong Yao speak an endangered Sinitic language. It is spoken in the villages of Huangyandong 黄岩峒, Malindong 麻林峒, and Dazhendong 大圳峒 in Huangjin Ethnic Yao Township 黄金瑶族乡, Xinning County.[22]
Pingdi Yao 平地瑶 (Bingduoyou 炳多尤): in Jianghua, Jiangyong, and speak a Chinese dialect.
Qixing Yao 七姓瑶: in Chenxi, and speak a Chinese dialect.
The Hunan Province Gazetteer (1997) gives the following autonyms for various peoples classified by the Chinese government as Yao.
tom21pen21ju21 董本尤: in Xintian County, Yizhang County, Changning County
ku21goŋ55ju21 谷岗尤: in Lanshan County, Jianghua County
thou21ju21 土尤
dzau21min21 藻敏: in Shuangpai County, Dao County, Ningyuan County
Donglixiao 洞里销: in Xinning County; also called Bunu 布努, Donglixiao 峒里俏, or Dong Yao 峒瑶 (Xinning County Gazetteer 2009). Their language is called Donghua 峒话.[23][24][25]
mm21nai33 唔奈: in Longhui County, Xupu County
piŋ21toa52jeu21 炳多尤 (also called Dainaijiang 代奈江): in Jianghua County, Jiangyong County
Tan Xiaoping (2012)[26] also gives the following autonyms for Yao subgroups of Jiangyong County.
mjəŋ31 勉
jəu31mjən31 优勉
i31mjəŋ31 壹勉
iou231ȵie231 优尼
piu42tau42iou42 炳多优
The Yao of Shaoyang Prefecture are found in the following locations (Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer 1997). Population statistics are from 1990.
Xinning County (12,756 Yao persons): Malin 麻林乡, Huangjin 黄金乡, Jingwei 靖位乡 (in Yuanshui 源水瑶族村)
Dongkou County (8,473 Yao persons): Naxi 𦰡溪乡 (那溪乡), Changtang 长塘乡, Dawu 大屋乡; Yuexi 月溪, Zhaping 渣坪, Tongshan 桐山
Longhui County (6,151 Yao persons): Huxingshan 虎形山乡, Mao'ao 茅坳乡, Xiaoshajiang 小沙江镇, Qingshan 青山, Matangshan 麻塘山
Chengbu County (2,276 Yao persons): Lanrong 兰蓉, Qingyuan 清源, Dayang 大阳, Tingping 汀坪, Pengdong 蓬洞, Yangmei 杨梅
Suining County (1,641 Yao persons): Jinta 金趿, Shuikou 水口
The Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer (1997) reports that the Yao of Shaoyang Prefecture, Hunan speak the following languages.
The following population statistics of ethnic Yao in Hunan are from the 1990 Chinese census, as given in the Hunan Province Gazetteer (1997).
Population of ethnic Yao in Hunan
County
Population (1990)
Jianghua
210,944
Jiangyong
62,647
Dao
26,771
Ningyuan
16,361
Lanshan
16,123
Shuangpai
7,206
Xintian
6,295
Qiyang
3,209
Chenxi
26,132
Xupu
13,989
Qianyang
3,264
Huaihua
2,066
Tongdao
1,657
Xinning
12,756
Dongkou
8,473
Longhui
6,151
Chenzhou
5,872
Yizhang
4,145
Zixing
3,999
Guiyang
2,323
Changning
1,085
Total
460,667
By county
County-level distribution of the Yao 2000 census
(Only counties or county equivalents with more than.1% of county population are shown.)
