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Veganism

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"Vegan" redirects here. For other uses, see Vegan (disambiguation).
File:VeganSociety.png
The logo of the world's first Vegan Society, registered in 1944.

Veganism (also strict or pure vegetarianism) is a philosophy and lifestyle that seeks to exclude the use of animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose.[1] Vegans do not use or consume animal products of any kind.[2] The most popular reasons for becoming a vegan are concerns for animal rights, the environment, or human health, and spiritual or religious concerns.[3][4] Of particular concern are the practices involved in factory farming and animal testing, and the intensive use of land and other resources required for animal farming.

Various polls have reported vegans to be between 0.2%[3] and 1.3%[5] of the U.S. population, and between 0.25%[4] and 0.4%[6] of the UK population. The Times estimated in 2005 that there were 250,000 vegans in Britain.[6]

Vegetarian diets, which are similar to vegan diets, have been credited with lowering the risk of colon cancer, heart attack, high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, prostate cancer, and stroke.[7] Because a poorly managed vegan diet can lead to reduced levels of calcium, iodine, and vitamins B12 and D, vegans are encouraged to take dietary supplements.[8]

Definition

The word vegan, usually pronounced [ˈviːgən],[9] was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society.[10] They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian."[10][11] The British Vegan Society defines veganism in this way:

[T]he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.[1]

Other vegan societies use similar definitions.[12][13][14] Although these definitions exclude all animal products as non-vegan, some vegans consider the use of insect products such as honey or silk to be acceptable.[15]

Demographics

United States

A 2002 Time/CNN poll found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans.[3] A 2006 poll conducted by Harris Interactive in the United States listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The results found that, of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs. They were, in other words, vegan (except for possibly honey) in their eating habits. The survey found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.[5]

United Kingdom

In 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products", only 5% reported avoiding dairy products.[4] In 2005, The Times estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain. [6]

Animal products

Main article: Animal product

The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to material derived from animals for human use. Notable animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool, and silk.[2] Common animal by-products include gelatin, lanolin, rennet, whey, beeswax and shellac.[2]

Animal ingredients can be found in countless products and are used in the production of—though not always present in the final form of—many more;[16][17][18] many of these ingredients are esoteric,[19][20] also have non-animal sources,[21] and especially in non-food products may not even be identified.[16] Although some vegans attempt to avoid all these ingredients, Vegan Outreach argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.[22][23]

Ethical concerns

See also: Animal rights, Ethics of eating meat, and Factory farming
Sows at an intensive pig farm. Opposition to factory farming is one of the most common ethical reasons given for veganism.[24]

Vegan organizations maintain that animals have certain rights, and as such is not ethical for humans to use animals in ways that infringe those rights.[25][26][27] Practices seen as cruel to animals include factory farming,[24][28][29] animal testing,[2][30] and groups which display animals for entertainment, such as circuses,[31] rodeos,[32] and zoos.[33]

Legal theorist Gary L. Francione argues that sentience in animals is sufficient to grant them moral consideration and that adopting veganism should be regarded as the "baseline" action taken by people concerned with animal rights.[34] Utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer argues that the suffering of sentient animals is relevant to ethical decisions, and advocates both veganism and improved conditions for farm animals as a means to reduce animal suffering.[35][36][37]

William Jarvis has questioned the validity of the ethical claims put forward by vegans, stating that "the belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises."[38] However, vegans like Peter Singer follow veganism for other reasons. Singer, who does not believe that all animal life is sacred, advocates veganism for utilitarian reasons, stating that the benefit caused by a good taste for the human who consumes animal products is more than negated by the pain felt by the beings who are consumed.[39]

Steven Davis, professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that the number of wild animals killed in crop production is greater than those killed in ruminant-pasture production. Whenever a tractor goes through a field to plow, disc, cultivate, apply fertilizer and/or pesticide, and harvest, animals are killed. [40] Davis gives a small sampling of U.S. field animals that are threatened by intensive crop production, including many mammals, birds and amphibians. In one small example, an alfalfa harvest caused a 50% decline in the gray-tailed vole population. According to Davis, if all the cropland in the U. S. were used to produce crops for a vegan diet, it is estimated that around 1.8 billion animals would be killed annually. [41]

Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, counters that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including distorting the notion of "harm" to animals, and miscalculating the number of animal deaths based on areas of land rather than per consumer. Matheny concludes that vegetarianism actually kills fewer animals, promotes better treatment of animals, and allows more animals to exist. [42]

Cuisine

A vegan version of a salad "Селёдка под шубой"/"Seljódka pod shúboj" ("Herring under a fur coat"), which is popular in Russia.
See also: Vegetarian cuisine
For recipes and further information see the Wikibooks Cookbook article on Vegan Cuisine.

The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine recommends what they call the "Four New Food Groups."[43] They suggest that vegans and vegetarians eat at least three servings of vegetables a day, including dark green, leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark yellow and orange such as carrots; five servings of whole grains (bread, rice, pasta); three of fruit; and two of legumes (beans, peas, lentils).[43]

The cuisines of most nations contain dishes suitable for a vegan diet, including ingredients such as tofu, tempeh and the wheat product seitan in Asian diets.[44][45][46][47] Many recipes that traditionally contain animal products can be adapted by substituting plant-based ingredients. For example, nut, grain or soy milks can be used to replace cow's milk[47][48] and eggs can be replaced by applesauce or commercial starch-based substitute products, depending upon the recipe.[47][48][49] Additionally, artificial "meat" products ("analogs" or "mock meats") made from non-animal derived ingredients such as soy or gluten, including imitation sausages, ground beef, burgers, and chicken nuggets are widely available.[47][50]

Health

Main article: Vegan nutrition

Benefits

Vegan version of the nutritional food pyramid which normally includes meat and animal products.

Certain widespread diets (such as the standard American diet, which is high in fat and low in fiber and green vegetables) are detrimental to health, and a vegan diet thus represents an improvement,[51][52] in part because vegan diets are often high enough in fruit and vegetables to meet or exceed the recommended fruit and vegetable intakes. Conversely, studies in Japan found that increased consumption of some animal products coincided with a decrease in risk for some forms of cerebrovascular disease and stroke mortality.[53]

Some vegans feel additional health benefits are gained by eating food with minimal levels of substances such as growth hormones and antibiotics, which are often given to intensively farmed animals in countries where this is legal.[54] Because they are similar to human hormones, growth-promoters such as anabolic steroids that are used in cattle farming in America may affect fetal and childhood development.[55][56][57] Due to this uncertainty, the use of such growth promoters in illegal in the European community.[58]

Benefits of vegetarian diets are sometimes also valid for strict vegan diets: according to the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, diets that avoid meat tend to have lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals.[59] People who avoid meat are reported to have lower body mass indices than those following the average Canadian diet; from this follows lower death rates from ischemic heart disease; lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.[59]

The American Dietetic Association states that well-planned vegan diets can also be appropriate for life cycles requiring high nutritional intake such as pregnancy, lactation, childhood, and adolescence.[59]

A pilot study at Georgetown University on 2005 suggested that a vegan diet can reduce blood cholesterol in people with type 2 diabetes, as well as significantly reduce the complications of this disease.[60]

Vegan athletes compete in a variety of sports, including powerlifting, bodybuilding, martial arts, and long distance running.[61][62] Multiple Olympic gold medallist Carl Lewis has stated that he became vegan in 1990 and achieved his "best year of track competition" in 1991 when he ate a vegan diet.[63]

Precautions

Specific nutrients

The American Dietetic Association has said that "appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."[59] Poorly planned vegan diets, however, increase the risk of deficiency in nutrients such as vitamin B12,[64] vitamin D,[65] calcium,[66] [65] iodine[67] and omega-3 fatty acids.[68] These deficiencies have potential consequences, including anemia,[69] rickets[70] and cretinism[71] in children, and osteomalacia[70] and hyperthyroidism[71] in adults.

