Indo-Iranian languages: Difference between revisions

Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian
Aryan
Geographic; distribution	South, Central, Western Asia, South East Europe and the Caucasus / Total speakers = approximately 1.5 billion in 15 countries
Linguistic classification	Indo-European Indo-Iranian;
Proto-language	Proto-Indo-Iranian
Subdivisions	Indo-Aryan; Iranian; Nuristani;
ISO 639-5	iir
Glottolog	indo1320
	The approximate present-day distribution of the Indo-European branches of Eurasia: Indo-Iranian

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The Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-Iranic languages,^[1]^[2] or Aryan languages^[3] constitute the largest and southeasternmost extant branch of the Indo-European language family. It has more than 1.5 billion speakers, stretching from Europe (Romani), Turkey (Kurdish and Zaza–Gorani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian) eastward to Xinjiang (Sarikoli) and Assam (Assamese), and south to Sri Lanka (Sinhalese) and the Maldives (Maldivian). Furthermore, there are large communities of Indo-Iranian speakers in northwestern Europe (the United Kingdom), North America and Australia.

The common ancestor of all of the languages in this family is called Proto-Indo-Iranian—also known as Common Aryan—which was spoken in approximately the late 3rd millennium BC. The three branches of the modern Indo-Iranian languages are Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and Nuristani. Additionally, sometimes a fourth independent branch, Dardic, is posited, but recent scholarship in general places Dardic languages as archaic members of the Indo-Aryan branch.^[4]

Languages

The Indo-Iranian languages consist of three groups:

Most of the largest languages (in terms of speakers) are a part of the Indo-Aryan group: Hindustani (Urdu/Hindi), (~590 million^[5]), Bengali (205 million^[6]), Punjabi (100 million), Marathi (75 million), Gujarati (50 million), Bhojpuri (40 million), Awadhi (40 million), Maithili (35 million), Odia (35 million), Marwari (30 million), Sindhi (25 million), Assamese (24 million), Rajasthani (20 million), Chhattisgarhi (18 million), Sinhalese (19 million), Nepali (17 million), Bishnupuriya (12 million)^[7] and Rangpuri (15 million). Among the Iranian branch, major languages are Persian (60 million), Pashto (ca. 50 million), Kurdish (35 million),^[8] and Balochi (8 million), with a total number of native speakers of more than 1471 million. Numerous smaller languages exist. Tcherman is an extinct language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages.

History

The common proto-language of the Indo-Iranian languages is Proto-Indo-Iranian, which has been reconstructed.

The oldest attested Indo-Iranian languages are Vedic Sanskrit (ancient Indo-Aryan), Older and Younger Avestan and Old Persian (ancient Iranian languages). A few words from another Indo-Aryan language (see Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni) are attested in documents from the ancient Mitanni and Hittite kingdoms in the Near East.

Features

Innovations shared with other languages affected by the satem sound changes include: ^{[citation needed]}

Fronting and assibilation of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) palato-velar stops: *kʲ, *gʲʰ, *gʲ > *t͡ʃ, *d͡ʒʰ, *d͡ʒ
The merger of the PIE labiovelar and plain velar stops: *kʷ, *gʷʰ, *gʷ > *k, *gʰ, *g
The Ruki sound law

Innovations shared with Greek include: ^{[citation needed]}

The vocalization of the PIE syllabic nasals *m̥, *n̥ to *a (may be independent developments)
Grassmann's law (may be independent developments)

Innovations unique to Indo-Iranian include: ^{[citation needed]}

The lowering of PIE *e to *a
- *o was also lowered to *a, though this occurred in several other Indo-European languages as well.
Brugmann's law

Notes

References

^ D. D. Mahulkar (1990). Pre-Pāṇinian Linguistic Studies. Northern Book Centre. ISBN 978-81-85119-88-5.
^ Annarita Puglielli; Mara Frascarelli (2011). Linguistic Analysis: From Data to Theory. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-022250-0.
^ Numeral Types and Changes Worldwide, by Jadranka (EDT) Gvozdanovic, Language Arts & Disciplines,1999, Page 221. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2 January 2013.: "The usage of 'Aryan languages' is not to be equated with Indo-Aryan languages, rather Indo-Iranic languages of which Indo-Aryan is a subgrouping."
^ Bashir, Elena (2007). Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (eds.). The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 905. ISBN 978-0415772945. 'Dardic' is a geographic cover term for those Northwest Indo-Aryan languages which [..] developed new characteristics different from the IA languages of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Although the Dardic and Nuristani (previously 'Kafiri') languages were formerly grouped together, Morgenstierne (1965) has established that the Dardic languages are Indo-Aryan, and that the Nuristani languages constitute a separate subgroup of Indo-Iranian.
^ Edwards, Viv. "Urdu Today". BBC.
^ Thompson, Irene. "Bengali". AboutWorldLanguages. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
^ http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/statement9.htm
^ CIA- The World Factbook: 14.7 million in Turkey (18%)[1]^{[failed verification]}, 4.9–6.5 million in Iraq (15-20%)[2]^{[failed verification]}, 8 million in Iran (10%)"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)^{[failed verification]} (all for 2014), plus several million in Syria, neighboring countries, and the diaspora

Sources

Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 81-7074-128-9
Nicholas Sims-Williams, ed. (2002). Indo-Iranian Languages and Peoples. Oxford University Press.