County/City
Yao %
Yao
Total
Hu'nan province
1.11
704,564
63,274,173
Dongkou county
1,55
11,639
752,581
Xinning county
2,59
14,438
557,120
Chenzhou city
1,63
70,513
4,324,812
Beihu district
1,25
3,921
314,477
Rucheng county
15,45
52,955
342,861
Zixing city
1,22
4,284
351,581
Yongzhou city
9,57
513,831
5,367,106
Shuangpai county
4,90
7,916
161,510
Dao county
5,92
36,938
624,199
Jiangyong county
62,39
147,164
235,893
Ningyuan county
2,16
15,943
738,259
Lanshan county
5,29
17,608
332937
Xintian county
1,82
6,541
358831
Jihua Yao autonomous county
61,87
270,889
437835
Huaihua city
1,55
71,952
4639738
Zhongfang county
1,33
3,147
236675
Chenxi county
6,77
32,405
478708
Xupu county
3,18
25,398
798983
Hongjiang city
1,47
7,137
485061
Guangdong province
0,24
202,667
85225007
Shaoguan city
1,13
31,042
2735433
Shixing county
2,00
4,115
205684
Ruyuan Yao autonomous county
10,75
19,121
177894
Longmen county
2,51
6,726
267949
Qingyuan city
3,05
96,043
3146713
Lianshan Zhuang Yao autonomous county
14,33
14,195
99070
Liannan Yao autonomous county
52,29
69,968
133814
Lianzhou city
1,31
5,366
409360
Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region
3,36
1,471,946
43854538
Xincheng district
1,30
5,560
426346
Chengbei district
1,50
5,901
392726
Shijiao district
1,15
2,949
256730
Guilin city
8,15
375,902
4614670
Xiufeng district
1,63
2,050
125924
Diecai district
1,72
2,312
134401
Xiangshan district
1,42
3,527
249135
Qixing district
1,76
4,003
227278
Lingui county
3,53
14,957
424182
Lingchuan county
3,20
10,169
318036
Quanzhou county
4,29
27,984
652963
Xing'an county
2,35
8,317
353920
Yongfu county
3,48
8,202
235368
Guanyang county
7,77
17,971
231288
Longshenggezu autonomous county
17,56
28,237
160796
Ziyuan county
3,19
5,014
156946
Pingle county
14,08
55,553
394575
Lipu county
7,48
25,893
346169
Gongcheng Yao autonomous county
58,60
158,937
271216
Wuzhou city
1,15
32,021
2796087
Mengshan county
12,02
22,587
187918
Fangchenggang city
4,63
34,074
735952
Gangkou district
1,37
1,462
106403
Fangcheng district
6,59
20,840
316111
Shangsi county
4,22
8,666
205307
Dongxing city
2,87
3,106
108131
Guigang city
1,86
71,063
3827945
Pingnan county
6,29
66,391
1055782
Nanning prefecture
1,43
68,975
4839536
Shanglin county
6,50
24,697
379986
Mashan county
8,48
33,873
399439
Liuzhou prefecture
3,57
125,839
3522322
Heshan city
1,87
2,452
131,249
Luzhai county
2,01
8,424
418665
Laibin county
1,25
10,475
839790
Rong'an county
1,88
5,313
283029
Sanjiang Dong autonomous county
3,88
11,798
304,149
Rongshui Miao autonomous county
6,48
27,560
425,608
Jinxiu Yao autonomous county
37,45
50,532
134,934
Xincheng county
2,05
7,051
343,556
Hezhou prefecture
12,49
241,822
1,936,849
Hezhou city
4,84
41,130
850,023
Zhaoping county
4,46
15,746
353,298
Zhongshan county
8,75
40241
460021
Fuchuan Yao autonomous county
52,91
144,705
273,507
Baise prefecture
3,82
127,351
3,332,096
Baise city
3,29
11,211
340,483
Tiandong county
4,63
16,674
360,123
Pingguo county
4,16
16,344
392,800
Debao county
1,84
5,085
276,335
Napo county
2,74
4,661
170,158
Lingyun county
21,05
36,954
175,573
Leye county
1,97
2,857
144,816
Tianlin county
11,64
27,559
236,799
Xilin county
3,54
4,934
139,282
Hechi prefecture
9,93
349,819
3,523,693
Hechi city
2,31
7,355
318,348
Yizhou city
5,54
30,436
549,434
Luocheng Mulao autonomous county
1,21
3,903
322,116
Huanjiang Maonan autonomous county
5,36
17,807
332,067
Nandan county
9,18
29,284
318,844
Tian'e county
2,44
3,461
141,649
Fengshan county
7,71
12,714
164,807
Donglan county
4,29
10,581
246,715
Bama Yao autonomous county
17,24
37,706
218,724
Du'an Yao autonomous county
21,66
117,609
543,019
Dahua Yao autonomous county
21,46
78,963
367,970
Guizhou province
0,13
44,392
35,247,695
Liping county
1,10
5,046
458,533
Rongjiang county
1,70
5,101
300,369
Congjiang county
2,04
6,158
301,513
Majiang county
3,35
6,807
203,481
Libo county
3,45
5,915
171,366
Yunnan province
0,45
190,610
42,360,089
Honghe Hani Yi autonomous prefecture
1,86
76,947
4,130,463
Yuanyang county
2,18
7,922
362,950
Jinping Miao Yao Dai autonomous county
12,00
37,937
316,171
Lüchun county
3,46
6,968
201,256
Hekou Yao autonomous county
22,10
21,097
95,451
Wenshan Zhuang Miao autonomous prefecture
2,50
81,774
3,268,553
Malipo county
7,06
18,926
267,986
Guangnan county
2,16
15,781
730,376
Funing county
10,35
39,646
382,913
Jingdong Yi autonomous county
1,15
4,063
352,089
Jiangcheng Hani Yi autonomous county
3,94
3,946
100,243
Xishuangbanna Dai autonomous prefecture
1,88
18,679
993,397
Mengla county
6,77
15,944
235,657
Alameda county
0.16
2,500
1,510,271
Sacramento county
1.04
16,000
1,540,975
Written languages
After 1982, the Guangxi Nationality Institute and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences together created a new Yao writing system which was unified with the research results of the Yao-American scholar Yuēsè Hòu (Traditional Chinese: 約瑟·候/Simplified Chinese: 约瑟·候). The writing system was finalized in 1984 in Ruyuan County( Chinese characters: 乳源瑤族自治縣）, Guangdong, which included Chinese professors Pan Chengqian (盤承乾/盘承乾), Deng Fanggui (鄧方貴/邓方贵), Liu Baoyuan (劉保元/刘保元), Su Defu (蘇德富/苏德富) and Yauz Mengh Borngh; Chinese government officials; Mien Americans Sengfo Chao (Zhao Fuming), Kao Chiem Chao (Zhao Youcai), and Chua Meng Chao; David T. Lee.