Vitamin B12

The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, and others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B12 or take a B12 supplement.[72][73][74] Deficiencies in Vitamin B12, a bacterial product that cannot be reliably found in plant foods,[75][76][69] can have serious health consequences, including anemia and neurodegenerative disease.[77] The body can reabsorb B12 from the bile, which means it may take up to five years to exhaust the body's reserves of the vitamin. However it is still possible to suffer from mild deficiency and if a person has not eaten more than the daily needed amount of B12 over a long period before becoming a vegan then they may not have built up any significant store of the vitamin.[78]

In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B12 and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants.[79] As of 2005, no food in Europe or the U.S. had been tested for lowering MMA levels, the gold standard for determining B12 activity.[80][81]

A study, published in the June 1 2007 issue of Cancer Research, suggests that higher dietary intakes of B6, B9, and B12 are associated with reduced rates of pancreatic cancer for people at or below normal body weight.[82]

Calcium

A 5.2 year study, released in February 2007 by Oxford, showed that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary calcium intake, and that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium of 525 mg/day had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups.[66][83]

It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified soy milk, and take a calcium supplement as necessary;[65][59] although recent research suggests that dietary calcium is better than supplements, at least for women.[84] Fortified soy milk can also substitute for milk's common role as a source of vitamin D (another nutrient important for bone formation, commonly added to commercial milk). Adequate amounts of vitamin D may also be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes every few days in the sunlight, but this may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter.[70][85][75]

Iodine

Naturally dietary iodine is available from marine foods, but adequate marine foods are not always available to or consumed by people worldwide. To ensure sufficient iodine is consumed by their citizens, iodized salt is common public policy in most countries (including China, India, and the United States). There is, however, a risk of iodine deficiency for vegans in countries which instead use animal-based methods of iodine supplementation – in Britain and Ireland the major source of iodine is the milk produced by cattle, which are given iodine-enriched feed. Iodine deficiency can cause hypothyroidism leading to tiredness, skin problems, tingling sensations and elevated cholesterol. Because of this, the British Vegan Society recommends iodine supplementation, noting that iodine can be readily obtained from kelp. They suggest that one or two kelp tablets a week is sufficient.[72]

Pregnancies and children

According to the US National Institute of Health, "with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages." [86] The American Dietetic Association also considers well-planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation,"[59] but recommends that vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B12.[87][88] In the last decade, a strict vegan diet has been associated with cases of severe infant malnutrition, and more rarely, with fatalities. [89] [90] The resulting criminal convictions, ranging from "cruelty to children" to felony murder, of parents found culpable in these cases has raised some significant criticism of a vegan diet for children.[91] [92] Vitamin B12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children.[93][94] Some research suggests that the essential omega-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid and its derivatives should also be supplemented in pregnant and lactating vegan mothers, since they are very low in most vegan diets, and the metabolically related docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential to the developing visual system.[95] Vegan diet has also been associated with low birth weight.[96] A 2006 study found that vegan mothers are five times less likely to have twins than those who eat animal products.[97]

Eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association found that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders than in the general adolescent population, and that professionals should be aware of adolescents who limit the food choices and exhibit symptoms of eating disorders.[59] The ADA indicates that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, but "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."[59] Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.[98][99][100]

Resources and the environment

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

People who adopt veganism for environmental reasons do so on the basis that veganism consumes less resources and causes less environmental damage than an animal-based diet.[101][102][103] Animal agriculture is linked to climate change, water pollution, land degredation, and a decline in biodiversity.[104][103][105] Additionally, an animal-based diet uses more land,[105][106] water,[107] and energy than a vegan diet.[105][108][109]

A 2006 study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the University of Chicago, found that a person switching from the average American diet to a vegan diet would reduce CO2 emissions by 1,485 kg per year.[110]

The United Nations released a report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, titled "Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options,"[111] concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2).