External links

Swadesh lists of Indo-Iranian basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)

[Mahulkar1990-1] D. D. Mahulkar (1990). Pre-Pāṇinian Linguistic Studies. Northern Book Centre. ISBN 978-81-85119-88-5.

[PuglielliFrascarelli2011-2] Annarita Puglielli; Mara Frascarelli (2011). Linguistic Analysis: From Data to Theory. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-022250-0.

[3] Numeral Types and Changes Worldwide, by Jadranka (EDT) Gvozdanovic, Language Arts & Disciplines,1999, Page 221. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2 January 2013.: "The usage of 'Aryan languages' is not to be equated with Indo-Aryan languages, rather Indo-Iranic languages of which Indo-Aryan is a subgrouping."

[jain-cardona-2007-4] Bashir, Elena (2007). Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (eds.). The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 905. ISBN 978-0415772945. 'Dardic' is a geographic cover term for those Northwest Indo-Aryan languages which [..] developed new characteristics different from the IA languages of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Although the Dardic and Nuristani (previously 'Kafiri') languages were formerly grouped together, Morgenstierne (1965) has established that the Dardic languages are Indo-Aryan, and that the Nuristani languages constitute a separate subgroup of Indo-Iranian.

[5] Edwards, Viv. "Urdu Today". BBC.

[6] Thompson, Irene. "Bengali". AboutWorldLanguages. Retrieved 29 March 2013.

[7] ttp://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/statement9.htm

[CIA1-8] CIA- The World Factbook: 14.7 million in Turkey (18%)[1]^{[failed verification]}, 4.9–6.5 million in Iraq (15-20%)[2]^{[failed verification]}, 8 million in Iran (10%)"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)^{[failed verification]} (all for 2014), plus several million in Syria, neighboring countries, and the diaspora

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@@ Line 30: / Line 30: @@
 * [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]
-Most of the largest languages (in terms of speakers) are a part of the Indo-Aryan group: [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Urdu/Hindi), (~590 million<ref>{{cite web|last=Edwards|first=Viv|title=Urdu Today|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/urdu.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref>), [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (205 million<ref>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Irene|title=Bengali|url=http://aboutworldlanguages.com/bengali|publisher=AboutWorldLanguages|accessdate=March 29, 2013}}</ref>), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (100 million), [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (75 million), [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] (50 million), [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] (40 million), [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] (40 million), [[Maithili language|Maithili]] (35 million), [[Odia language|Odia]] (35 million), [[Marwari language|Marwari]] (30 million), [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] (25 million), [[Assamese language|Assamese]] (24 million), [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]] (20 million), [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]] (18 million), [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]] (19 million), [[Nepali language|Nepali]] (17 million), [[Bishnupuriya]] (12 million)<ref> http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/statement9.htm</ref> and [[Rangpuri language|Rangpuri]] (15 million). Among the Iranian branch, major languages are [[Persian language|Persian]] (60 million), [[Pashto language|Pashto]] (ca. 50 million), [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] (35 million),<ref name=CIA1>CIA- The World Factbook: 14.7 million in Turkey (18%)[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html]{{not in citation|date=February 2016}}, 4.9–6.5 million in Iraq (15-20%)[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html]{{not in citation|date=February 2016}}, 8 million in Iran (10%){{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-03-31 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203093100/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |archivedate=3 February 2012 |df=dmy-all }}{{not in citation|date=February 2016}} (all for 2014), plus several million in Syria, neighboring countries, and the diaspora</ref> and [[Balochi language|Balochi]] (8 million), with a total number of native speakers of more than 1471 million. Numerous smaller languages exist.
+Most of the largest languages (in terms of speakers) are a part of the Indo-Aryan group: [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Urdu/Hindi), (~590 million<ref>{{cite web|last=Edwards|first=Viv|title=Urdu Today|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/urdu.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref>), [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (205 million<ref>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Irene|title=Bengali|url=http://aboutworldlanguages.com/bengali|publisher=AboutWorldLanguages|accessdate=March 29, 2013}}</ref>), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (100 million), [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (75 million), [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] (50 million), [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] (40 million), [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] (40 million), [[Maithili language|Maithili]] (35 million), [[Odia language|Odia]] (35 million), [[Marwari language|Marwari]] (30 million), [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] (25 million), [[Assamese language|Assamese]] (24 million), [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]] (20 million), [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]] (18 million), [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]] (19 million), [[Nepali language|Nepali]] (17 million), [[Bishnupuriya]] (12 million)<ref> http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/statement9.htm</ref> and [[Rangpuri language|Rangpuri]] (15 million). Among the Iranian branch, major languages are [[Persian language|Persian]] (60 million), [[Pashto language|Pashto]] (ca. 50 million), [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] (35 million),<ref name=CIA1>CIA- The World Factbook: 14.7 million in Turkey (18%)[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html]{{not in citation|date=February 2016}}, 4.9–6.5 million in Iraq (15-20%)[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html]{{not in citation|date=February 2016}}, 8 million in Iran (10%){{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-03-31 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203093100/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |archivedate=3 February 2012 |df=dmy-all }}{{not in citation|date=February 2016}} (all for 2014), plus several million in Syria, neighboring countries, and the diaspora</ref> and [[Balochi language|Balochi]] (8 million), with a total number of native speakers of more than 1471 million. Numerous smaller languages exist. Tcherman is an extinct language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages.
 {{Indo-European topics}}

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