American linguist Herbert C. Purnell developed a curriculum and workshop presentations on language learning in East and Southeast Asia, as well as Yao Seng Deng from Thailand. The US delegation took the new writing system to the Iu Mien community in the United States where it was adopted with a vote of 78 to 7 by a conference of Mien American community leaders.[6]
This writing system based on the Latin alphabet was designed to be pan-dialectal; it distinguishes 30 syllable initials, 121 syllable finals and eight tones.
For an example of how the unified alphabet is used to write Iu Mien, a common Yao language, see Iu Mien language.
There is a separate written standard for Bunu, since it is from the Hmong/Miao side, rather than the Mien/Yao side, of the Miao–Yao language family.
Some people think that a variety of Yao is, or was, written in Nüshu, an indigenous script in Southern part of Hunan Province in China. But this connection between Yao language and Nüshu is disputed, because Nüshu more likely recorded local Chinese dialect which might be also known by Yao people in Hunan.
Officially illiteracy and semi-literacy among the Yao in China still stood at 40.6% in 2002.[27]
^Deborah A. Sommer, "Taoism and the Arts" in The Oxford Handbook of Religion and the Arts (ed. Frank Burch Brown: Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 384.
^Doling, Tim. 2010. Mountains and Ethnic Minorities: North West Việt Nam. Thế Giới Publishers.
^Chảo Văn Lâm. 2013. Thơ ca hôn lễ: người Dao Đỏ ở Lào Cai. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản văn hóa thông tin.
^ abNguyễn Mạnh Hùng. 2013. Lễ cưới người Dao Nga Hoàng. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản văn hóa thông tin.
^PGS. TS. Nguyễn Khắc Tụng, TS. Nguyễn Anh Cường. 2004. Trang phục cổ truyền của người Dao ở Việt Nam. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản khoa học xã hội [viện khoa học xã hội Việt Nam].
^ abGuizhou Province Gazetteer: Ethnic Gazetteer [贵州省志. 民族志] (2002). Guiyang: Guizhou Ethnic Publishing House [貴州民族出版社].
^Lei Biying; Zheng Linguang [雷碧英; 郑林光; 新宁县民族宗教事务局; 新宁县黄金瑶族乡中心学校]. 2012. Badong Yao language [八峒瑶语]. Xinning: Xinning County Ethnic and Religious Affairs Bureau [新宁县民族宗教事务局].
^道客巴巴 (7 June 2012). "新宁县瑶族乡濒危方言峒话调查". www.doc88.com. Archived from the original on 3 May 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
^吴萍 (3 May 2018). "湖南新宁瑶族"峒话"音系". 现代语文：下旬．语言研究 (10). Archived from the original on 31 July 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
^许阳; 胡萍 (3 May 2018). "新宁县瑶族乡峒话的语音系统". 文教资料 (32). Archived from the original on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
^Tan Xiaoping [谭晓平]. 2012. Language contact and evolution: the Mien language of the Yao people of Jiangyong County, southern Hunan [语言接触与语言演变: 湘南瑶族江永勉语个案研究. Wuhan: Central China Normal University Press [华中师范大学出版社]. ISBN978-7-5622-5409-6
Barker, Judith C., and Saechao, Kaochoy. "A Household Survey of Older Iu-Mien Refugees in Rural California." Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 12.2 (1997): 121-143.
Barker, Judith C. & Saechao, Kaochoy. (2000). A demographic survey of Iu-Mien in West Coast States of the U.S., 1993. Journal of Immigrant Health, 2:1, 31-42.
Phan Ngọc Khuê. 2003. Lễ cấp sắc của người Dao Lô Gang ở Lạng Sơn. Hà Nội: Nhà xuất bản văn hóa thông tin.
Films
2003 - Death of a Shaman. Directed by Richard Hall; produced by Fahm Fong Saeyang.
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This article incorporates text from The Chinese times, Volume 4, a publication from 1890, now in the public domain in the United States.