The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis argues that while most meat production in industrialized countries uses inefficient grain feeding methods through intensive farming, meat production is not invariably a poor use of land, especially in countries like China and Brazil. Since a proportion of all grain crops produced are not suitable for human consumption, they can be fed to animals to turn into meat, thus improving efficiency.[112][113] Further, greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry; for instance, in many countries where rice is the main cereal crop, rice cultivation is responsible for most of the methane emissions.[114]

Similar diets and lifestyles

See also: Vegetarianism and religion

Herbivorous diets such as raw veganism and fruitarianism are related to veganism, but have significant differences from standard veganism. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including some Buddhist traditions,[115] Jains,[116] Hindus,[117] Rastafarians,[118] and the Seventh-day Adventists.[119]

See also

Notes

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  2. ^ a b c d "Criteria for Vegan food". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
  3. ^ a b c "Time/CNN Poll: Do you consider yourself a vegetarian?". Time Magazine. 2002-07-07. Retrieved 2006-10-30. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ a b c "Types and quantities of food consumed: Vegetarian/vegan" (PDF). National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64, Volume 1 2002. Food Standards Agency. pp. 11, 23. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
  5. ^ a b "How Many Adults Are Vegetarian?". Vegetarian Journal. Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
  6. ^ a b c "Donald Watson". Times Online. Times Newspapers Ltd. 2005-11-16. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ For stroke and heart attack, see the British Medical Journal, September 28, 1996.
  8. ^ http://www.all-creatures.org/mhvs/nl-2005-wi-b12.html
  9. ^ "vegan". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. Retrieved 2007-05-31.
  10. ^ a b "Vegan Society: History". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
  11. ^ "Vegetarians in Paradise interview with Donald Watson". Vegetarians in Paradise Web Magazine. Vegetarians in Paradise. 2004-08-11. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
  12. ^ "What is Vegan?". American Vegan Society. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
  13. ^ "Introduction to Veganism". The Vegan Society of New Zealand. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
  14. ^ "About Vegana". The Danish Vegan Society. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
  15. ^ Vegan Action: Vegan FAQ's - Is honey vegan?
  16. ^ a b "Vegan FAQs". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-11. Is refined sugar vegan? It depends on how you define 'vegan.' Refined sugars do not contain any animal products, and so by an ingredients-based definition of vegan, refined sugar is vegan. ... However, if one accepts a process-based definition of vegan, then many other familiar products would also not be considered vegan. For instance, steel and vulcanized rubber are produced using animal fats and, in many areas, groundwater and surface water is filtered through bone charcoal filters.
  17. ^ "IVU FAQ: Drinks". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
  18. ^ "Information Sheet: Alcohol". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-03-11. The use of animal derived products in the production of alcoholic beverages is fairly widespread not because no alternatives exist, but because they always have been used and there is little demand from the consumer for an alternative. ... The main appearance of animal derived products is in the fining or clearing process, though others may be used as colorants or anti-foaming agents.
  19. ^ "IVU FAQ: Ingredients". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
  20. ^ "IVU FAQ: Animal Derived Ingredient List". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  21. ^ "IVU FAQ: Maybe Animal Derived". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  22. ^ "On Living With Compassion". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-10. Our desire to oppose and help end cruelty to animals can help guide our choices, as well as provide a simple, easy-to-understand explanation of our actions. The question isn't, "Is this vegan?" but, "What is best for preventing suffering?"
  23. ^ "On Living With Compassion (Old version)". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-10. We believe that framing veganism as the avoidance of a specific list of "bad" ingredients is not the best way to achieve results. When looked at closely, any ingredients-based definition of vegan collapses into inconsistencies. This is why we stress that the essence of being vegan is working to end cruelty to animals.
  24. ^ a b "Factory Farms". Why Vegan. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
  25. ^ "About Veganism: For the Animals". Vegan Action. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Veganism emerges as the lifestyle most consistent with the philosophy that animals are not ours to use.
  26. ^ "PETA's History: Compassion in Action". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. PETA operates under the simple principle that animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment.
  27. ^ "About Mercy for Animals". Mercy for Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Mercy For Animals is a 501(c)(3) non-profit animal advocacy organization that believes non-human animals are irreplaceable individuals with morally significant interests and hence rights, including the right to live free of unnecessary suffering.
  28. ^ "Cruelty to Animals: Mechanized Madness". GoVeg.com. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
  29. ^ "Exploitation". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. The vast majority of these animals will have spent their brief lives in the cramped, distressing conditions of the factory farm. Their close confinement and the overworking of their bodies will have led to increased susceptibility to injury and disease. They will have been reared on an unnatural diet designed to increase productivity and many will have undergone various painful and traumatic procedures.
  30. ^ "Testing". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Every year, millions of animals are subjected to the most horrifically painful experiments just so people can have a new brand of shampoo or a differently scented perfume.
  31. ^ "Circuses: Three Rings of Abuse". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Colorful pageantry disguises the fact that animals used in circuses are captives who are forced, under threat of punishment, to perform confusing, uncomfortable, repetitious, and often-painful acts.
  32. ^ "Rodeo: Cruelty for a Buck". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. In reality, rodeos are nothing more than manipulative displays of human domination over animals, thinly disguised as entertainment.
  33. ^ "Animal Rights Uncompromised: Zoos". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. PETA opposes zoos because zoo cages and cramped enclosures deprive animals of their most basic needs. The zoo community regards the animals it keeps as commodities, and animals are regularly bought, sold, borrowed, and traded without any regard for established relationships.
  34. ^ Francione, Gary (2006-12-27). "Mission Statement". Animal Rights: The Abolitionist Approach. Retrieved 2007-05-29. This site also seeks to make clear that the moral baseline of an animal rights movement is veganism.
  35. ^ Clyne, Catherine (2006). "Singer Says". Satya. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If you read the book, it does make clear that going vegan is a good solution to a lot of the ethical problems. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. ^ Gilson, Dave (2006-05-03). "Chew the Right Thing". Mother Jones. The Foundation for National Progress. Retrieved 2007-05-29. In 1975 he published Animal Liberation, a pioneering defense of the rights of animals that concluded that veganism is the most ethically justifiable diet.
  37. ^ Broudy, Oliver (2006-05-08). "The practical ethicist". Salon.com. Salon Media Group, Inc. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If you can be vegetarian or vegan that's ideal. If you can buy organic and vegan that's better still, and organic and fair trade and vegan, better still, but if that gets too difficult or too complicated, just ask yourself, Does this product come from intensive animal agriculture?
  38. ^ Why I Am Not a Vegetarian By Dr. William T. Jarvis
  39. ^ Singer, Peter (1979). "The case against using animals for food is at its strongest when animals are made to lead miserable lives so that their flesh can be made available to humans at the lowest possible cost. ... In order to have meat on the table at a price that people can afford, our society tolerates methods of meat production that confine sentient animals in cramped, unsuitable conditions for the entire duration of their lives. ... To avoid speciesism we must stop these practices." Practical Ethics, Cambridge 1979. Chapter 3.
  40. ^ Davis, S.L. (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet." EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics. Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp 449-450.
  41. ^ Davis S.L. (2003) "The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. (16)4. pp. 387-394.
  42. ^ Gaverick Matheny (2003). "Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis's omnivorous proposal". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 16: 505–511. doi:10.1023/A:1026354906892.
  43. ^ a b "Vegetarian starter kit", Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, posted on vegsource.com.
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  46. ^ "History of Tempeh". tempeh.info. Retrieved 2007-02-18.
  47. ^ a b c d "Vegan proteins". BBC Food. BBC. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  48. ^ a b "Baking without eggs, milk and buttah". Post Punk Kitchen. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  49. ^ "Vegan Substitution for Egg Whites". Ochef.com. Food News Service. Retrieved 2007-02-23. Q. What is a vegan substitute for egg whites? A. And the mystery ingredient is… flax seed.
  50. ^ Bryanna Clark Grogan. "Vegan Meat Analogs, Dairy Substitutes, and Egg Alternatives". Bryanna's Vegan Feast. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  51. ^ Segelken, Roger (2001-06-28). "China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases". Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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  55. ^ [Swan SH, Liu F, Overstreet JW, Brazil C, Skakkebaek NE (2007). "Semen quality of fertile US males in relation to their mothers' beef consumption during pregnancy". Hum. Reprod. 22 (6): 1497–502. doi:10.1093/humrep/dem068. PMID 17392290.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  60. ^ Nicholson, Andrew. "Diabetes: Can a Vegan Diet Reverse Diabetes?", Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine.
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  67. ^ "Vegan Health: Iodine". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2006-12-26. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
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  69. ^ a b "What every vegan should know about vitamin B12". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22. Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms.
  70. ^ a b c "Vegans and Vitamin D". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  71. ^ a b Steven Walsh. "Nutrition: Iodine". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  72. ^ a b "Healthy choices on a vegan diet". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
  73. ^ Reed Mangels, Ph.D., R.D. "Vitamin B12 in the Vegan Diet". Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  74. ^ "Don't Vegetarians Have Trouble Getting Enough Vitamin B12?". Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  75. ^ a b Jack Norris, RD (2003-04-18). "Staying a Healthy Vegan". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22. There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.
  76. ^ "Vitamin B12 Information Sheet". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22. any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.
  77. ^ "Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)". Merck Manual Home Edition. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
  78. ^ Jack Norris, RD (2005-07-22). "Vegan Health: Myth about How Often Someone Needs B12". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-01-02.
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  80. ^ Jack Norris, RD. "Vegan Health: B12 in Tempeh, Seaweeds, Organic Produce, and Other Plant Foods". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  81. ^ Jack Norris, RD. "Vegan Health: Are Intestinal Bacteria a Reliable Source of B12?". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  82. ^ Greg Lester (2007-06-1). "Study Finds that Dietary Vitamin B6, B12 and Folate, May Decrease Pancreatic Cancer Risk among Lean People". aacr.org. American Association for Cancer Research. Retrieved 2007-06-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  83. ^ "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  84. ^ Dietary calcium better for bones than supplements - study By Stephen Daniells 18/06/2007
  85. ^ "Information Sheet: Vegan Nutrition". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  86. ^ Messina V, Mangels AR. "Considerations in planning vegan diets: children". Retrieved 2007-06-12.
  87. ^ Lucia Lynn Kaiser (2002-05-03). "Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2007-02-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  88. ^ ADA’s Public Relations Team (2006-10-03). "The Vegetarian Mom-to-Be". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
  89. ^ Retsinas, Greg (April 5, 2003). "Couple Guilty Of Assault In Vegan Case". New York Times. Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
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  92. ^ Nipps, Emily (June 25, 2007). "Custody battle over quints questions vegan lifestyle". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
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  102. ^ "About Veganism: For the Environment". Vegan Action. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Animal agriculture takes a devastating toll on the earth. It is an inefficient way of producing food, since feed for farm animals requires land, water, fertilizer, and other resources that could otherwise have been used directly for producing human food.
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  105. ^ a b c "Factory Farming: Mechanized Madness". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Factory farms are harmful to the environment as well. Each day, factory farms produce billions of pounds of manure, which ends up in lakes, rivers, and drinking water. ... Of all the agricultural land in the U.S., 80 percent is used to raise animals for food and grow the grain to feed them—that's almost half the total land mass of the lower 48 states. ... it takes more than 1,250 gallons of water to produce a pound of cow flesh, whereas it takes about 235 gallons of water to grow 1 pound of wheat.
  106. ^ "Environment: Land". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. In all, the raising of livestock takes up more than two-thirds of agricultural land, and one third of the total land area.
  107. ^ "Environment: Water". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If we put all of these figures together, we find that whilst wheat provides us with an average 27.5 kcal for each litre of water used, beef provides only 0.76 kcal per litre. This means that - based on the data presented to show that other figures were "overstated" - beef still requires 36 times as much water per calorie as wheat.
  108. ^ "Environment: Energy". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. A plant-based vegan diet uses substantially less energy than a diet based on animal products. This energy is virtually all derived from fossil fuels, making meat and dairy consumption a contributing factor in air pollution, acidification, oil spills, habitat destruction and global warming.
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  112. ^ NSW Department of Primary Industries - Feeding frosted cereal grain to ruminants
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Further reading

The Wikibook Cookbook has a page on the topic of: Vegan cuisine
Wikiquote has quotations related to Veganism.
General
Health/Nutrition
Ethical
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